Transformer Protection from Unauthorized Person

A Thesis submitted

By

Chowdhury, Tanvir Ahmed Urmi,Aleya Ferdousi

(ID: 07-08256-1) (ID: 07-08744-2)

Under the supervision of Ashim Kumar Saha Assistant Professor Faculty of Engineering American International University-Bangladesh

Electrical and Electronic Engineering (EEE) Department Faculty of Engineering American International University-Bangladesh

Spring semester 2009-2010 August 2010

Transformer Protection from Unauthorized Person

A Thesis submitted to the Electrical and Electronic Engineering (EEE) Department of Engineering Faculty. American International University Bangladesh (AIUB) in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Bachelor of Science in Electrical and Electronics Engineering.

Chowdhury, Tanvir Ahmed Urmi,Aleya Ferdousi

(ID: 07-08256-1) (ID: 07-08744-2)

Electrical and Electronic Engineering (EEE) Department Faculty of Engineering American International University-Bangladesh

Spring semester 2009-2010 August 2010

Acknowledgements
Firstly, we express our highest gratitude to Allah the Almighty for divine blessings without which it was not possible to accomplish this project and thesis successfully. We would like to specially thank our honorable supervisor Ashim Kumar Saha, Assistant Professor, Faculty of Engineering, American International University-Bangladesh (AIUB) for giving us enormous support and valued guidance concerning this thesis. We would like to express our appreciation to Professor Dr. A.B.M. Siddique Hossain, Dean, American International University-Bangladesh (AIUB) for his encouragement.

We would like to express our appreciation to Dr. Carmen Z. Lamagna, Vice Chancellor, American International University-Bangladesh (AIUB) for her encouragement. Finally we are very grateful to our parents for all the care and support they provided us all this time.

The Authors

Abstract
In this project, the idea to protect the transformer from unauthorized person is mainly come from the national problem of the rural area of Bangladesh. Day by day Transformer stolen by the unauthorized person became a verse problem. Especially in the rural areas of Bangladesh. So the project is established by considering this great problem.

Firstly, in this project a non-inverting amplifier is used to compare the on/off conditions which will be provided by the two neutrals (one is connected to the Transformer side; another is connected to the customers side). With the disconnection of the line the amplifier will send off condition (zero). Then it will be inverted to on condition (one) and send it to the relay. After the activation of that relay it will contact the switch to the device, and then a signal will send the central control room. Until the authority takes any action, it will ring. Under load shedding also it can be operate, because a charge controller device is connected to the circuit which will give backup to the device. The whole device should be packed in an isolated box and it will be attached to the transformer.

Contents
Declaration Approval Acknowledgment Abstract Contents List of Figure List of Table Chapter 1: Introduction 1.1 Historical Background 1.2 Objective of This Project 1.3 Introduction of This Thesis 1.4 Block representation of transformer protection Chapter 2: Transformer 2.1 Introduction 2.2 Basic Working principle 2.2.1 No-Load Condition 2.2.2 Worked Examples 2.2.3 Ideal Transformer 2.3 Basic Operation of a Transformer 2.3.1 Transformer Construction 2.4 Types 2.5 Classification 2.6 Applications 2.6.1 Core Characteristics 2.6.2 Primary and Secondary phase relationship 2.6.3 Power relationship between primary and secondary 2.7 Transformer Losses 2.7 Copper Loss 2.7.2 Eddy-Current Loss 2.7.3 Hysteretic Loss 2.7.4 Effects of Current on human body 2.8 Power Transformer 2.8.1 Autotransformer 2.8.2 Audio frequency transformer 2.8.3 Radio frequency Transformer 2.8.4 Impedance Matching transformer 2.9 Summary Page N0. i ii iii iv v-vii viii ix 1-2 1 1 1 2 3-18 3 4 5 5 5 7 7 7 11 12 12 13 14 15 15 15 15 16 16 17 17 17 18 18

Chapter 3: Operational Amplifier 3.1 Introduction 3.1.1 Definition of 741-pin functions 3.1.2 Input Parameters 3.1.3 Output Parameters 3.2 Classification 3.3 Circuit notation 3.4 Operation 3.5 Ideal and real op-amps 3.6 Basic single stage amplifiers 3.6.1 Non-inverting amplifier 3.6.2 Inverting amplifier 3.7 Not gate 3.7.1 Digital building block 3.8 Operation of Inverter 3.9 NOT GATE Logic-Rules 3.10 Performance measurement 3.11 General characteristics 3.12 Op Amps as Comparators 3.13 Summary Chapter 4: Relay 4.1 Introduction 4.2 Relay Applications 4.3 Relay Construction 4.4 Relay basics 4.5 Types of relay 4.6 Maintenances of relay 4.7 Basic relay state diagram 4.7.1 Constant to momentary output 4.8 Pulsed to Steady Output 4.9 Switching from Series to Parallel and Back 4.10 One Channel to Multiple Outputs 4.11 Relay driver 4.12 Relay Driver with Flip-Flop 4.13 Review 4.14 conclusions Chapter 5: Charge Controller Circuit 5.1 Introduction 5.2 Rectifier 5.3 Half-wave rectification 5.4 Full-wave rectification 5.5 Integrated charge controller circuitry

19-31 19 19 21 21 22 23 23 24 25 25 26 27 28 28 29 29 30 30 31 32-49 32 33 34 37 39 42 43 44 45 45 46 46 47 48 49 50-52 50 50 50 51 52

5.6 Summary

52

Chapter 6: Signal transmission 6.1 Introduction 6.2 The OSI Network Model 6.3 Transmitter 6.4 Transmitter types 6.5 Power output 6.6 Power supply 6.7 Cooling of final stages 6.8 Protection equipment 6.9 Main and relay (repeater) transmitters 6.10 Transmitters in culture 6.11 Receiver 6.12 Further developments for super heterodyne block diagram 6.13 Summary Chapter 7: Design and Implementation 7.1 Introduction 7.2 Different conditions 7.3 Advantage 7.4 Printed Circuit Board on This Project 7.5.1 Need for PCB 7.5.2 Steps in making a PCB 7.6 Schematic capture & Design layout 7.7 Screen printing 7.8 Patterning (etching) 7.9 Drilling 7.10 Connect the Components and Soldering 7.10 Conclusion Chapter 8: Discussion and Conclusion 8.1 Discussions 8.2 Suggestions for Future Work 8.3 Conclusion

53-60 53 53 55 55 56 56 56 57 57 57 58 59 60 61-70 61 62 64 64 65 65 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 71 71 71

References

72

List of Figures: Figure 1.1: Block diagram of transformer protection by sending signal to the control room Figure 2.1: Transformer showing the two windings Figure 2.2: Physical outer diagram of a transformer Figure 2.3: Transformer under no-load conditions Figure 2.4: Transformer showing with laminated core Figure 2.5: Two windings of a transformer Figure 2.6: Autotransformer Figure 2.7: An autotransformer with a sliding brush contact Figure 2.8: Leakage transformer Figure 2.9: Transformers, designed for placing around conductors Figure 2.10: (a) Sell types of transformers, (b) Push-pull types of transformers and (c) Core types of transformers Figure 2.11: Internal physical structure of core Figure 2.12: Showing different polarity Figure 2.13: Schematic diagram of a typical power transformer Figure 2.14: Audio frequency Transformer Figure 3.1: Operational Amplifier Figure 3.2: Internal circuit diagram of Op-Amp 741 Figure 3.3: (a) GAP/R's K2-W (b) GAP/R's model P45 (c) GAP/R's model PP65 (d) An op-amp in a modern DIP types of Amplifier Figure 3.4: Circuit diagram symbol for an Op-Amp Figure 3.5: Block diagram of a 741 Op-Amp Figure 3.6: With no negative feedback, the op-amp acts as a comparator and adding negative feedback via the voltage divider Rf, Rg Figure 3.7: An equivalent circuit of an operational amplifier that models some resistive non-ideal parameters Figure 3.8: An op-amp connected in the non-inverting amplifier configuration Figure 3.9: An op-amp connected in the inverting amplifier configuration Figure 3.10: Traditional NOT Gate (Inverter Symbol Figure 3.11: International Electro technical Commission NOT Gate(Inverter) symbol Figure 3.12: IC-7404 Figure 3.13: This schematic diagram shows the arrangement of NOT gates within a standard 4049 CMOS hex inverting buffer Figure 3.14: Pin diagram of a IC7404 Figure 3.15: Voltage Transfer Curve for a 20 m Inverter Figure 4.1: Relays Figure 4.2: Relay applications Figure 4.3: Showing the electric field Figure 4.4: Showing the basic diagram Figure 4.5: Showing the relay Figure 4.6: Internal diagram of relay Figure 4.7: Connection diagram of relay Figure 4.8: Different types of relay

Page No 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 8 9 10 11 13 14 16 17 19 22 22 23 23 24 25 24 27 27 27 27 28 29 29 33 34 34 35 36 37 38 40

Figure 4.9: Showing the contacts Figure 4.10: Non-Latching Figure 4.11: Latching Figure 4.12: Basic relay remote start Figure 4.13: Relay at constant to momentary output Figure 4.14: Relay at momentary to constant output Figure 4.15: Relay at pulse to steady state output Figure 4.16: Relay at switching from Series to Parallel and Back Figure 4.17: Switching from Series to Parallel and Back Figure 4.18: Relay driver Figure 4.19: Relay driver (using transistor) Figure 4.20: Relay driver (using flip-flop) Figure 4.21: Diagram showing how the relay is used in circuits Figure 4.22: Different types of contacts Figure 5.1 Half wave rectifiers Figure 5.2: Full-wave bridge rectifier using 4 diodes Figure 5.3: Full-wave rectifier using a transformer with 2 diodes Figure 5.4: Half-wave rectifier using a transformer with 4 diodes Figure 6.1: The Seven Layer OSI Network Model Figure 6.2: Showing the transmission Figure 6.3: WDET-FM transmitter Figure 6.4: Block diagram of a simple amplitude modulated transmitter Figure 6.5: Block diagram of a basic super heterodyne radio receiver Figure 6.6: Physical outer diagram of signal transmitted device Figure 7.1: Schematic diagram which will provide protection to the transformer Figure 7.2: Condition observed when both the neutral T & C are closed Figure 7.3: Condition observed when both the neutral T closed & C are opened Figure 7.4: Condition observed when both the neutral T opened & C closed Figure 7.5: Condition observed when both the neutral T & C are opened Figure 7.6: Graph of different conditions of the neutral Figure 7.7: PCB layout Figure 7.8: Showing the design layout Figure 7.9: Showing the screen printing Figure 7.10: Showing the pattering Proccess Figure 7.11: Showing the drilling Proccess Figure 7.12: Showing the soldering Proccess Figure 7.13: Showing connect the components

