Cells and DNA

Saturday, 4 February 2012 9:09 PM

1. Recall the basic cellular differences between animal and plant cells . Plant and animal cells have different structures i.e. plant cells have some extra organelles.

An organelle is a small structure within cells which is surrounded by a membrane.

When talking about the differences between plant and animal cells, always be sure to list what plants cell have and then state that the animal cell does not have that structure. That way it is a comparison.

Similarities Nucleus Cytoplasm

Differences Plants have a cell wall - animals cells do not Plants have large vacuoles - animal cells either have none or small one

Cell Membrane Plants have chloroplasts - animal cells do not

The function of these organelles:

Cell wall: provides and maintains the shape of the cell and serves as a protective barrier. The cell walls contain cellulose (fibre). Cell membrane: This acts as a barrier around the cell, stopping the uncontrolled flow of materials in and out of the cell. It also contains proteins which act as receptors for hormones, and odors.
Nucleus: The nucleus controls the cell by communication with the cytosol (cytoplasm) via the nuclear poles. Within each cell is the DNA which enables the cell to specialise. Vacuole: Membrane bound sac with roles in digestion and excretion. In plat cells they; store nutrients and waste, cell growth, act like lysosomes in animal cells, and regulates pressure. Cytoplasm (cytosol): This is a soup like substance which contains all the organelles and where most of the cellular metabolism occurs (chemical reactions). Chloroplast: This organelle contains chlorophyll responsible for photosynthesis, however, it is located only in plant cells (giving the green colour to plants). Mitochondrion (plural: mitochondria): provide the energy for cells to move, divide, produce, contract - they are the power centres of cells (respiration).

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2. Recall that in multicellular organisms, cells group to form tissues which together form organs.
Cells are the basic unit of life. In unicellular organisms all living functions are performed by the one cell. Multicellular organisms are made up of many cells.

Because all the cells of a large multicellular organism are not directly exposed to the environment, cells need to be SPECIALISED to perform specific functions.

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environment, cells need to be SPECIALISED to perform specific functions.

In most multicellular organisms, cells having the same function and similar size and shape join

together to form tissues eg, nerve tissue and muscle tissue.

Different tissues can group together to form organs, structures with a special function eg, heart,

lungs, stomach.
Organs whose function is closely related can group together to form organ (or body) systems

eg, circulatory system, digestive system.

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3. Explain that organs form systems which serve the needs of the cells.
All living things - including cells must carry out the 7 features of Mrs Gren i.e. Movement, Respiration, Sensitivity, Growth, Reproduction, Excretion, Nutrition. In multicellular organisms each cell is not exposed to the world as an independent body and so they rely on the organism to provide the ability to fulfill these activities. Therefore the excretory systems and the respiratory systems (taking these examples) rid each cell of their waste and provide oxygen to the cell. These cells therefore need to be specialised as stated previously. 4. Identify that DNA is made up of genes which contain genetic information.

The DNA is made of genes which contain genetic information. Inside each nucleus of every human beings are 23 pairs (46) chromosomes which contain all the genetic information that makes us who we are.
The 23 pairs are called homologous chromosomes as they are the same size and carry genes for the same characteristics. Pair 23 are the sex chromosomes - xx = girl, - x y= boy.

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Like every living organism, you are made up of cells. Within each cell is a nucleus which controls all the activities of the cells. Inside the nucleus of each of your cells is your unique set of 46 chromosomes. Each of these is a long, thread-like structure made up of DNA (Deoxyribonucleic Acid). Sections of DNA on the chromosomes that contain complete messages are called genes. The message in a gene is a coded formula needed by the cell to produce one protein. Your body is mostly made up of proteins, so DNA and proteins are the most important molecules in living things. The DNA molecule is made up of simple units called nucleotides. Each nucleotide is made up of three chemical groups: a sugar, a phosphate, and a base. There are four possible bases: Thymine (T), Adenine (A), guanine (G) and cytosine (C). The structure of DNA is a double helix, similar in shape to a rope ladder twisted into a spiral pattern. The sides of the ladder are made up of chains of alternating sugar and phosphate molecules. The side chains are joined together through the bases which form the rungs of the ladder. Not each base can join with just any of the others; because of their chemical structures, A can only join with T and C can only join with G. The order in which the bases are strung along the chain form the basis of the genetic code.
5. Recognize a representation of the Watson-Crick model of DNA structure. (Including double helix, and relative positions of sugars, phosphate and bases)
Only A and T link The bases are only attached to the sugar, not to the phosphate.

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6. Identify the relationship between the nucleus, chromosomes, DNA and genes.

7. Identify that growth, repair and reproduction of cells involves a process called cell division. All living things begin life as a single cell. In order to GROW, REPAIR damaged cells and REPRODUCE, cells in an organism must divide. 8. Identify mitosis and meiosis as 2 forms of cell division.
There are two types of cell division: Mitosis and Meiosis. 9. 11. Explain how genes (thus DNA) are transferred from body cell to body cell during mitosis, and from body cell to gametes during meiosis.

Mitosis
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Mitosis
The process of Mitosis: 1. DNA Replication 2. The nuclear membrane disappears 3. The poles of the cell appear 4. Spindle fibres emerge 5. The chromosomes align in the middle of the cells 6. The spindle fibres pull the chromosomes in halves (pulled apart) and then pull them to the poles. 7. The cell divides 8. The nucleus forms in the new cells

Meiosis
The process of Meiosis 1. The chromosomes replicate 2. The chromosomes align at the centre of the cell and cross over sharing DNA making each chromosome unique. What is exchanged is completely random.
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each chromosome unique. What is exchanged is completely random. 3. The cells then split in the same process as mitosis.

10. Identify that the process of mitosis in which identical (i.e., same number of chromosomes as parent cell) daughter cells are produced, is used for growth and repair in multicellular organisms. Mitosis is a very simple process and involves 2 steps: 1. Chromosome or DNA replication and 2. Separation. It involves one cell splitting into two identical cells. Unicellular organisms reproduce by mitosis (asexual reproduction). In multicellular organism, mitosis is essential for the organism to grow and replace dead or damaged cells. 11. Identify that the process of meiosis forms non-identical sex cells (gametes) which have half the number of chromosomes as the original (parent) cell. In Meiosis there are 3 main steps: Replication of the Chromosomes, crossing over of the Chromosomes and finally separation. In Meiosis one cells divides into 4 with each daughter cell having half the number of chromosomes (haploid) - not diploid. Each of the daughter cells is genetically different from one another. If an organism reproduces by sexual reproduction, male and female cells must be formed. Sex cells or gametes are produced by the process of meiosis, and forms non identical cells which have half the number of cells are the original parent cell. A male and female sex cell then join (fertilise) to form a single cell which divides and grows into a new organism. In humans, female sex cells (eggs or ova) are made from cells in the ovaries. Male sex cells 9sperm) are made from cells in the male testes.

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Fertilisation
Saturday, 4 February 2012 9:10 PM

12. Relate the organs involved in human reproduction to their function.

Part Ovary

Structure and Function All females produce 2 million eggs when they are born- in their ovaries. The ovaries produce females hormones i.e. oestrogen. Every 28 days the ovary releases an
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produce females hormones i.e. oestrogen. Every 28 days the ovary releases an ovum.
Fallopian The Fallopian tubes is where the egg is fertilised. After ovulation the ovum is swept Tube into the Fallopian Tube which connects the ovary and uterus. The muscular walls (oviduct) and the beating of hair like structures move the ovum from the ovary to the uterus. The ovum only lives for 24 hours.

Uterus

Slightly smaller than a clenched fist, the uterus is designed to support a developing embryo. Each month the wall of the uterus forms a special lining of blood vessels in readiness for the fertilised ovum to implant in the wall and grow. The uterus is where the placenta develops.
Ring of muscle at the base of the uterus that holds the uterus closed.

Cervix

Vagina

A muscular tube which leads from the cervix to the outside of the body. The lining of the uterus travels through this during menstruation, the baby travels through this during birth.

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Part Testes

Function Male gametes - sperm are produced in the testes at puberty. The testes also produce testosterone.

Scrotum

The testes are held in a sac called the scrotum. This protects the tests and maintains a temperature of 3 degrees cooler than the body.

Epididymis Approx. 7m long. The sperm cells mature and are stored in the epididymis which lies on top of the testes.
Vas Deferens (sperm The sperm are then released into the sperm duct (vas deferens) where they mix with liquids from the seminal vesicle and from the prostate gland. The sperm duct also transports sperm from the epididymis to the urethra.
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(sperm duct)
Seminal Vesicle

also transports sperm from the epididymis to the urethra. This produces a sugar like substance that provides nutrition for the sperm.

Prostate Gland
Urethra Penis

The prostate gland adds a milky substance which neutralises the acidic PH of the vagina. The mixture of sperm and these fluids is called semen.
This tube continues through the penis and carries sperm and urine outside the body. To deposit the sperm inside the vagina. It fills with blood to make it erect.

13. Consider the successful fertilization of a human ovum, and follow the zygotes ( a fertilised ovum) path until it implants in the wall of the uterus.

14. Explain how after fertilization, the zygote growth is by simple mitotic division, where each resulting cell has an exact copy of the original zygotic DNA. After fertilisation the zygote grows by the process of mitosis and each cell has the same DNA exactly until there are enough for the cells to specialise and create various cells - tissues organs - body systems. 15. Explain the advantages of DNA replicating exactly. - Mutations are avoided - Same set of instructions for the creation of proteins - Replace damaged cells 16. Recall how fertilization of gametes results in genetic variation in the zygote (and the resulting organism.) - Characteristics of the father and the mother get passed on to the child -as half the
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- Characteristics of the father and the mother get passed on to the child -as half the chromosomes are passed on

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Mendel
Saturday, 4 February 2012 9:11 PM

17. Describe the historical significance of Mendels theory on the inheritance of characteristics and the concept of dominant and recessive genes.
Genetics is the study of how characteristics are passed onto offspring (heredity). The person you are is the product of the genetic characteristics you inherited from your parents and the environment you grew up in. The first man to discover the basic principles of genetics was GREGOR MENDEL, an Austrian monk. He used pea plants because he could study one characteristic at a time and pea plants have a short reproductive cycle.

In one of his experiments, he crossed (mated) pure breeding TALL PLANTS with pure breeding SHORT PLANTS. This was the parent generation (P). Pure-breeding meant he could produce only tall offspring from tall parents, and only short offspring from short parents.

All the offspring were TALL (this is the first generation = F1). He then crossed these tall plants from the first generation together.

of the offspring were TALL and were SHORT (this is the second generation = F2).

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Mendel experimented with many different characteristics of pea plants, always getting the same results. In another experiment he crossed pure breeding round and wrinkled seeds. In the first generation (F1), all the offspring were round. He then crossed round seeded plants from this generation together. In the second generation (F2), of the offspring had round seeds, had wrinkled seeds. Mendels experiments showed that the first generation plants appeared to inherit the characteristics from only one parent and the other characteristic lay dormant.
From this Mendel concluded that: Each characteristic in pea plants is determined by 2 factors, one from each parent. One characteristic dominates the other, which is recessive. Example: In the pea plants, the TALL factor is DOMINANT over the SHORT factor which is RECESSIVE.

GENES

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We now call Mendels factors GENES. Each pair of chromosomes contains thousands of genes. Imagine a pearl necklace. The whole necklace is the chromosome and each pearl a different gene.