41 41 42 43 44 44 45 45 46 47 47 48 48 49 50 51 51 52 53 55 56 58 59 59 61 62 62 63 63 64 65 66 66 68 69 69 70

List of tables
Table 3.1:

NOT gate reverses the input if the switch is on

Chapter 1

Introduction
1.1 Historical Background
A transformer is a device that transfers electrical energy from one circuit to another through inductively coupled conductors the transformer's coils. Transformers are essential for high voltage power, which makes long distance transmission economically practical. It is major part of Electricity transmission. So that it is important and precious for us that it should be kept safe from being wasted. That is how the idea of the transformer protection got introduced. The transformer principle was demonstrated in 1831 by Michael Faraday. A transformer is a device used to transfer electrical energy from one circuit to another. A transformer changes electricity from high to low voltage using two properties of electricity. In an electric circuit, there is magnetism around it. Whenever a magnetic field changes a voltage is made. Electric power is like the air breathing. It meets all our needs. It is only during a power failure realize how important power is in our everyday life. Electric transformer is a device used to transfer an alternating current or voltage from one circuit to high voltage transformer converts voltages from one level to another, usually from higher to lower. Microwave is the best example where high voltage transformer is used in household products. High voltage transformer is available with the standard voltage of 600 to 5000 volts. High voltage transformers are used for metering and security in high voltage circuits and in electrostatic industrial and other technical applications.

1.2 Objective of This Project

In this project, the idea to protect the transformer from unauthorized person is mainly come from the national problem of the rural area of Bangladesh. In this project a non-inverting amplifier is used to compare the on/off conditions. With the disconnection of the line the amplifier will send off condition (zero). Then it will be inverted to on condition (one) and send it to the relay. After the activation of that relay it will contact the switch to the device, and then a signal will send the central control room. Until the authority takes any action, it will ring. Under load shedding also it can be operate, because a charge controller device is connected to the circuit which will give backup to the device. The whole device should be packed in an isolated box and it will be attached to the transformer. Because of the importance of the transformer this idea introduced just to build a circuit which will give protection to the Transformer.

1.3 Introduction of This Thesis

The Historical Background of the transformer protection has been discussed in Chapter 1.Also the bjective of this Project has been notified. Transformer Operational principle working way and different types of transformer has been discussed in chapter 2.Ultimatly the details about transformer has been discussed in this Chapter.

The operational Amplifier of OAMP - HA17741 Configuration and working principle and Not Gate HD74HC04P logic rules and performance Characteristics have been discussed in Chapter 3. The process of closing contact by using Relay and The construction of relay have been discussed in chapter 4. Rectification of the signal by using rectifier and intergraded charge controlling circuitry has been discussed in chapter 5. The signal that must be transmitted to the Control room these phenomena and the steps to connect of all the parts to get the circuit as a whole circuit has been discussed in chapter 6. The schematic circuit design and Implementation has been discussed in chapter 7. Discussion about the project, some future plans and finally the conclusions have been provided in the last chapter, chapter 8.

1.4 Block Representation of Transformer Protection

Figure 1.1: Block diagram of transformer protection by sending signal to the control room.

Chapter 2

Transformer
2.1 Introduction
A transformer is a device that transfers electrical energy from one circuit to another through inductively coupled conductorsthe transformer's coils. Transformers are essential for high voltage power, which makes long distance transmission economically practical. A varying current in the first or primary winding creates a varying magnetic flux in the transformer's core, and thus a varying magnetic field through the secondary winding. This varying magnetic field induces a varying electromotive force (EMF) or "voltage" in the secondary winding. This effect is called mutual induction. If a load is connected to the secondary, an electric current will flow in the secondary winding and electrical energy will be transferred from the primary circuit through the transformer to the load. In an ideal transformer, the induced voltage in the secondary winding (VS) is in proportion to the primary voltage (VP), and is given by the ratio of the number of turns in the secondary (NS) to the number of turns in the primary (NP) as follows: . (2.1) By appropriate selection of the ratio of turns, a transformer thus allows an alternating current voltage to be "stepped up" by making NS greater than NP, or "stepped down" by making NS less than NP. In the vast majority of transformers, the windings are coils wound around a ferromagnetic, air core transformers being a notable exception.

Figure 2.1: Transformer showing the two windings

Figure 2.2: Physical outer diagram of a transformer

2.2 Basic Working Principle

The transformer is based on two principles: firstly, that an electric current can produce magnetic field (electromagnetisms) and secondly, that a changing magnetic field within a coil of wire induces a voltage across the ends of the coil (electromagnetic induction). Changing the current in the primary coil changes the magnetic flux that is developed. The changing magnetic flux induces a voltage in the secondary coil. Transformers are commonly made by windings two coils around an iron core. Their functions are to supply voltage needed to drive myriad of electronic gadgets and equipment. Powering a multitude of electronic equipment inside that charger, charging the cell phone or other electric razors transformer is essential. [1] Power supplies are very important in electronics and in our everyday life, supplying voltages and currents necessary for circuits to operate. Power supplies are constructed from four common elements: a) b) c) d) Transformer Rectifier Filter Regulator

Among these, the transformer is the central element as it provides the power needed. The other components merely make this power available in a suitable, reliable form. In general, the user needs power to be supplied and at the right voltage, different from mains voltage. This requirement is precisely the function of the transformer. Up to this point the chapter has presented the basics of the transformer including transformer action, the transformer's physical characteristics, and how the transformer is

constructed. Now you have the necessary knowledge to proceed into the theory of operation of a transformer. 2.2.1 No-Load Condition A transformer is capable of supplying voltages which are usually higher or lower than the source voltage. This is accomplished through mutual induction, which takes place when the changing magnetic field produced by the primary voltage cuts the secondary winding. A no-load condition is said to exist when a voltage is applied to the primary, but no load is connected to the secondary, as illustrated by figure 2.3.Because of the open switch, there is no current flowing in the secondary winding. With the switch open and an ac voltage applied to the primary, there is, however, a very small amount of current called EXCITING CURRENT flowing in the primary. Essentially, when the exciting current does is "excite" the coil of the primary to create a magnetic field. The amount of exciting current is determined by three factors: (1) the amount of voltage applied (Ea), (2) the resistance (R) of the primary coil's wire and core losses, and (3) the XL which is

Figure 2.3: Transformer under no-load conditions

Depends on the frequency of the exciting current. These last two factors are controlled by transformer design. This very small amount of exciting current serves two functions: i. Most of the exciting energy is used to maintain the magnetic field of the primary. ii. A small amount of energy is used to overcome the resistance of the wire and core losses which are dissipated in the form of heat (power loss). Exciting current will flow in the primary winding at all times to maintain this magnetic field, but no transfer of energy will take place as long as the secondary circuit is open. 2.2.2 Worked Examples For step-down transformers, if the secondary has half the primary turns, then by proportion, the secondary voltage must be half the primary voltage. Using numbers, if the primary has 5000 turns and the secondary has 500 turns, then the turns ratio is 10:1. So, if the primary voltage is 240 volts then the secondary voltage will be smaller by this same ratio, to 24 volts. For a step-up transformer, if the secondary has twice as many turns, then by proportion, the secondary voltage must be twice the primary voltage. 2.2.3 Ideal Transformer Any transformer simply consists of two coils positioned so that the magnetic flux from one passes through to the other. A transformer changes a given electrical current into another current of different voltage. There are two kinds of transformers:

i. Step-up transformer to increase the voltage . ii. Step-down transformer to decrease the voltage. Figure 2.3 is a schematic diagram of a transformer. It consists of insulated wires wound around a conductor, such as an iron loop. A changing current in the first circuit (the primary) creates a changing magnetic field; in turn, this magnetic field induces a changing voltage in the second circuit (the secondary). By adding a load to the secondary circuit, one can make current flow in the transformer, thus transferring energy from one circuit to the other.

Figure 2.4: Transformer showing with laminated core

An ideal transformer is shown in the adjacent figure. Current passing through the primary coil creates a magnetic field. The primary and secondary coils are wrapped around a core of very high magnetic

permeability, such as iron, so that most of the magnetic flux passes through both the primary and secondary coils.

2.3 Basic Operation of a Transformer

In its most basic form a transformer consists of: a) A primary coil or winding. b) A secondary coil or winding. c) A core that supports the coils or windings. Refer to the transformer circuit to the following explanation; the primary winding is connected to a 60 hertz ac voltage source. The magnetic field (flux) builds up (expands) and collapses (contracts) about the primary winding. The expanding and contracting magnetic field around the primary winding cuts the secondary winding and induces an alternating voltage into the winding. This voltage causes alternating current to flow through the load. The voltage may be stepped up or down depending on the design of the primary and secondary windings.

Figure 2.5: Two windings of a transformer

2.3.1 Transformer Construction A transformer consists of two coils of insulated wire wound on a core. The primary winding is usually wound onto a form, and then wrapped with an insulating material such as paper or cloth. The secondary winding is then wound on top of the primary and both windings are wrapped with insulating material. The windings are then fitted onto the core of the transformer. Cores come in various shapes and materials. The most common materials are air, soft iron, and laminated steel. The most common types of transformers are the shell-core and the hollow-core types. The type and shape of the core is dependent on the intended use of the transformer and the voltage applied to the current in the primary winding.