In all our cells there are 23 pairs of chromosomes. Each pair are called homologous chromosomes. Thus in each cell there are two genes for each characteristic, one from each chromosome of a homologous pair (ie, one from the female parent, and one from the male parent).
HOMOZYGOUS or HETEROZYGOUS Cells with identical genes for a characteristic are said to be homozygous (pure-breeding). Cells with different genes for a characteristic are said to be heterozygous. We represent the different forms of a gene by letters

a capital letter for the dominant form of a gene a lower case letter for the recessive form of a gene

18. Use punnett squares to perform monohybrid crosses to predict the ratios of genotypes and phenotypes in an F 1 and F2 generation.
PUNNETT SQUARES The punnett square is an easy way to see the genotypes that are possible when two parents are crossed.
Example 1 What are the possible genotypes that the offspring can have when 2 heterozygous tall plants are crossed together?

Step 1: Choose your key T = tall gene Tt x Tt t = short gene Step 2: Write the genotypes of the parents Step 3: Make a punnett square Place the possible genes from one parent on the top and the possible genes from the other parent down the side. The boxes represent the possible genotypes of the offspring. Fill in the combinations of genes in the offspring and write the results. T t T t
TT Tt

Tt

tt

Step 4: Answer the question The possible genotypes are: TT, Tt, Tt, tt

19. Identify the causes of mutations in genetic material, explaining the advantages and disadvantages of DNA mutating.
Variations within a family and population arise by the shuffling of genes during meiosis, but new variations of genes arise by mutation.

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Advantages - Adaptation for plants Disadvantages - Problems in the foetus - May lead to cancer A mutation is a change in:
- The Structure of DNA is a cell (the order of the bases) e.g. Sickle Cell Anaemia - The amount of DNA is a cell (too many or too little chromosomes) e.g. Down Syndrome

Are they harmful? Mutations are nearly always harmful to an organism and often result in disease or death. (If the mutated form survives it increases the amount of variation in a species.) Only occasionally can they result in a good change. Mutations occur randomly within a population and can occur any time a cell undergoes cell division (mitosis or meiosis) The rate of mutations can be increased by exposure to MUTAGENS.

MUTAGEN
RADIATION: X-Rays and gamma rays (medical treatment) Nuclear fallout UV radiation from the sun ENVIRONMENTAL POISONS: Asbestos Herbicides e.g. Agent Orange Solvents e.g. benzene

EFFECT
UV radiation can cause skin cancer

Nuclear fallout can cause cancers such as thyroid and leukaemia

Exposure to these can cause cancers and damage to sex cells.

ALCOHOL SMOKING DIET

High alcohol can cause liver cancer Smoking can cause lung cancer High fat diet increases the risk of bowel cancer

MICRO ORGANISMS Viruses

Hepatitis B virus is linked with liver cancer HIV can trigger Kaposis sarcoma Epstein-Barr virus can cause Hodgkins disease

EXAMPLES OF MUTATIONS
Down Syndrome is caused by an extra chromosome!
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Down Syndrome is caused by an extra chromosome!

Sometimes when cell divide to form gametes in the process of meiosis, the chromosomes do not get shared out equally between the new cells. Occasionally both of the small chromosome 21s go into one of the new gametes. So one gamete gets two and the other gets none. If an egg containing two chromosome 21s is fertilised, the resulting zygote will have 47 chromosomes instead of 46. The child which develops from the zygotehas three chromosome 21s in their cells. Although chromosome 21 is one of the smallest chromosomes, this extra chromosome makes a big difference to the development of the child. The child will suffer from Down Syndrome. Children with Down Syndrome have lower mental ability, have a different eye structure and are more susceptible to some diseases which can cause a lower life expectancy. Down Syndrome is an example of a chromosome mutation a change in the amount of chromosomes in a cell.

Skin Cancer
Ultraviolet (UV) light from the sun can damage the structure of the DNA in skin cells. It can alter the order of the bases which changes the proteins that the cell produces so changes the way in which a cell behaves. Normally skin cells divide just enough to replace old cells which have worn away. But if their DNA is damaged, the cells may begin to divide uncontrollably. This bundle of cells or a tumour is formed. These cells with damaged DNA may then spread further causing malignant skin cancer. Skin cancer often does not appear until years after the initial damage was done to the skin cells. A mutation like the one that causes skin cancer cannot be passed on to your children. The damaged DNA is in your skin cells. The DNA in your cells in your ovaries or testes, which will divide to make eggs or sperms, is not damaged. So any children whom you have will not inherit skin cancer. However, a mutation in a sex cell in an ovary or a testis could be passed on to a child. Large doses of X-rays can damage DNA so great care is taken when someone has an X-ray to cover the persons ovaries or testes with a lead apron. Radiographers who work with X-rays often wear lead aprons or stand behind a special wall. THE CHERNOBYL DISASTER
The effects of the Chernobyl nuclear accident in the Ukraine in April 1986 will remain for many years. Many people died in the initial exposure to radiation and many more from cancers caused by exposure to radiation. Cells in the ovaries and testes of the people for 300 000 square kilometres of land were affected so mutations will be seen in their children in the future. Research indicates that the incidence of cancer caused by mutation induced by the radiation is expected to peak in 2007.

20. Investigate how environmental factors can influence the phenotype of organisms.
Identical genotypes (genetic makeup) do not always produce identical phenotypes (physical appearance) because the main factors which determine the appearance of an individual are genotype and the environment. This results in even more variation in populations. Example identical twins with the same genotype for tallness might grow to different heights because of the differences in their nutrition or health. What are some other factors in the environment which can affect phenotype in animals? - Nutrition - Abuse
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Abuse Diet Exercise Education Culture Exposure to Sun Family

Optional: Explain the transmission of sex-linked characteristics such as colour blindness and haemophilia.