2.4 Types
A wide variety of transformer designs are used for different applications, though they share several common features. Important common transformer types include: i. Autotransformer, ii. Polyphase transformers, iii. Leakage transformers,

iv. Resonant transformers, v. Audio transformers, vi. Instrument transformers. i. Autotransformer: An autotransformer has only a single winding with two end terminals, plus a third at an intermediate tap point. The primary voltage is applied across two of the terminals, and the secondary voltage taken from one of these and the third terminal. The primary and secondary circuits therefore have a number of windings turns in common. Since the volts-per-turn is the same in both windings, each develops a voltage in proportion to its number of turns. An adjustable autotransformer is made by exposing part of the winding coils and making the secondary connection through a sliding brush, giving a variable turns ratio. Such a device is often referred to as a varic.

Figure 2.6: Autotransformer

ii. Polyphase Transformers: For three phase supplies, a bank of three individual single-phase transformers can be used, or all three phases can be incorporated as a single three-phase transformer. In this case, the magnetic circuits are connected together, the core thus containing a three-phase flow of flux. A number of winding configurations are possible, giving rise to different attributes and phase shifts. One particular polyphase configuration is the transformer, used for grounding and in the suppression of harmonic currents.

Figure 2.7: An autotransformer with a sliding brush contact.

iii. Leakage Transformers: A leakage transformer, also called a stray-field transformer, has a significantly higher leakage inductance than other transformers, sometimes increased by a magnetic bypass or shunt in its core between primary and secondary, which is sometimes adjustable with a set screw. This provides a transformer with an inherent current limitation due to the loose coupling between its primary and the secondary windings. The output and input currents are low enough to prevent thermal overload under all load conditions even if the secondary is shorted. Leakage transformers are used for arc winding and high voltage discharge lamps (neon lamps and cold cathode influence lamp, which are series-connected up to 7.5 kV AC). It acts then both as a voltage transformer and as a magnetic ballast. Other applications are short-circuit-proof extra low voltage transformers for installations.

Figure 2.8: Leakage transformer

iv. Resonant Transformers: Resonant transformer is a kind of leakage transformer. It uses the leakage inductance of its secondary windings in combination with external capacitors, to create one or more resonant circuit. Resonant transformers such as the tesla coil and generate very high voltages, and are able to provide much higher current than electrostatic high-voltage generation machines such as the Van de graft generator. One of the applications of the resonant transformer is for the inverter. Another application of the resonant transformer is to couple between stages of a super heterodyne generator, where the selectivity of the receiver is provided by tuned transformers in the intermediate-frequency amplifiers. v. Audio Transformers: Audio transformers are those specifically designed for use in audio circuits. They can be used to block radio frequency interference or the DC component of an audio signal, to split or combine audio signals, or to provide impedance matching between high and low impedance circuits, such as between a high impedance tube (valve amplifier) output and a low impedance loudspeaker, or between a high impedance instrument output and the low impedance input of a mixing console. Such transformers were originally designed to connect different telephone systems to one another while keeping their respective power supplies isolated, and are still commonly used to interconnect professional audio systems or system components. [2]

Being magnetic devices, audio transformers are susceptible to external magnetic fields such as those generated by AC current-carrying conductors. "Hum" is a term commonly used to describe unwanted signals originating from the "main" power supply (typically 50 or 60 Hz). Audio transformers used for low-level signals, such as those from microphones, often include shielding to protect against extraneous magnetically coupled signals. vi. Instrument transformers: Instrument transformers are used for measuring voltage and current in electrical power systems, and for power system protection and control. Where a voltage or current is too large to be conveniently used by an instrument, it can be scaled down to a standardized, low value. Instrument transformers isolate measurement, protection and control circuitry from the high currents or voltages present on the circuits being measured or controlled.

Figure 2.9: Transformers, designed for placing around conductors

Current transformer is a transformer designed to provide a current in its secondary coil proportional to the current flowing in its primary coil. Voltage transformer (VTs), also referred to as "potential transformers" (PTs), are designed to have an accurately known transformation ratio in both magnitude and phase, over a range of measuring circuit impedances. A voltage transformer is intended to present a negligible load to the supply being measured. The low secondary voltage allows protective relay equipment and measuring instruments to be operated at a lower voltage. Both current and voltage instrument transformers are designed to have predictable characteristics on overloads. Proper operation of over-current protection relays requires that current transformers provide a predictable transformation ratio even during short-circuits.

(a)

(b)

(c)

Figure 2.10: (a) Sell types of transformers, (b) Push-pull types of transformers and (c) Core types of transformers

2.5 Classification
Transformers can be classified in different ways: By power capacity: from a fraction of a volt-ampere (VA) to over a thousand MVA, By frequency range: power, audio, or radio frequency, By voltage class: from a few volts to hundreds of kilovolts, By cooling type: air cooled, oil filled, fan cooled, or water cooler, By application: such as power supply, impedance matching, output voltage and current stabilizer, or circuit isolation, vi. By end purpose: distribution, rectifier, arc furnace, amplifier output, vii. By winding turns ratio: step-up, step-down, isolating (equal or near-equal ratio), and variable. i. ii. iii. iv. v.

2.6 Applications
A major application of transformers is to increase voltage before transmitting electrical energy over long distances through wires. Wires have resistance and so dissipate electrical energy at a rate proportional to the square of the current through the wire. By transforming electrical power to a high-voltage (and therefore low-current) form for transmission and back again afterward, transformers enable economic transmission of power over long distances. Consequently, transformers have shaped the electricity supply industry, permitting generation to be located remotely from points of demand. All but a tiny fraction of the worlds electrical power has passed through a series of transformers by the time it reaches the consumer. Transformers are also used extensively in electronic products to step down the supply voltage to a level suitable for the low voltage circuits they contain. The transformer also electrically isolates the end user from contact with the supply voltage. Signal and audio transformers are used to couple stages of amplifiers and to match devices such as microphones and record players to the input of amplifiers. Audio transformers allowed telephone circuits to carry on two way conversion over a single pair of wires. A balun transformer converts a signal that is referenced to ground to a signal that has balanced voltage to ground, such as between external cables and internal circuits. The principle of open-circuit (unloaded) transformer is widely used for characterization of soft magnetic materials, for example in the internationally standardized Epstein frame method. 2.6.1 Core Characteristics The composition of a transformer core depends on such factors as voltage, current, and frequency. Size limitations and construction costs are also factors to be considered. Commonly used core materials are air, soft iron, and steel. Each of these materials is suitable for particular applications and unsuitable for others. Generally, air-core transformers are used when the voltage source has a high frequency (above 20 kHz). Iron-core transformers are usually used when the source frequency is low (below 20 kHz). A soft-ironcore transformer is very useful where the transformer must be physically small, yet efficient. The ironcore transformer provides better power transfer than does the air-core transformer. A transformer whose

core is constructed of laminated sheets of steel dissipates heat readily; thus it provides for the efficient transfer of power. The majority of transformers you will encounter in Navy equipment contain laminated-steel cores. These steel laminations are insulated with a non-conducting material, such as varnish, and then formed into a core. It takes about 50 such laminations to make a core an inch thick. The purpose of the laminations is to reduce certain losses which will be discussed later in this chapter. An important point to remember is that the most efficient transformer core is one that offers the best path for the most lines of flux with the least loss in magnetic and electrical energy.

Figure 2.11: Internal physical structure of core

2.6.2 Primary and Secondary Phase Relationship The secondary voltage of a simple transformer may be either in phase or out of phase with the primary voltage. This depends on the direction in which the windings are wound and the arrangement of the connections to the external circuit (load). Simply, this means that the two voltages may rise and fall together or one may rise while the other is falling. Transformers in which the secondary voltage is in phase with the primary are referred to as like wound transformers, while those in which the voltages are 180 degrees out of phase are called unlike wound transformers.

Dots are used to indicate points on a transformer schematic symbol that have the same instantaneous polarity (points that are in phase). The use of phase-indicating dots is illustrated in figure in part (A) of the figure, both the primary and secondary windings are wound from top to bottom in a clockwise direction, as viewed from above the windings. When constructed in this manner, the top lead of the primary and the top lead of the secondary have the SAME polarity. This is indicated by the dots on the transformer symbol. A lack of phasing dots indicates a reversal of polarity. A transformer in which the primary and secondary are wound in opposite directions. As viewed from above the windings, the primary is wound in a clockwise direction from top to bottom, while the secondary is wound in a counterclockwise direction. Notice that the top leads of the primary and secondary have OPPOSITE polarities. This is indicated by the dots being placed on opposite ends of the transformer symbol. Thus, the polarity of the voltage at the terminals of the secondary of a transformer depends on the direction in which the secondary is wound with respect to the primary.

Figure 2.12: showing different polarity

2.6.3 Power Relationship between Primary and Secondary As just explained, the turns ratio of a transformer affects current as well as voltage. If voltage is doubled in the secondary, current is halved in the secondary. Conversely, if voltage is halved in the secondary, current is doubled in the secondary. In this manner, all the power delivered to the primary by the source is also delivered to the load by the secondary (minus whatever power is consumed by the transformer in the form of losses). Refer again to the transformer illustrated in figure 2.12. The turns ratio is 20:1. If the input to the primary is 0.1 ampere at 300 volts, the power in the primary is P = E I = 30 watts. If the transformer has no losses, 30 watts is delivered to the secondary. The secondary steps down the voltage to 15 volts and steps up the current to 2 amperes. Thus, the power delivered to the load by the secondary is P = E I = 15 volts 2 amps = 30 watts. The reason for this is that when the number of turns in the secondary is decreased, the opposition to the flow of the current is also decreased. [3] Hence, more current will flow in the secondary. If the turns ratio of the transformer is increased to 1:2, the number of turns on the secondary is twice the number of turns on the primary. This means the opposition to current is doubled. Thus, voltage is doubled, but current is halved due to the increased opposition to current in the secondary. The important thing to remember is that with the exception of the

power consumed within the transformer, all power delivered to the primary by the source will be delivered to the load. The form of the power may change, but the power in the secondary almost equals the power in the primary. As a formula,

Ps = Pp P L .. (2.2)
Where,

Ps = Power delivered to the load by the secondary Pp = Power delivered to the primary by the source PL = Power losses in the transformer

2.7 Transformer Losses

Practical power transformers, although highly efficient, are not perfect devices. Small power transformers used in electrical equipment have an 80 to 90 percent efficiency range, while large, commercial power line transformers may have efficiencies exceeding 98 percent. The total power loss in a transformer is a combination of three types of losses. One loss is due to the dc resistance in the primary and secondary windings. This loss is called COPPER loss or I2R loss. The two other losses are due to EDDY CURRENTS and to HYSTERESIS in the core of the transformer. Copper loss, eddy-current loss, and hysteresis loss result in undesirable conversion of electrical energy into heat energy. 2.7.1 Copper Loss Whenever current flows in a conductor, power is dissipated in the resistance of the conductor in the form of heat. The amount of power dissipated by the conductor is directly proportional to the resistance of the wire, and to the square of the current through it. The greater the value of resistance or current, the greater is the power dissipated. The primary and secondary windings of a transformer are usually made of lowresistance copper wire. The resistance of a given winding is a function of the diameter of the wire and its length. Copper loss can be minimized by using the proper diameter wire. Large diameter wire is required for high-current windings, whereas small diameter wire can be used for low-current windings. 2.7.2 Eddy-Current Loss The core of a transformer is usually constructed of some type of ferromagnetic material because it is a good conductor of magnetic lines of flux.