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Biotechnology
Saturday, 4 February 2012 9:11 PM

21. Define Biotechnology as the use of living things to make products or to do tasks for human beings. Biotechnology is the use of living things to make products or to do tasks for human beings. Biotechnology uses:
Ourselves - Producing antibiotics - Making vaccines to boost against disease - Reproductive Technologies -IVF (in vitro fertilisation) - Treating genetic disorders and diseases - Transplantation technologies - DNA profiling and forensics Environment - Controlling pest animals and plants - Protect and preserve endangered species - Oil spills - Leach metals out of the soil for cleaner mining - Clean up heavy metal and arsenic contamination Food and Agriculture - Salt and drought tolerant plants - Fruits and vegetables with extra vitamins - Long lasting flowers - Produce cattle that an withstand greater temperatures - Increase wool production - Reduce diseases in aqua culturee

22. Discuss 'recombinant DNA technology' which is the insertion of genes from one organism into another, and the expression in the phenotype of those foreign genes by the recipient organism.
The phenotype of the foreign genes is brilliant - it does exactly the same thing that it did in the donor organism - and shows itself in the same manner. Recombinant DNA Technology is the process of cutting one gene or a few genes out of the DNA of one organism and inserting them into the DNA of another organism. The receiving organism then shows the foreign features in their phenotype (physical appearance). Another way of explaining this is to say that DNA from one organism is recombined with the DNA from another organism. The organism which has had genes inserted into it is called GENETICALLY MODIFIED (GM)

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23. Give examples where recombinant DNA technology is used. Extend to three other examples of biotechnologies: fermentation, insulin production by bacteria and one from the list of teaching strategies.
Genes are inserted into PLANTS to produce:
Crops which are resistant to insect attack or bacterial damage, so reducing pesticide sprays and natural carcinogenic mould toxins

Plants with higher quality proteins or enhanced vitamin or iron levels. Eg. Golden rice
healthier vegetable oils and starches.

Genes are being inserted into ANIMALS to make them: produce more meat (muscle) and less fat
grow faster or produce more wool

produce more milk for the same amount of feed more resistant to disease and parasites Genes are being inserted into BACTERIA to make them: mass produce human hormones. digest oil from oil spills 3 OTHER USES INCLUDE: Making Insulin: Diabetes is a common and sometimes fatal disease that occurs when the supply of insulin is insufficient for the body to break down sugar properly. Bacterial cells are the organisms genetically modified to mass produced human insulin. People used to get their insulin from abattoir animals (pigs, cows). The problems with this included the fact that animal insulin is slightly different from human insulin so some could not tolerate it. Secondly, it is unsustainable.
Food and Agriculture (Bt Cotton):

I n the past there were two main methods of pest control, those being; broad spectrum pesticides and integrated pest management. For the cotton plant its worst pest had always been (hellicoverpa armigera) i.e. cotton bollworm. Bt - Bacillus thuringiensis is a naturally soil bacterium that produces insect killing proteins. However, in the 1990s they developed Bt cotton. This variety produced toxic proteins called Bt toxins which kill the Bollworm caterpillars. This toxin I only present in the leaf tissue. It does not affect animals or humans. This variety of cotton has reduced pesticide use by 80% in Australia.
The Environment (oil Eating Bacteria):

Scientists cleaned the oil spills with psedomonas bacteria. Scientists found that by enriching the contaminated area with oxygen and waste water, the bacteria present were provided with the nutrients need to flourish, thereby encouraging the breakdown of oil. Bioremediation is cleaning up the environment using enzymes or living organisms such as naturallyoccurring and genetically modified micro-organisms such as bacteria and fungi. Scientists can create 'custom-made bacteria' to clean up a specific waste problem by isolating a gene from one strain that allows it to break down some specific hazardous waste, and a gene from another strain that allows it to withstand temperatures, lack of oxygen and other environmental exposures.
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strain that allows it to withstand temperatures, lack of oxygen and other environmental exposures. These genes can then be transferred into a common harmless bacterium that can be easily mass produced.

24. Evaluate the impact of current biotechnology research on society and the environment, by considering some benefits and problems. Discuss in terms of ethics.
Points FOR Biotechnology Selective breeding (enhancing desirable characteristics) more meat per cow, more food, more cost effective Allows the animals to live more comfortably (grow faster, cheaper, more meat) Transgenic Find treatment for problems like blindness and bone disease Reducing the effect of fish farming, grow 30% larger and release 30% less waste GM (genetic Modification) Pig manure more environmentally healthy - poo without phosphorus, as it can now be digested, man made gene - good for the environment Feed people with 'golden rice' save 25 million people - with Vitamin A Cloning Horse to sell sperm Meat Grown in a petri dish Points AGAINST Biotechnology Exploiting animals for out own end Making the animal sterile - may cause issues for the animal - psychological ones Playing god- not our right

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Extra Notes
Saturday, 18 February 2012 6:27 PM

UNICELLULAR ORGANISMS Recall that unicellular organisms are micro-organisms that consist of ONE cell. They live in water like ponds and rivers and in the soil e.g. amoeba, paramecium and euglena.

They are able to obtain the food compounds and oxygen that they need from their environment by absorbing them directly through their cell membrane. Similarly they can get rid of their waste compounds including carbon dioxide directly to the environment through their cell membrane. All necessary functions of the organism are carried out by the single cell. EXAMPLE: AMOEBA

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LIFE PROCESSES Movement Respiration

AMOEBA Moves by extensions of cytoplasm called pseudopodia (false foot) Dissolved glucose and oxygen moves (diffuses) into the amoeba through the cell membrane. Carbon dioxide moves (diffuses) out of the amoeba through the cell membrane Amoeba can detect food and move towards it. They also move away from light. Amoeba grow bigger When amoeba are big enough the nucleus splits into two (called binary fission) making two new cells. Wastes diffuse out of the cell through the cell membrane. Contractile vacuole squirts excess water out, so the amoeba does not burst The amoeba eats by engulfing its food and digesting it in a food vacuole containing enzymes (rather than having a stomach or small intestine). Process is called phagocytosis.

Responses Growth Reproduction Excretion Nutrition

DEFINITIONS TO REMEMBER
Term
Chromosome DNA Structures found in the nucleus of cells which consist of DNA surrounded by a protein coat Deoxyribonucleic acid the compound which stores all the genetic information

Diploid number The number of chromosomes present in a normal cell of an (2n) individual

Double helix Nucleotide Gene Homologous chromosomes

Karyotype Haploid number (n)

The twisted ladder shape of DNA A building block of DNA which consists of a sugar group, a phosphate group and a base A section of DNA which codes for a certain characteristic (protein) A pair of chromosomes which have the same size and shape and which carry genes for the same characteristics. E.g. genes for hair colour.
Chromosomes arranged in homologous pairs in order of length and shape The number of chromosomes present in a gamete - sex cell of a human

COMPARING MITOSIS AND MEIOSIS

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COMPARING MITOSIS AND MEIOSIS

MITOSIS
No. of Daughter Cells Produced from one cell Daughter Cells identical or not? No. of chromosomes in daughter cells compared to the original cell How many divisions are involved? Do the chromosomes cross over during this process? Where in a human organism does it occur?
What is the purpose of this cell division?

MEIOSIS
4

Yes The same (46 for humans)

No 23 for humans

1 No All body cells: except blood cells and some nervous cells
1. Replace, damaged dead cells 2. Growing 3. Reproduce (unicellular)

2 Yes Ovaries and Testes

To create sex cells

CLONING

STEM CELLS
When an egg is fertilised by a sperm to make a human embryo, the single fertilised egg cell divides millions of times to form the six billion or more cells that make up our bodies. Most of these cells have undergone a process called differentiation, which leads to them becoming specialised for a certain function. For example, neurons (nerve cells) are specialised to convey electrical messages around the body Stem cells are unspecialised. They have not developed into cells that perform a specific function (differentiation). They can reproduce by mitosis (clone themselves) and can be stimulated to differentiate into any type of cell we would like.

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Questions
Tuesday, 28 February 2012 8:25 PM

15 16 19

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Chemical Change
Saturday, 12 May 2012 12:07 PM

1. Recall the classification of common substances into groups such as elements, compounds, mixtures and pure substances.

Atom: An atom is the simplest form of matter. Element: An element is made up of only one type of atom. Molecule: A molecule is the smallest amount of an element or compound that exist by itself. Compound: A compound is two or more different elements, chemically combined in a fixed ratio. Mixture: A mixture is two or more different elements and/or compounds combined. 2. Recall the evidence that indicates that a chemical change has occurred. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. A chemical change can be identified by a change in colour, the formation of a precipitate, a change in temperature, the creation of a gas. A new product formed

3. Contrast chemical changes where new substances are formed, with physical changes that do not give new substances. 1. A chemical reaction can result in the formation of new chemicals or substances. (burning, baking of a cake). 2. A chemical reaction cannot be reversed by simple means. 4. Identify that new compounds are formed by rearranging atoms and that mass and atoms are conserved. (Extension: Balanced chemical equations can therefore be written)
A chemical reaction has occurred if at least one new substance has been formed. The substances present at the start of a reaction are called reactants, and the new
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The substances present at the start of a reaction are called reactants, and the new substances (s) formed are called products. We can write word equations to represent chemical reactions, which are written in the form.
A+BC+D

Reactants Products In a chemical reaction atoms are neither created nor destroyed. They just get rearranged. 5. Review structure of Periodic Table (Groups/Periods/electron arrangement/placement of metals and non metals.) The rows in the periodic table are called periods. And the columns are called groups. - All the elements in the same group have similar chemical properties. Group 1 are called alkali metals, group 7 are called halogens and group 8 are noble gases. The metals are on the left hand side of the table and the non metals are on the right hand side. Moving from left to right the electron shells fill up with group 1 having 1 electron in their outermost shell while group 8 having a full electron shell.

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Formulae and Names for Ionic Compounds

Saturday, 12 May 2012 12:08 PM

6. Explain that when elements form compounds they do so either by forming ionic or covalent bonds. Most elements need to combine together because by themselves they are unstable. This is because the outer shell of most atoms in these elements does not have a full octet of electrons.

When a metal reacts with a non-metal they form an IONIC COMPOUND. The metal atom loses an electron/s from its outer shell forming a positive ion The non-metal atom gains an electron/s in its outer shell forming a negative ion The positive and negative ions attract each other and an IONIC BOND is formed 7. Recognise that the Noble gases are stable and do not react to form compounds. The only atoms with full octets in their outer shell are those of elements in Group 8 of the periodic table The Noble Gases. They are very unreactive which means they do not combine with other elements in nature.
8. Distinguish between an atom and an ion An ion is a an atom with a charge - whether it is positive like a metal or negative like a non-metal. An ion is charged because it has either lost or gained electrons - and therefore has a complete outer shell.

9. Explain that metals form positive ions and non-metals form negative ions by losing and gaining electrons. Metals lose electrons to form positive ions. The reason that they are positive is because noe they have more protons than electrons. Non-metals gain electrons to get a full octet in their outer shell and become negative ions. The non-metal name changes its end to 'ide' e.g. chlorine becomes chloride. 10. Identify that an ionic bond is an electrostatic attraction between oppositely charged ions; a metal ion and a non-metal ion
As the metal ion is positively charged and the non-metal ion is negatively charged, a strong electrostatic attraction forms between the ions. This forms an IONIC BOND. 11. Identify that some ions are groups of atoms, which are referred to as polyatomic ions (eg, carbonate, nitrate, sulfate and hydroxide); recognise the formulae for these.