Whenever the primary of an iron-core transformer is energized by an alternating-current source, a fluctuating magnetic field is produced. This magnetic field cuts the conducting core material and induces a voltage into it. The induced voltage causes random currents to flow through the core which dissipates power in the form of heat. These undesirable currents are called EDDY CURRENTS. To minimize the loss resulting from eddy currents, transformer cores are LAMINATED. Since the thin, insulated laminations do not provide an easy path for current, eddy-current losses are greatly reduced. 2.7.3 Hysteresis Loss When a magnetic field is passed through a core, the core material becomes magnetized. To become magnetized, the domains within the core must align themselves with the external field. If the direction of the field is reversed, the domains must turn so that their poles are aligned with the new direction of the external field. Power transformers normally operate from either 60 Hz, or 400 Hz alternating current. Each tiny domain must realign itself twice during each cycle, or a total of 120 times a second when 60 Hz alternating current is used. The energy used to turn each domain is dissipated as heat within the iron core. This loss, called HYSTERESIS LOSS, can be thought of as resulting from molecular friction. Hysteresis loss can be held to a small value by proper choice of core materials. 2.7.4 Effects of Current on Human Body It is important for you to recognize that the resistance of the human body cannot be relied upon to prevent a fatal shock from a voltage as low as 115 volts or even less. Fatalities caused by human contact with 30 volts have been recorded. Tests have shown that body resistance under unfavorable conditions may be as low as 300 ohms, and possibly as low as 100 ohms (from temple to temple) if the skin is broken. Generally direct current is not considered as dangerous as an equal value of alternating current. This is evidenced by the fact that reasonably safe "let-go currents" for 60 hertz, alternating current, are 9.0 mill amperes for men and 6.0 mill amperes for women, while the corresponding values for direct current are 62.0 mill amperes for men and 41.0 mill amperes for women. The actual severity of effects will depend on such things as the physical condition of the work area, the physiological condition and resistance of the body, and the area of the body through which the current flows. [4]

2.8 Power Transformer

Power transformers are used to supply voltages to the various circuits in electrical equipment. These transformers have two or more windings wound on a laminated iron core. The number of windings and the turns per winding depend upon the voltages that the transformer is to supply. Their coefficient of coupling is 0.95 or more. It can usually distinguish between the high-voltage and low-voltage windings in a power transformer by measuring the resistance. The low-voltage winding usually carries the higher current and therefore has the larger diameter wire. This means that its resistance is less than the resistance of the high-voltage winding, which normally carries less current and therefore may be constructed of smaller diameter wire. So far about transformer have one secondary winding. The typical power transformer has several secondary windings, each providing a different voltage. The schematic symbol for a typical power-supply transformer is shown in figure 2.13. For any voltage across the primary, the voltage across each of the

secondary windings is determined by the number of turns in each secondary. To center tap a winding means to connect a wire to the center of the coil, so that between this center tap and either terminal of the winding there appears one-half of the voltage developed across the entire winding.

6.3 volts

350 volts

110 VOLTS
350 volts

700 volts

5 volts

Figure 2.13: Schematic diagram of a typical power transformer

There are many types of power transformers. They range in size from the huge transformers weighing several tons-used in power substations of commercial power companies-to very small ones weighing as little as a few ounces-used in electronic equipment. 2.8.1 Autotransformer It is not necessary in a transformer for the primary and secondary to be separate and distinct windings. Figure 2.13 is a schematic diagram of what is known as an AUTOTRANSFORMER. Note that a single coil of wire is "tapped" to produce what is electrically a primary and secondary winding. The voltage across the secondary winding has the same relationship to the voltage across the primary that it would have if they were two distinct windings. The movable tap in the secondary is used to select a value of output voltage, either higher or lower than Ep within the range of the transformer. That is, when the tap is at point A, Es is less than Ep; when the tap is at point B, Es is greater than Ep. 2.8.2 Audio Frequency transformer

Figure 2.14: Audio frequency Transformer

Audio-frequency transformers are used in AF circuits as coupling devices. Audio-frequency transformers are designed to operate at frequencies in the audio frequency spectrum (generally considered to be 15 Hz to 20 kHz). They consist of a primary and a secondary winding wound on a laminated iron or steel core. Because these transformers are subjected to higher frequencies than are power transformers, special grades of steel such as silicon steel or special alloys of iron that have a very low hysteresis loss must be used for core material. These transformers usually have a greater number of turns in the secondary than in the primary; common step-up ratios being 1 to 2 or 1 to 4.With audio transformers the impedance of the primary and secondary windings is as important as the ratio of turns, since the transformer selected should have its impedance match the circuits to which it is connected. 2.8.3 Radio Frequency Transformer Radio-frequency transformers are used to couple circuits to which frequencies above 20,000 Hz are applied. The windings are wound on a tube of nonmagnetic material, have a special powdered-iron core, or contain only air as the core material. In standard broadcast radio receivers, they operate in a frequency range of from 530 kHz to 1550 kHz. In a short-wave receiver, RF transformers are subjected to frequencies up to about 20 MHz - in radar, up to and even above 200 MHz

2.8.4 Impedance Matching Transformer For maximum or optimum transfer of power between two circuits, it is necessary for the impedance of one circuit to be matched to that of the other circuit. One common impedance-matching device is the transformer. To obtain proper matching, must use a transformer having the correct turns ratio. The number of turns on the primary and secondary windings and the impedance of the transformer have the following mathematical relationship, ... (2.3) Because of this ability to match impedances, the impedance-matching transformer is widely used in electronic equipment.

2.9. Summary
The basic transformer has been described briefly in this chapter. After finishing this chapter it is more or less clear that transformer is an electrical device that transfers alternating-current energy from one circuit to another circuit by magnetic coupling of the primary and secondary windings of the transformer. This is accomplished through mutual inductance (M). The coefficient of coupling (K) of a transformer is dependent upon the size and shape of the coils, their relative positions, and the characteristic of the core between the two coils. The basic working principles and different types of transformer has been discussed in the middle of this chapter, An ideal transformer is one where all the magnetic lines of flux produced by

the primary cut the entire secondary. The voltage applied to the primary winding causes current to flow in the primary. This current generates a magnetic field, generating a counter emf (cemf) which has the opposite phase to that of the applied voltage. The operation of the transformer has discussed at the ending. Inverting of signal using an operational amplifier has been described on the next chapter.

Chapter 3

Operational amplifier
3.1 Introduction
An operational amplifier, which is often called an op-amp, is a DC-coupled high-gain electronic voltage amplifier with a differential input and, usually, a single-ended output. An op-amp produces an output voltage that is typically millions of times larger than the voltage difference between its input terminals. Typically the op-amp's very large gain is controlled by negative feedback, which largely determines the magnitude of its output ("closed-loop") voltage gain in amplifier applications, or the transfer function required. Without negative feedback, and perhaps with positive feedback for regeneration, an op-amp essentially acts as a comparator. High input impedance at the input terminals (ideally infinite) and low output impedance at the output terminal(s) (ideally zero) are important typical characteristics.

Figure 3.1: Operational Amplifier

Op-amps are among the most widely used electronic devices today, being used in a vast array of consumer, industrial, and scientific devices. Many standard IC op-amps cost only a few cents in moderate production volume; However some integrated or hybrid operational amplifiers with special performance specifications may cost over $100 US in small quantities. Op-amps sometimes come in the form of macroscopic components, or as integrated circuit cells; patterns that can be reprinted several times on one chip as part of a more complex device. The op-amp is one type of differential amplifier. Other types of differential amplifier include the fully differential amplifier (similar to the op-amp, but with two outputs), the instrumentation amplifier (usually built from three op-amps), the isolation amplifier (similar to the instrumentation amplifier, but with tolerance to common-mode voltages that would destroy an ordinary op-amp), and negative feedback amplifier (usually built from one or more op-amps and a resistive feedback network). 3.1.1 Definition of 741-pin functions Pin 1 (Offset Null): Offset nulling, since the op-amp is the differential type, input offset voltage must be controlled so as to minimize offset. Offset voltage is nulled by application of a voltage of opposite polarity to the offset. An offset null-adjustment potentiometer may be used to compensate for offset voltage. The null-offset potentiometer also compensates for irregularities in the operational amplifier manufacturing process which may cause an offset. Consequently, the null potentiometer is recommended for critical applications. Pin 2 (Inverted Input): All input signals at this pin will be inverted at output pin 6. Pins 2 and 3 are very important (obviously) to get the correct input signals or the op amp cannot do its work.