Some negative ions are made up of more than one type of atom tightly bonded together. These are called polyatomic ions. These polyatomic ions can combine with metals to form ionic compounds.
They are not found on the periodic table so you just have to learn their names, their symbols and their charge/valency.
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symbols and their charge/valency. Some common polyatomic ions are listed in the table below Polyatomic ion Symbol of ion Valence Hydroxide
Nitrate

OH
NO3

11-

Phosphate
Carbonate

PO4
CO3

32-

Sulfate

SO4

2-

NB. When writing chemical formula, () brackets must be placed around the symbol of the polyatomic ion if more than one is needed. Eg. Sodium nitrate - NaNO3 Calcium nitrate Ca(NO3)2

12. Name ionic compounds, given formulae When naming an ionic compound the metal's name remains the same while the nonmetals name changes from its ending to 'ide, 13. Write correct formulae for ionic compounds, by using symbols and valencies of elements. (Ion formulae given 14. Identify that when non metals combine they do so by sharing electrons in a covalent bond
When non-metals combine they do so by sharing electrons in a covalent bond. When two or more non-metals react together and form compounds, they do so by sharing outer shell electrons. In these bonds, no electrons are transferred. Instead atoms share a pair of electrons in order to gain a full octet of electrons in the outer shell. These types of compounds are called COVALENT COMPOUNDS.

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15. Identify a range of common compounds using their common names and chemical formulae (e.g. water, table salt, glucose, carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, methane, ethane, butane, ethanol, sulfuric acid, hydrochloric acid, nitric acid, carbonic acid)
COMMON COMPOUNDS CHEMICAL FORMULA

Water
Glucose

H2O
C6H12O6

Carbon dioxide Carbon monoxide

Methane (carbon tetrahydride)

CO2 CO
CH4

Ethane
Butane

C2H6
C4H10

Ethanol Sulfuric acid

Hydrochloric acid

C2H5OH H2SO4
HCl

Nitric acid
Phosphorus trichloride

HNO3 (hydrogen nitrate)

PCl3

Nitrogen trihydride (ammonia) Carbon tetrachloride Carbonic Acid

NH3 CCl4 H2CO3

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Precipitation
Saturday, 12 May 2012 12:08 PM

16. Identify a precipitation reaction as one in which an insoluble substance is formed when two soluble substances are mixed. Precipitation is one type of chemical reaction. In all chemical reactions we start with reactants and at the end of the chemical reaction, we are left with products. In a precipitation reaction, the reactants are two clear solutions. (A solution is formed when a salt dissolves in water) When combined, they react to form an insoluble solid precipitate as one of the products. What is a precipitate? A precipitate is an insoluble solid produced by the reaction between 2 clear (not necessarily colourless) solutions of soluble substances.

A precipitate (insoluble solid) forms in the solution which may be suspended or may sink to the bottom. You may notice cloudiness.

17. Solve problems, given solubility rules, to identify precipitates which form when solutions containing chlorides, carbonates and hydroxides are mixed together. Solubility Rules 1. All compounds of Group 1 metals are soluble. (Li, Na, K, Rb, Cs, Fr) 2. All nitrates are soluble. 3. All chlorides, bromides and iodides are soluble, EXCEPT silver, lead and mercury. 4. All sulfates are soluble, EXCEPT barium, lead, silver and calcium. 5. All carbonates are insoluble, EXCEPT Group 1 metals. (Li, Na, K, Rb, Cs, Fr) 6. All hydroxides are insoluble, EXCEPT those of barium and Group 1. (Li, Na, K, Rb, Cs, Fr)
18. Construct word (optional formula) equations from observations (cloudiness indicates an insoluble substance, i.e. precipitate) and written descriptions of precipitation reactions

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Indicators
Saturday, 12 May 2012 12:08 PM

19. Identify common acids and bases found in everyday life (eg. vinegar, lemon juice, soaps, detergents, bi-carb soda). -Acids have a sour taste, and are corrosive. They react with carbonates like limestone and marble, and all acids contain hydrogen. COMMON SUBSTANCES STRONG ACIDS OR USES

sulfuric acid - H2SO4

car batteries

hydrochloric acid- HCl stomach juices, (helps us digest our food) soldering flux, cleaning new brickwork

nitric acid-HNO3
WEAK ACIDS

fertiliser, explosives, dyes

COMMON SUBSTANCES OR USES

lactic acid citric acid

carbonic acid

yogurt or sour milk Oranges/lemons & juice

carbonated soft drinks

Formic acid
ethanoic (acetic) acid

Bee stings, ant bites, stinging nettles

Vinegar

Bases have a bitter taste and are also corrosive often used as cleaning products. They are often hydroxides or metal oxides. STRONG BASES
Sodium hydroxide (caustic soda)

COMMON SUBSTANCES OR USES

oven cleaners, drain cleaner, soap

CHEMICAL FORMULA
NaOH

Potassium hydroxide Oven cleaners (caustic potash) Strong base Jelly fish and wasp stings

KOH

WEAK BASES
Ammonium hydroxide Sodium bicarbonate (baking powder)

COMMON SUBSTANCES OR USES

Window cleaner, floor cleaner, explosive, fertilisers

CHEMICAL FORMULA

Reacts with cream of tartar (acid) in cooking NaHCO3 to produce carbon dioxide to make cakes rise

Lime water (calcium hydroxide)

To reduce acid in garden soil and used in builders mortar

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Ca(OH)2

(calcium hydroxide) Magnesium hydroxide (milk of magnesia)

builders mortar Used as a medicine to neutralise excess stomach acid Mg (OH)2

20. Define an acid base indicator as a substance which changes colour depending on acidity.

Indicators are substances that change colour in the presence of acids or bases. 21. Describe pH as the measurement of acidity which and can be described on a scale from 0-14, with 0 being the most acidic, 7 neutral and 14 the most basic The pH of a substance is a measure of how acidic or basic a substance is. The scale ranges from 0-14. A solution is ACIDIC if it has a pH less than 7. The lower its pH the stronger the acid. A solution is BASIC (alkaline) if it has a pH greater than 7. The solution with a pH of 7 is neutral. 22. Identify using experiments common compounds as acid, base or neutral using indicators.

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Neutralisation Reactions
Saturday, 12 May 2012 12:08 PM

23. Define neutralisation as a chemical reaction between an acid and base (alkali) to form a salt and water. Neutralisation is the chemical reaction between an acid and a base to form a salt and water.

General Equation:

ACID + BASE

A SALT + WATER

The products (salt and water) are neutral (ie, they have a pH of 7). The salt is an ionic compound containing metal and non-metal ions. 24. Identify the salts formed in neutralisation. Acid Type of salt hydrochloric acid sulphuric acid chloride sulphate
HCl H2SO4

nitric acid - HNO3

nitrate

HNO3

25. Write word equations (optional - formula) for neutralisation reactions involving hydrochloric acid, nitric acid and sulfuric acid, and the bases sodium hydroxide and potassium hydroxide. hydrochloric acid and potassium hydroxide hydrochloric acid + potassium hydroxide potassium chloride + water (acid)
HCl + KOH

(base)
KCl +

(salt)
H20

(water)

26. Apply neutralisation reactions to treatment of insect stings. Bees and ants give acidic stings that cause a burning sensation. These stings can be neutralised by using weak bases. Wasps give basic stings that must be neutralised by using weak acids. 27. Optional: Investigate the importance of neutralisation in pool chemistry.

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Reactions of acids on metals and carbonates

Saturday, 12 May 2012 12:08 PM

28. Identify that acids react with metals to produce a salt and hydrogen When an acid reacts with metals to produce a salt and hydrogen.

ACID + METAL

-->

SALT + HYDROGEN

29. Write general and specific word (optional - formula) equations for the reactions of acid (Sulfuric, nitric and Hydrochloric acid) with zinc, iron and magnesium. Magnesium + Hydrochloric acid _____________________________ Magnesium + Sulfuric acid __________________________________ Zinc + Sulfuric acid _______________________________________ Zinc + Hydrochloric acid __________________________________ Aluminium + Sulfuric acid __________________________________ Aluminium + Hydrochloric acid _________________________________ Iron + Sulfuric acid _________________________________________ Iron + Hydrochloric acid _______________________________________ Magnesium + nitric acid _____________________________________ Zinc + nitric acid ____________________________________________

30. Observe reactions of metal carbonates with hydrochloric and sulfuric acids.

ACID + CARBONATE WATER

SALT + CARBON DIOXIDE +

Carbonates are compounds that have the carbonate ion CO 32- as part of their structure.

31. Write general and specific word equations for the reaction of magnesium, sodium, calcium and copper carbonate with acid hydrochloric acid + sodium carbonate sodium chloride + carbon dioxide + water HCl + Na2CO3 2 NaCl + CO2 + H2O sulfuric acid + calcium carbonate calcium sulfate + carbon dioxide + water H2SO4 + CaCO3 CaSO4 + CO2 + H2O
32. Explain that acid rain is caused by acidic polluting gases e.g. oxides of sulfur and nitrogen, dissolving in and reacting with water. Rain is normally slightly acidic. As clouds form and rain falls, carbon dioxide dissolves and reacts with the water in the atmosphere to form very weak carbonic acid. Note that this is NOT acidic enough to cause a problem so is NOT acid
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acid. Note that this is NOT acidic enough to cause a problem so is NOT acid rain. Carbon dioxide + water --> carbonic acid However if concentrations of polluting acidic gases such as SULFUR dioxide OR NITROGEN OXIDES are high, these gases dissolve and react with the water in the atmosphere to produce sulfuric acid AND nitric acid (strong acids). This rain is called acid rain. If the acid rain falls as snow, acid snow can build up on mountains. When this snow melts, huge amounts of acid are released in a short period.
33. Research the effect of acid rain on metal structures and on buildings/rocks containing carbonates Acid rain reacts with metals in bridges and building structures causing weakness in these structures. Acid rain reacts with carbonates, in the forms of calcium carbonate and magnesium carbonate, which are major components of limestone and marble. Thus, many of the beautiful limestone and marble buildings in Europe are being broken down by acid rain. Forests, crops and lakes are also affected by causing damage the cells on the surface of leaves and affect the flow of water through plants. It also makes plants more likely to be damaged by frosts, fungi and diseases. The acid rain collects in streams, rivers and lakes, making the waterways more acidic. A healthy lake has a pH of about 6.5 and fish, plants and insects can live in it. Acid rain causes the pH of the lake to fall. Some aquatic plants and animals cannot tolerate these acidic conditions and die. Acid rain reacts with soil, causing the accelerated leaching of metals like aluminium. The aluminium is washed into the streams, rivers and lakes and poisons the aquatic plants and animals.

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Corrosion
Saturday, 12 May 2012 12:08 PM

34. Define corrosion as the reaction of metals with substances in the environment (usually oxygen) which produce a metal compound (usually a metallic oxide). Corrosion is the reaction of metals with substances in the environment (usually oxygen) which produce a metal compound (usually a metal oxide)

Corrosion is a chemical reaction caused by the reaction between a metal and oxygen (sometimes water). 35. Identify the corrosion product of iron as rust, iron (III) oxide, and aluminium as aluminium oxide. Only corrosion of iron is called rusting and needs both water and oxygen to occur. Corrosion eventually causes structural weakness and disintegration of the metal.
List 4 things in your environment that are made of aluminium. Aluminium is a really common building material because of its lightness and its resistance to corrosion. Aeroplanes Foil Cans Ladders Window frames

Aluminium also corrodes but it does so in such a way that it protects itself. The aluminium reacts with oxygen in the air to form aluminium oxide. Write the equation for this reaction below. The aluminium oxide sticks really well to the metal on the outside and forms a protective coating. This helps protect the aluminium from further corrosion.

36. Write word (optional-formula) equations for corrosion Copper + Oxygen --> Copper Oxide Zinc + Oxygen --> Zinc Oxide Iron + Oxygen --> Iron Oxide

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Combustion
Saturday, 12 May 2012 12:08 PM

37. Identify that commonly used fuels are carbon based. Commonly used fuels are carbon based. Most fuels are hydrocarbons. That means that they contain the hydrogen and carbon elements.