Pin 3 (Non-Inverted Input): All input signals at this pin will be processed normally without inversion. The rest is the same as pin 2. Pin 4 (V-): The V- pin (also referred to as Vss) is the negative supply voltage terminal. Supply-voltage operating range for the 741 is -4.5 volts (minimum) to -18 volts (max), and it is specified for operation between -5 and -15 Vdc. Sensitivity of time interval to supply voltage change is low, typically 0.1% per volt. Pin 5 (Offset Null): Same as pin 1.Pin 6 (Output): Output signals polarity will be the opposite of the

input's when this signal is applied to the op-amp's inverting input. For example, a sine-wave at the inverting input will output a square-wave in the case of an inverting comparator circuit. Pin 7 (V+): The V+ pin (also referred to as Vcc) is the positive supply voltage terminal of the 741 OpAmp IC. Supply voltage operating range for the 741 is +4.5 volts (minimum) to +18 volts (maximum), and it is specified for operation between +5 and +15 Vdc. Actually, the most significant operational difference is the output drive capability, which increases for both current and voltage range as the supply voltage is increased. Sensitivity of time interval to supply voltage change is low, typically 0.1% per volt. Pin 8 (N/C): The N/C stands for Not Connected. There is no other explanation. There is nothing connected to this pin, it is just there to make it a standard 8-pin package. Supply Voltage (+/-Vs): The maximum voltage (positive and negative) that can be safely used to feed the op-amp. Differential Input Voltage (Vid): This is the maximum voltage that can be applied across the + and inputs. Input Voltage (Vicm): The maximum input voltage that can be simultaneously applied between both input and ground also referred to as the common-mode voltage. In general, the maximum voltage is equal to the supply voltage. Output Short-Circuit Duration: This is the amount of time that an op-amp's output can be shortcircuited to either supply voltage. Summed-up Features: i. Internal Frequency Compensation ii. Short Circuit Protection iii. Offset voltage null capability iv. Excellent temperature stability v. High input voltage range vi. NO latch-up

3.1.2 Input Parameters i. Input Offset Voltage (Voi) This is the voltage that must be applied to one of the input pins to give a zero output voltage. Remember, for an ideal op-amp, output offset voltage is zero! ii. Input Bias Current (Ib) This is the average of the currents flowing into both inputs. Ideally, the two input bias currents are equal. iii. Input Offset Current (Ios) this is the difference of the two input bias currents when the output voltage is zero. iv. Input Voltage Range (Vcm) The range of the common-mode input voltage (i.e. the voltage common to both inputs and ground). v. Input Resistance (Zi) the resistance 'looking-in' at either input with the remaining input grounded.

Figure 3.2: Internal circuit diagram of Op-Amp 741

3.1.3 Output Parameters a) Output Resistance (Zoi) The resistance had seen 'looking into' the op-amp's output. b) Output Short-Circuit Current (Iosc) This is the maximum output current that the op-amp can deliver to a load. c) Output Voltage Swing (Vo max) Depending on what the load resistance is, this is the maximum 'peak' output voltage that the opamp.

3.2 Classification
Op-amps may be classified by their construction: a) Discrete (built from individual transistors or tubes/valves) , b) IC (fabricated in an Integrated circuit) - most common , & c) Hybrid. IC op-amps may be classified in many ways, including: i. Military, Industrial, or Commercial grade (for example: the LM301 is the commercial grade version of the LM101, the LM201 is the industrial version). This may define operating temperature ranges and other environmental or quality factors. ii. Classification by package type may also affect environmental hardiness, as well as manufacturing options; DIP, and other through-hole packages are tending to be replaced by Surface-mount devices.

iii. Classification by internal compensation: op-amps may suffer from high frequency instability in some negative feedback circuits unless a small compensation capacitor modifies the phase- and frequency- responses; op-amps with capacitor built in are termed "compensated", or perhaps compensated for closed-loop gains down to 5, others uncompensated. iv. Single, dual and quad versions of many commercial op-amps IC are available, meaning 1, 2 or 4 operational amplifiers are included in the same package. v. Rail-to-rail input (and/or output) op-amps can work with input (and/or output) signals very close to the power supply rails. vi. CMOS op-amps (such as the CA3140E) provide extremely high input resistances, higher than JFET-input op-amps, which are normally higher than bipolar-input op-amps. vii. Other varieties of op-amp include programmable op-amps (simply meaning the quiescent current, gain, and bandwidth and so on can be adjusted slightly by an external resistor). viii. Manufacturers often tabulate their op-amps according to purpose, such as low-noise preamplifiers, wide bandwidth amplifiers, and so on.

(a)

(b)

(c)

(d)

Figure 3.3: (a) GAP/R's K2-W (b) GAP/R's model P45 (c) GAP/R's model PP65 (d) An op-amp in a modern DIP types of Amplifier

3.3 Circuit notation

i. ii. iii. iv. v. V+ : non-inverting input V- : inverting input Vout : output Vs+ : positive power supply Vs- : negative power supply

The power supply pins (Vs+ and Vs-) can be labeled in different ways. Despite different labeling, the function remains the same to provide additional power for amplification of the signal. Often these pins are left out of the diagram for clarity, and the power configuration is described or assumed from the circuit.

Figure 3.4: Circuit diagram symbol for an Op-Amp

INPUT STAGE

INTERMEDIATE STAGE

LEVEL SHIFTING STAGE

OUTPUT STAGE

Figure 3.5: Block diagram of a 741 Op-Amp

3.4 Operation
The amplifier's differential inputs consist of a V+ input and a V- input, and ideally the op-amp amplifies only the difference in voltage between the two, which is called the differential input voltage. The output voltage of the op-amp is given by the equation, ... (3.1) Where V+ is the voltage at the non-inverting terminal, V- is the voltage at the inverting terminal and AOL is the open-loop gain of the amplifier. (The term "open-loop" refers to the absence of a feedback loop from the output to the input.) The magnitude of AOL is typically very large seldom less than a million and therefore even a quite small difference between V+ and V- (a few micro volts or less) will result in amplifier saturation, where the output voltage goes to either the extreme maximum or minimum end of its range, which is set approximately by the power supply voltages. If the feedback network is made of components with relatively constant, predictable, values such as resistors, capacitors and inductors, the unpredictability and inconstancy of the op-amp's parameters (typical of semiconductor devices) do not seriously affect the circuit's performance. If no negative feedback is used, the op-amp functions as a switch or comparator. Positive feedback may be used to introduce hysteresis or oscillation.

Figure 3.6: With no negative feedback, the op-amp acts as a comparator and

Adding negative feedback via the voltage divider Rf, Rg The inverting input is held at ground (0 V) by the resistor, so if the Vin applied to the non-inverting input is positive, the output will be maximum positive, and if Vin is negative, the output will be maximum

negative. Since there is no feedback from the output to either input, this is an open loop circuit. The circuit's gain is just the GOL of the op-amp. Adding negative feedback via the voltage divider Rf, Rg reduces the gain. Equilibrium will be established when Vout is just sufficient to reach around and "pull" the inverting input to the same voltage as Vin. As a simple example, if Vin = 1V and Rf = Rg, Vout will be 2V, the amount required to keep V at 1V. Because of the feedback provided by Rf, Rg this is a closed loop circuit. Its over-all gain Vout / Vin is called the closed-loop gain ACL. Because the feedback is negative, in this case ACL is less than the AOL of the opamp. [5]

3.5 Ideal and Real Op-amps

An ideal op-amp is usually considered to have the following properties, and they are considered to hold for all input voltages: a) Infinite open-loop gain (when doing theoretical analysis, a limit may be taken as open loop gain AOL goes to infinity) b) Infinite voltage range available at the output (vout) (in practice the voltages available from the output are limited by the supply voltages VS+ and VS-) c) Infinite bandwidth (i.e., the frequency magnitude response is considered to be flat everywhere with zero phase shift). d) Zero output impedance (i.e., Rout = 0, so that output voltage does not vary with output current) e) Zero noise f) Infinite Common-mode rejection ratio (CMRR) g) Infinite Power supply rejection ratio for both power supply rails. In practice, none of these ideals can be realized, and various shortcomings and compromises have to be accepted. Depending on the parameters of interest, a real op-amp may be modeled to take account of some of the non-infinite or non-zero parameters using equivalent resistors and capacitors in the op-amp model.

Figure 3.7: An equivalent circuit of an operational amplifier that models some resistive non-ideal parameters.

Limitations of real op-amps: Real op-amps differ from the ideal model in various respects. IC op-amps as implemented in practice are moderately complex integrated circuits; for the relatively simple for example.

3.6 Basic Single Stage Amplifiers

3.6.1 Non-inverting amplifier In a non-inverting amplifier, the output voltage changes in the same direction as the input voltage. The gain equation for the op-amp is: ....... (3.2) However, in this circuit V is a function of Vout because of the negative feedback through the R1 R2 network. R1 and R2 form a voltage divider, and as V is a high-impedance input, it does not load it appreciably. Consequently: .............. (3.3) Where ............... (3.4)

Substituting this into the gain equation, .... (3.5)

Solving for Vout:

.

...... (3.6) If AOL is very large, this simplifies to ........... (3.7)

Figure 3.8: An op-amp connected in the non-inverting amplifier configuration.

3.6.2 Inverting amplifier In an inverting amplifier, the output voltage changes in an opposite direction to the input voltage. As for the non-inverting amplifier, starting with the gain equation of the op-amp: ...... (3.8) This time, V is a function of both Vout and Vin due to the voltage divider formed by Rf and Rin. Again, the op-amp input does not apply an appreciable load, so: ........... (3.9) Substituting this into the gain equation and solving for Vout: ......... (3.10) If AOL is very large, this simplifies to ......... (3.11) A resistor is often inserted between the non-inverting input and ground (so both inputs "see" similar resistances), reducing the input offset voltage due to different voltage drops due to bias current, and may reduce distortion in some op-amps. A DC-blocking capacitor may be inserted in series with the input resistor when a frequency response down to DC is not needed and any DC voltage on the input is unwanted. That is, the capacitive component of the input impedance inserts a DC zero and a low-frequency pole that gives the circuit a band pass or high-pass characteristic. [6]

Rf RIN VIN + VOUT

Figure 3.9: An op-amp connected in the inverting amplifier configuration

3.7 Not gate

In digital logic, an inverter or NOT gate is a logic gate which implements logical negation. The truth table is shown on the right. This represents perfect switching behavior, which is the defining assumption in Digital electronics. In practice, actual devices have electrical characteristics that must be carefully considered when designing inverters.

Figure 3.10: Traditional NOT Gate (Inverter) Symbol.

Figure 3.11: International Electro technical Commission NOT Gate(Inverter) symbol.

Figure 3.12: IC-7404

3.7.1 Digital Building Block

The digital inverter is considered the base building block for all digital electronics. Memory (1 bit register) is built as a latch by feeding the output of two serial inverters together. Multiplexers, decoders, state machines, and other sophisticated digital devices all rely on the basic inverter. The Hex Inverter is an integrated circuit that contains six (hexa-) inverters. For example, the 7404 TTL chip which has 14 pins and the 4049 CMOS chip which has 16 pins, 2 of which are used for power/referencing, and 12 of which are used by the inputs and outputs of the six inverters (the 4049 has 2 pins with no connection).

Figure 3.13: This schematic diagram shows the arrangement of NOT gates within a standard 4049 CMOS hex inverting buffer. Table 3.1: NOT gate reverses the input if the switch is on.

Sl.No

Switch 1 po 0 1

Voltage at pin 2 (V ) 4.65 0.161

Gate output

1 2

1 0

3.8 Operation of Inverter

Not gate is also called a "hex inverter". It's a binary logic gate that inverts the input. If the input is "1", the output will be "0".The 7404 IC package contains six independent positive logic NOT GATES (INVERTERS). Pins 14 and 7 provide power for all six logic gates. The NOT gate on lines 3 and 4 will be put into a stable mode where no definite state can be resolved. Consequently, the LED will blink on and off at a rate dependent on the response time of the inverter gate (NOT gate) and prorogation delays. With adequate support electronics, the blink rate can be precisely controlled. Performing similar experiments can also allow the simple construction of AM radio transmitters, since the speed of most 7404 chips is well beyond the range of standard AM radios. Outputs of one gate can be connected to inputs of another within the same chip or to another chip as long as they share the same ground.

3.9 NOT GATE Logic-Rules

The output is the inverse of the input, in other words if the input is HIGH then the out put is LOW and if the input is LOW the output is HIGH.

Figure 3.14: pin diagram of a IC7404

3.10 Performance Measurement

Digital inverter quality is often measured using the Voltage Transfer Curve, which is a plot of input vs. output voltage. From such a graph, device parameters including noise tolerance, gain, and operating logiclevels can be obtained. Ideally, the voltage transfer curve (VTC) appears as an inverted step-function - this would indicate precise switching between on and off - but in real devices, a gradual transition region exists. The VTC indicates that for low input voltage, the circuit outputs high voltage; for high input, the output tapers off towards 0 volts. The slope of this transition region is a measure of quality - steep (close to -Infinity) slopes yield precise switching The tolerance to noise can be measured by comparing the minimum input to the maximum output for each region of operation (on / off).The output voltage, VOH, can be a measure of signal driving strength when cascading many devices together. [7]

Figure 3.15: Voltage Transfer Curve for a 20 m Inverter.

3.11 General Characteristics

a) 74HC Supply: 2 to 6V, small fluctuations are tolerated. b) 74HCT Supply: 5V 0.5V, a regulated supply is best. c) Inputs have very high impedance (resistance), this is good because it means they will not affect the part of the circuit where they are connected. However, it also means that unconnected inputs can easily pick up electrical noise and rapidly change between high and low states in an unpredictable way. This is likely to make the IC behave erratically and it will significantly increase the supply current. To prevent problems all unused inputs MUST be connected to the supply (either +Vs or 0V), this applies even if that part of the IC is not being used in the circuit! d) Outputs can sink and source about 4mA if maintain the correct output voltage to drive logic inputs, but if there is no need to drive any inputs the maximum current is about 20mA. To switch larger currents connect a transistor. e) Fan-out: one output can drive many inputs (50+), except 74LS inputs because these require a higher current and only 10 can be driven. f) Gate propagation time: about 10ns for a signal to travel through a gate. g) Frequency: up to 25MHz. h) Power consumption (of the IC itself) is very low, a few W. It is much greater at high frequencies, a few mW at 1MHz.

3.12 Op-Amps as Comparators

An op amp can be used to compare 2 different voltages. If apply a reference voltage to one of the inputs and then use the other input to monitor a voltage from some point in a circuit, the output of the op amp will go from high to low (or vice-versa) as the monitored voltage crosses the reference voltage. The voltage follows a curve because the capacitor is charging. The capacitor charges faster at first then it slows as it approaches full charge. Since the 2 voltage divider resistors are of equal value, the voltage on the positive input is exactly half of the power supply voltage. The voltage on the output of the op amp is high (close to the power supply voltage). If push the button, the capacitor will start to charge as a portion of the trace on an oscilloscope. As the capacitor charges (and the voltage starts to rise), the line goes up (it follows the voltage). The voltage on the output does not change until the voltage on the negative input is higher than the voltage on the positive input. The circuits had a feedback signal return path between the output of the op amp to the negative input. Since there is no feedback, the gain is essentially (ideally) infinite. This will make the output swing from its maximum positive output voltage to its maximum negative output voltage. If there were a feedback resistor, the output voltage would not swing as far. With a feedback resistor, could get the op amp's output voltage to be an inverted version of the voltage on the negative input. Remember that the circuit is a comparator. It's comparing the voltage on the 2 inputs. When the voltage on the negative input is below the reference voltage (on the positive input), the output is high. As soon as the voltage on the negative input goes above the voltage on the positive input, the output goes low.

3.13 Summary
In this chapter, we discussed about operational amplifier & inverter. The main key points of this chapter are given below: Basic op-amp: An operational amplifier is a very close approximation to a perfect amplifier with an infinite gain. In reality op-amps do not quite attain perfection, but with gains often in the region of 100 000 or more, they are sufficiently close! The operational amplifier has two inputs. One is called the inverting input and is marked with a "-" sign on circuit schematic diagrams. The other is the non-inverting input and this is marked with a "+" sign. The two inputs gain their names from the way in which they amplify the signals: i. Non-inverting input: It is found that a positive voltage applied to the non-inverting input will produce a positive swing at the output. ii. Inverting input: A positive voltage applied to the inverting input will produce a negative swing at the output. If the same voltage is applied to both inputs together then there should be no change at the output. In fact the output is proportional to the difference between the inverting and non-inverting inputs. It is for this reason that these amplifiers are often called differential amplifiers. Apart from the very high gains there are a number of other attributes expected of operational, input resistance should be infinite.The output resistance is also important. As may be expected this should be low. In the ideal amplifier this should be zero, but in reality many amplifiers have an output impedance of less than a hundred ohms, and many very much less than this. Another important feature of the op-amp is its common mode rejection. This refers to the situation where the same signal is applied to both inputs. In an ideal amplifier no output should be seen at the output under these circumstances; however the amplifier will never be perfect. The bandwidth of an op-amp can vary quite widely. An ideal amplifier would have an infinite bandwidth but this would be impossible create, and also very difficult to use and tame in practice. In reality op-amps have a limited bandwidth. Basic inverter: The NOT gate is an electronic circuit that produces an inverted version of the input at its output. It is also known as an inverter. If the input variable is A, the inverted output is known as NOT A. This is also shown as A', or A with a bar over the top.

Chapter 4

Relay
4.1 Introduction
A relay is an electrical device such that current flowing through it in one circuit can switch on and off a current in a second circuit .A relay is an electrically operated switch. Many relays use an electromagnet to operate a switching mechanism. A relay is an electrically operated switch. Current flowing through the coil of the relay creates a magnetic field which attracts a lever and changes the switch contacts. The coil current can be on or off so relays have two switch positions and most have double throw (changeover) switch contacts. Relays allow one circuit to switch a second circuit which can be completely separate from the first. For example a low voltage battery circuit can use a relay to switch a 230V AC mains circuit. There is no electrical connection inside the relay between the two circuits; the link is magnetic and mechanical. The coil of a relay passes a relatively large current, typically 30mA for a 12V relay, but it can be as much as 100mA for relays designed to operate from lower voltages. Most ICs (chips) cannot provide this current and transistor is usually used to amplify the small IC current to the larger value required for the relay coil. The maximum output current for the popular 555 timer IC is 200mA so these devices can supply relay coils directly without amplification.

Relays are usually SPDT or DPDT but they can have many more sets of switch contacts, for example relays with 4 sets of changeover contacts are readily available. Most relays are designed for PCB mounting but soldering wires directly to the pins providing to avoid melting the plastic case of the relay. The supplier's catalogue should show the relay's connections. The coil will be obvious and it may be connected either way round. Relay coils produce brief high voltage 'spikes' when they are switched off and this can destroy transistors and ICs in the circuit. To prevent damage must be connect a protection diode across the relay coil. The animated picture shows a working relay with its coil and switch contacts. Lever on the left being attracted by magnetism when the coil is switched on. This lever moves the switch contacts. There is one set of contacts (SPDT) in the foreground and another behind them, making the relay DPDT. The relay's switch connections are usually labeled COM, NC and NO: COM = Common, always connect to this; it is the moving part of the switch. NC = Normally Closed, COM is connected to this when the relay coil is off. NO = Normally Open, COM is connected to this when the relay coil is on. Connect to COM and NO if the switched circuit to be on when the relay coil is on. Connect to COM and NC if the switched circuit to be on when the relay coil is off.

Figure 4.1: Different types of Relays

4.2 Relay Applications

Relays are used to control the flow of large currents using a small current. In the past, they were widely used in telephone exchanges to switch calls, but have been largely replaced by digital equipment. They are used to switch motors on and off, and to protect them from overheating. Thermostats use an overload relay to shut off the current when the temperature rises above the required setting. In general, the point of a relay is to use a small amount of power in the electromagnet, from a small dashboard switch or a low-power electronic circuit to move an armature that is able to switch a much larger amount of power. For example, the electromagnet to energize using 5 volts and 50 milliamps (250 milliwatts), while the armature can support 120V AC at 2 amps (240 watts).

Relays are quite common in home appliances where there is an electronic control turning on something like a motor or light. They are also common in cars, where the 12V supply voltage means that just about everything needs a large amount of current. In later model cars, manufacturers have started combining relay panels into the fuse box to make maintenance easier. For example, the six gray boxes in this photo of a Ford Wind star fuse box are all relays:

Figure 4.2: Relay applications

In places where a large amount of power needs to be switched, relays are often cascaded. In this case, a small relay switches the power needed to drive a much larger relay, and that second relay switches the power to drive the load.