38. Define a fuel as a chemical which can burn in oxygen to release energy. A fuel is a chemical containing chemical potential energy which burns in oxygen to release that energy as heat and light. Most of the fuels we burn currently are fossil fuels. When fossil fuels are burnt, the chemical potential energy they contain is converted to heat and light energy. - Some of these fuels include natural gas, coal and oil. 39. Investigate, experimentally, the amount of energy released by a variety of fuels during combustion. We measured the mass of fuel burnt to raise the temperature of some water by 20 degrees. The fuel that burnt the least amount of fuel was the most efficient.
40. Define complete combustion as that which occurs when there is an adequate supply of oxygen, forming water and carbon dioxide as products.

General Equation: Complete Combustion

Fuel + oxygen carbon dioxide + water (+ energy) eg, Methane + oxygen carbon dioxide + water

41. Write word (optional-formula) equations for the combustion (complete) of some simple fuels (butane, ethanol).

Ethane + oxygen carbon dioxide + water Butane + oxygen carbon dioxide + water Propane + oxygen carbon dioxide + water Octane + oxygen carbon dioxide + water 42. Assess, with reference to the Kyoto protocol and the Copenhagen conference, the strategies used to balance human activities and needs in ecosystems with conserving, protecting and maintaining the sustainability of the environment. (Not examinable)

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Decomposition Reactions
Saturday, 12 May 2012 12:08 PM

43. Define Chemical Decomposition as the reaction which occurs when chemical compounds break down into simpler compounds or their constituent elements. Chemical decomposition is the reaction which occurs when chemical compounds break down into simpler forms or the elements of which they are made.

Energy such as heat or electricity is usually required to cause a compound to decompose.

44. Investigate the decomposition of water to form hydrogen and oxygen and of copper carbonate to form copper oxide and carbon dioxide. Water Decomposition - A molecule of water is composed of 2 hydrogen atoms and 1 oxygen atom. - Water can be separated by using electricity in a device called a Hoffmann's Voltameter. - The various gases filter into each tube - and there is twice as much hydrogen as there is oxygen - Water --> oxygen + hydrogen The glowing splint test is placed in the gas- if oxygen is present the splint will relight. - The pop test is when a lighted splint is placed in the gas, and if we hear a pop then hydrogen is present. - We observed bubbles, and the levels of gas were different. Copper Carbonate Decomposition - Place the test tube of limewater in the test tube rack and gently heat the test tube containing the copper carbonate with a Bunsen burner using a test tube holder. 45. Write word (optional - formula) equations for some simple decomposition reactions.

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Careers
Saturday, 12 May 2012 12:08 PM

46. Discuss possible careers in Chemistry and the skills that would be useful

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Extra Notes
Saturday, 12 May 2012 12:10 PM

Check 3 18 22 Ask about incomplete combustion Talk about the various tests - pop test, carbon dioxide tes, test for oxygen

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Distance, Time, Speed and Acceleration

Friday, 18 May 2012 2:52 PM

1. Compare the time taken to travel from home to school using different methods of transport. 2. Define average speed as total distance travelled divided by total time taken.

3. Solve problems using the equation:

4. Draw and interpret distance time graphs of travelling vehicles.

5. Describe how a radar gun used by the police works to calculate the instantaneous speed of a car Extention: Discuss speed vs velocity 6. Define acceleration as the change in speed divided by the time taken.

7. Solve problems using the equation:

8. Draw and interpret speed time graphs of travelling vehicles.

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Force and Newton's Laws

Friday, 18 May 2012 2:53 PM

9. Distinguish between mass and weight.

10. Solve problems using the equation: W = mg

11. Revise concept of Net Force

12. Define the term inertia as the tendency of an object to remain at rest or in uniform motion.

13. Use the concept of inertia to explain the effect on passengers if a car experiences rapid deceleration/acceleration.

14. State that an object will remain at rest or continue to travel at a constant speed in a straight line unless acted on by an external unbalanced force (Newton's First Law).
15. State that an object will change its speed or direction of motion if an external unbalanced force acts on it. 16. Recognise that the acceleration of a body is directly proportional to the resultant force acting on the body and inversely proportional to the mass of the body: F = ma (Newton's 2nd Law).

17. Analyse the forces that cause a car to slow down and stop.

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18. Identify the factors that influence the size of frictional forces on a car.

19. Describe design features used in cars to reduce friction and air resistance. 20. Recognise that for every action force there is an equal and opposite reaction force (Newtons 3 rd Law)

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Car Safety
Friday, 18 May 2012 2:55 PM

21. Correlate a driver's reaction time with stopping distance.

22. Relate the effect of the reaction time of drivers who have been drinking ethanol (alcohol), to the increased probability of car accidents. Extension 23. Explain safety features in cars (such as seatbelts, air bags, crumple zones, head rests, etc.) in terms of inertia, stopping time and the force applied

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Electricity
Friday, 18 May 2012 2:57 PM

24. Recall that electric current is a continual flow of charge and that the unit of electric current is the ampere (amp) (A) and that current is measured using an ammeter.

25. Recall that voltage is related to the energy of electric charge in a circuit and that the unit of voltage is volts (V) and that voltage is measured using a voltmeter.

26. Recall the guidelines for drawing a circuit diagram using the symbols for a lamp, resistor, power pack, ammeter, voltmeter and switch.

27. Identify and draw diagrams of series and parallel circuits.

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28. Construct series and parallel circuits from circuit diagrams. 29. Make accurate measurements of voltage and current reading meters. 30. Contrast characteristics of series and parallel circuits.

31. Contrast applications of series and parallel circuits using a diagram of the lights in a car as an example.

32. Define electrical resistance as the ratio of the potential difference to the current in a circuit. (Ohms law)

33. Solve Ohms law problems using the equation: V = IR

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34. Use analogies to describe current, voltage and resistance.

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