4.3 Relay Construction

Relays are amazingly simple devices. There are four parts in every relay: Electromagnet, Armature that can be attracted by the electromagnet, Spring, set of electrical contacts. An electric current through a conductor will produce magnetic field at right angles to the direction of electron flow. If that conductor is wrapped into coil shape, the magnetic field produced will be oriented along the length the coil. The greater the current, the greater the strength of the magnetic field, all other factors being equal:

Figure 4.3: Showing the electric field

Inductors react against changes in current because of the energy stored in this magnetic field. When construct a transformer from two inductor coils around a common iron core, using this field to transfer energy from one coil to the other. However, there are simpler and more direct uses for electromagnetic fields than the applications seen with inductors and transformers. The magnetic field produced by a coil of current-carrying wire can be used to exert a mechanical force on any magnetic object, just as use a permanent magnet to attract magnetic objects, except that this magnet (formed by the coil) can be turned on or off by switching the current on or off through the coil. If place a magnetic object near such a coil for the purpose of making that object move when energize the coil with electric current, that is called a solenoid. The movable magnetic object is called an armature, and most armatures can be moved with either direct current (DC) or alternating current (AC) energizing the coil. The polarity of the magnetic field is irrelevant for the purpose of attracting an iron armature. Solenoids can be used to electrically open door latches, open or shut valves, move robotic limbs, and even actuate electric switch mechanisms. However, if a solenoid is used to actuate a set of switch contacts, such a device so useful it deserves its own name: the relay. Relays are extremely useful when need to control a large amount of current and/or voltage with a small electrical signal. The relay coil which produces the magnetic field may only consume fractions of a watt of power, while the contacts closed or opened by that magnetic field may be able to conduct hundreds of times that amount of power to a load. In effect, a relay acts as a binary (on or off) amplifier. Just as with transistors, the relay's ability to control one electrical signal with another finds application in the construction of logic functions. This topic will be covered in greater detail in another lesson. For now, the relay's "amplifying" ability will be explored.

Figure 4.4: Showing the basic diagram

In the above schematic, the relay's coil is energized by the low-voltage (12 VDC) source, while the singlepole, single-throw (SPST) contact interrupts the high-voltage (480 VAC) circuit. It is quite likely that the current required to energize the relay coil will be hundreds of times less than the current rating of the contact. Typical relay coil currents are well below 1 amp, while typical contact ratings for industrial relays are at least 10 amps. One relay coil/armature assembly may be used to actuate more than one set of contacts. Those contacts may be normally-open, normally-closed, or any combination of the two. As with switches, the "normal"

state of a relay's contacts is that state when the coil is de-energized, just as would find the relay sitting on a shelf, not connected to any circuit. Relay contacts may be open-air pads of metal alloy, mercury tubes, or even magnetic reeds, just as with other types of switches. The choice of contacts in a relay depends on the same factors which dictate contact choice in other types of switches. Open-air contacts are the best for high-current applications, but their tendency to corrode and spark may cause problems in some industrial environments. Mercury and reed contacts are sparkles and won't corrode, but they tend to be limited in current-carrying capacity. Shown here are three small relays (about two inches in height, each), installed on a panel as part of an electrical control system at a municipal water treatment plant: [8]

Figure 4.5: Showing the relay

The relay units shown here are called "octal-base," because they plug into matching sockets, the electrical connections secured via eight metal pins on the relay bottom. The screw terminal connections where wires connect to the relays are actually part of the socket assembly, into which each relay is plugged. This type of construction facilitates easy removal and replacement of the relay in the event of failure. Aside from the ability to allow a relatively small electric signal to switch a relatively large electric signal, relays also offer electrical isolation between coil and contact circuits. This means that the coil circuit and contact circuit are electrically insulated from one another. One circuit may be DC and the other AC and/or they may be at completely different voltage levels, across the connections or from connections to ground. While relays are essentially binary devices, either being completely on or completely off, there are operating conditions where their state may be indeterminate, just as with semiconductor logic gates. In order for a relay to positively "pull in" the armature to actuate the contact, there must be a certain minimum amount of current through the coil. This minimum amount is called the pull-in current, and it is analogous to the minimum input voltage that a logic gate requires to guarantee a "high" state (typically 2 Volts for TTL, 3.5 Volts for CMOS). Once the armature is pulled closer to the coil's center, however, it takes less magnetic field flux (less coil current) to hold it there. Therefore, the coil current must drop below a value significantly lower than the pull-in current before the armature "drops out" to its spring-

loaded position and the contacts resume their normal state. This current level is called the drop-out current, and it is analogous to the maximum input voltage that a logic gate input will allow to guarantee a "low" state (typically 0.8 Volts for TTL, 1.5 Volts for CMOS). The hysteresis, or difference between pull-in and drop-out currents, results in operation that is similar to a Schmitt trigger logic gate. Pull-in and drop-out currents (and voltages) vary widely from relay to relay, and are specified by the manufacturer.

4.4 Relay Basics

Relays are one of the oldest, simplest, and yet, easiest and most useful devices. Before the advent of the mass produced transistor, computers were made from either relays or vacuum tubes, or both. A relay, quite simply, is a small machine consisting of an electromagnet (coil), a switch, and a spring. The spring holds the switch in one position, until a current is passed through the coil. The coil generates a magnetic field which moves the switch. It's that simple. Using a very small amount of current to activate a relay, and the switch can often handle a lot of current. Here using the relay is the Bosch 5 pin relay. Bosch is a German manufacturing conglomerate (who also happen to own Bosch Telecom and Blaupunkt), but they are not the only manufacturer of this relay. There are several other companies such as Siemens (stop laughing) and Potter & Brumfield. The Bosch 5 pin relay is the most widely used and versatile relay, and it can handle up to 30 amps, which is more than suitable for most applications. Note that each pin(figure 4.6) is numbered, 85, 86, 87, 87a, and 30. The 30 pin is set perpendicular to the other pins to know where each pin is at (although, most relays are labeled at the bottom). 85 and 86 are the coil pins. Normally, it doesn't matter which way pass the current, because if hook it up backwards, the coil will still activate the relay. However, relays sometimes have an odd tendency to turn themselves back on briefly. To counter this, a diode (a one way switch) is placed between 85 and 86. This is referred to as a tamping diode. A diode wall has a very high resistance in one direction, and a very low resistance in the opposite direction. When a tamping diode is used, it is important that hooked the coil up according to polarity. If a tamping diode is used, and it hooked up backwards,
+ Positive Accessories 87A 85 86 30 (+) Battery Terminal 87 87 86 87a 30 85

Power from circuit

Figure 4.6: Internal diagram of relay

Essentially be shorting a wire out, which sucks, because will burn something up to 30, 87, and 87a are the other three pins. 87 and 87a are the two contacts to which 30 will connect. If the coil is not activated, 30 will always be connected to 87a. Pin as "87, always connected". When current is applied to the coil, 30 is connected to 87. 87 and 87a are never connected to each other. Here, polarity does not ever matter. Connect 30 up to positive or negative, and that is what will get out of 87 or 87a. The coil is in no way connected to the switch part of the relay. This can allow to completely isolate one circuit from another. Now One common use of a relay is for multiple amplifiers. Normally, if run any more than three audio components off decks remote output, it is recommended that use a relay to provide higher currents. Also, if wanted to power something like a fan, or neon lighting, need a relay to keep up with the higher demands these devices place on remote. Take a minute and guess how it is done. All have to do is connect 85 to decks remote output wire, and 86 to ground. Then, connect 30 to a fused 12 volts source, and 87 to outgoing remote line. Remember that the relay can carry up to 30 amps, but if wire can only handle 10 amps, which should use a 10 amp fuse. 87a is not used, but it is recommended that taping up that pin, or pulling the wire out of the base, so that it does not short out. That is one of many applications for this one type of relay, and it demonstrates really well the use of a relay as a switch. One other use of this relay is to select. Remember that when the relay is not energized, 87a and 30 are connected. But then switch them the two channel mode when the amp starts to run hot. This will take two relays. The amp use in this example is a two channel which will combine the right channel negative with the left channel positive for bridged mode, and using two single voice coil subwoofers. In either configuration (bridged or two channel), the left channel positive will always connect to the left woofers + terminal, and the right channels - terminal will always connect to the right woofer -. The other terminals have to play with. Connect the left woofer

Figure 4.7: Connection diagram of relay

Relays 30 pin to the - terminal on the woofer, and connect the right woofer relay's 30 pin to the + terminal on the woofer. Then, connect the left woofer relay's 87a pinto the - terminal on the amp, and the right woofer relay's 87a pin to the + terminal on the amp. Now, connect the left woofer relay's 87 pin to the - terminal on the right woofer, and connect the right woofer relay's 87 pin to the left woofers + terminal. Finally, connect the 86 pins of each relay together and ground it, and connect both 85 pins of each relay together, then to a switch, which is connected to a fused 12 volt source. With the relays at rest,

the amp is running in two channel mode. However, flipping the switch places the woofers in parallel, and safely breaks the connection with the two terminals that are unused. This Some amps only produce a small pop, but cheap amps tend to make a big deal out of this. On a side note, use a thermostat to automatically switch the relays.

4.5 Types of Relays

Relays can be categorized according to the magnetic system and operation. Neutral Relays This is the most elementary type of relay. The neutral relays have a magnetic coil, which operates the relay at a specified current, regardless of the polarity of the voltage applied. Biased Relays Biased relays have a permanent magnet above the armature. The relay operates if the current through the coil winding establishes a magneto-motive force that opposes the flux by the permanent magnet. If the fluxes are in the same direction, the relay will not operate, even for a greater current through the coil. Polarized Relays Like the biased relays, the polarized relays operate only when the current through the coil in one direction. But there the principle is different. The relay coil has a diode connected in series with it. This blocks the current in the reverse direction. The major difference between biased relays and polarized relays is that the former allows the current to pass through in the reverse direction, but does the not operate the relay and the later blocks the current in reverse direction. Magnetic Stick relays or Perm polarized Relays These relays have a magnetic circuit with high resistance. Two coils, one to operate (pick up) and one to release (drop) are present. The relay is activated by a current in the operate coil. On the interruption of the current the armature remains in picked up position by the residual magnetism. The relay is released by a current through the release coil. Slow Release Relays These relays have a capacitor connected in parallel to their coil. When the operating current is interrupted the release of relay is delayed by the stored charge in the capacitor. The relay releases as the capacitor discharges through the coil. Relays for AC These are neutral relays and picked up for a.c. current through their coil. These are very fast in action and used on power circuits of the point motors, where high current flows through the contacts. A normal relay would be slow and make sparks which in turn may weld the contacts together.

All relays have two operating values (voltages), one pick-up and the other drop away. The pick-up value is higher than the drop away value.

Figure 4.8: Different types of relay

Electromechanical Armature Relays Armature relays are made of coils and contacts. When the coil is energized, the induced magnetic field moves the armature, which opens or closes the contacts. If switch module uses electromechanical relays, consider the factors that affect relay life.

Figure 4.9: Showing the contacts

There are 2 types of electromechanical relays: latching and non-latching. Non-Latching A non-latching relay has an initial position of normally closed (NC) maintained by the force of a spring or permanent magnet while no current flows. The normally open (NO) contact is maintained by the force of a magnetic field while current flows through the coil. When the current stops, the relay reverts back to its initial NC position. Non-latching electromechanical relays are useful in control applications when the switch must return to a known state if power is lost.

Figure 4.10: Non-Latching

Latching A latching relay can have 1 or 2 coils. Latching relays have no default position and remain in their last position when the drive current stops flowing. While the relays themselves may be latching, their reset position in a module is based on the control circuitry and software (NI-SWITCH resets all relays on all modules during initialize and reset). Latching relays are useful in applications where power consumption and dissipation must be limited because, once actuated, they require no current flow to maintain their position. In one -coil latching, the direction of current flow determines the position of the relay. In 2coil latching, the coil in which the current flows determines the position of the armature.

1-Coil Latching Relay

2-Coil Latching Relay

Figure 4.11: Latching

4.6 Maintenances of Relays

The relay is one of the most dependable electromechanical devices in use, but like any other mechanical or electrical device, relays occasionally wear out or become inoperative. Should an inspection determine

that a relay is defective; the relay should be removed immediately and replaced with another of the same type. Relays are rated in voltage, amperage, type of service, number of contacts, and similar characteristics. Relay coils usually consist of a single coil. If a relay fails to operate, the coil should be tested for open circuit, short circuit, or short to ground. An open coil is a common cause of relay failure. During preventive maintenance should check for charred or burned insulation on the relay and for darkened or charred terminal leads. Both of these indicate overheating, and the likelihood of relay breakdown. One possible cause for overheating is that the power terminal connectors are not tight. This would allow arcing at the connection. The build-up of film on the contact surfaces of a relay is another cause of relay trouble. Although film will form on the contacts by the action of atmospheric and other gases, grease film is responsible for a lot of contact trouble. Carbon build-up which is caused by the burning of a grease film or other substance (during arcing), also can be troublesome. Carbon forms rings on the contact surfaces and as the carbon rings build-up, the relay contacts are held open. When current flows in one direction through a relay, a problem called "cone and crater" may be created at the contacts. The crater is formed by transfer of metal from one contact to the other contact, the deposit being in the shape of a cone. Relay contacts. Some relays are equipped with ball-shaped contacts and, in many applications, this type of contact is considered superior to a flat surface. Dust or other substances are not as readily deposited on a ball-shaped surface. In addition, a ball-shaped contact penetrates film more easily than a flat contact. When clean or service ball-shaped relay contacts, be careful to avoid flattening or otherwise altering the rounded surfaces of the contacts, could be damaged. [10]

4.7 Basic Relay Start Diagram

The consequences should be obvious. Below is a basic relay remote start system. It is not shown with any inhibits, nor a single trigger to activate and deactivate it, and does not have "rev protection". It is much better off with a system that can purchase from a local dealer or retailer. They include many important safety features and come with a warranty, unlike the one below. But if one from relays, here are the basics relays to customize this to work with the vehicle and to install it into to duplicate these in order to have a successful installation. Only advanced installers should attempt this made several of these and they are still on the road today. Included timers and inhibits in them to perform the same as a manufacturer's piece .

Figure 4.12: Basic relay remote start

4.7.1 Constant to momentary output The capacitor allows the coil of the relay to be energized until the capacitor stores a charge, thus deenergizing the coil. The resistor bleeds off the charge of the capacitor when positive voltage is removed from the other side of the coil. Increase the output time by simply changing the value of the capacitor. This one will give about a 1/2 second output

Figure 4.13: Relay at constant to momentary output

Once activated by the relay on the left, the relay's coil on the right will stay energized until either ground or 12v(+) is removed. Connecting to a 12v(+) switched source instead of a constant one. Or have a door trigger activate a relay to break continuity. The variations are practically endless.

Figure 4.14: relay at momentary to constant output

4.8 Pulsed to Steady Output

If cornering lights and want them to come on only when turn signal is on and you do not have a steady output, use the following for each side. This will give a steady output while the turn signal is on. Increasing the size of the capacitor will give a longer output if needed.

Figure 4.15: relay at pulse to steady state output

4.9 Switching from Series to Parallel and Back

When the relays are at rest (normally closed position) the woofer coils are wired in series. When ground is applied to each coil (energizing the relay coils), the voice coils are wired in parallel. With 2 four ohm voice coils an 8 ohm load at rest and a 2 ohm load when the relay coils are energized. For each dual voice coil woofer that to change from series to parallel, need two relays for each. They can all be controlled from the same switch. [11]

Figure 4.16: Relay at switching from Series to Parallel and Back

4.10 One Channel to Multiple Outputs

IT can be add multiple functions to an AUX output of an alarm or keyless entry by adding a relay in series with the output wire as shown to any switch or accessory with an output. Only one output can be active at anytime, the one first in the chain (bottom relay in diagram) will have priority, so if have the ignition from

the key to have priority over the ignition from the remote start, would connect it to the first relay and the output of the remote start to the next and so on. Terminal #87a (the default output) will be active only when none of the coils of the relays are energized. There are many other accessories that can be used with this, including the remote turn on wire and/or power antenna wire of unit.

Figure 4.17: Switching from Series to Parallel and Back

4.11 Relay driver

A relay is an electro-magnetic switch which is useful if use a low voltage circuit to switch on and off a light bulb (or anything else) connected to the 220v mains supply. The diagram below shows a typical relay (with "normally-open" contacts).

Figure 4.18: Relay driver

The current needed to operate the relay coil is more than can be supplied by most chips (op. amps etc), so a transistor is usually needed, as shown in the diagram below.

To high voltage circuit

INPUT

Figure 4.19: Relay driver (using transistor)

Use BC109C or similar. A resistor of about 4k7 will probably be alright. The diode is needed to short circuit the high voltage "back emf" induced when current flowing through the coil is suddenly switched off.

4.12 Relay Driver with Flip-Flop

In many situations in which use a relay, will also need a bistable flip-flop. One useful integrated circuit flip-flop is the 4013. (This i.c. actually contains two flip-flops.) With the connections as shown in the circuit below, when the voltage on pin 3 changes (rapidly) from 0v to the positive supply voltage, the flipflop changes state (it "flips"). The next time the same thing happens, the flip-flop changes back to its original state again (it "flops").

Figure 4.20: Relay driver (using flip-flop)

The transistor is still needed because the 4013 can only supply a very small amount of current (about 1mA).

Figure 4.21: Diagram showing how the relay is used in circuits such as the sound operated switch

4.13 Review:
A solenoid is a device that produces mechanical motion from the energization of an electromagnet coil. The movable portion of a solenoid is called an armature.

A relay is a solenoid set up to actuate switch contacts when its coil is energized. Pull-in current is the minimum amount of coil current needed to actuate a solenoid or relay from its "normal" (de-energized) position. Drop-out current is the maximum coil current below which an energized relay will return to its "normal" state.

Figure 4.22: Different types of contacts

A relay can have many different types of contacts. The contacts known as "break-make" contacts because they break one circuit and make another when the relay is energized. five different combinations of relay contacts and the names given to each. A single relay can have several different types of contact combinations. the contact arrangement on a single relay that has four different contact combinations.

4.14 Conclusion
Reed relays are vulnerable to contact welding from high currents. Parasitic capacitance will unavoidably create high inrush currents. To minimize inrush current, care must be taken to decrease or isolate external capacitance. This can be accomplished by: a) Using lower switching voltages. b) Avoiding large capacitive loads to the switch. c) Isolating external capacitance with series impedance Rp such that:

Chapter 5

Charge controller circuit

5.1 Introduction
A charge controller, charge regulator or battery regulator limits the rate at which electric current is added to or drawn from electric batteries. It prevents overcharging and may prevent against over voltage, which can reduce battery performance or lifespan, and may pose a safety risk. It may also prevent completely draining ("deep discharging") a battery, or perform controlled discharges, depending on the battery technology, to protect battery life. The terms "charge controller" or "charge regulator" may refer to either a stand-alone device, or to control circuitry integrated within a battery pack, battery-powered device, or battery recharges.

5.2 Rectifier
A rectifier is an electrical device that converts alternating current (AC) to direct current (DC), a process known as rectification. Rectifiers have many uses including as components of power supplies and as detectors of radio signals. Rectifiers may be made of solid state diodes, vacuum tube diodes, mercury arc valves, and other components. A device which performs the opposite function (converting DC to AC) is known as an inverter. When only one diode is used to rectify AC (by blocking the negative or positive portion of the waveform), the difference between the term diode and the term rectifier is merely one of usage, i.e., the term rectifier describes a diode that is being used to convert AC to DC. Almost all rectifiers comprise a number of diodes in a specific arrangement for more efficiently converting AC to DC than is possible with only one diode. Before the development of silicon semiconductor rectifiers, vacuum tube diodes and copper(I) oxide or selenium rectifier stacks were used. [12]

5.3 Half-wave Rectification

In half wave rectification, either the positive or negative half of the AC wave is passed, while the other half is blocked. Because only one half of the input waveform reaches the output, it is very inefficient if used for power transfer. Half-wave rectification can be achieved with a single diode in a one-phase supply, or with three diodes in a three-phase supply.

Figure 5.1 Half wave rectifier

The output DC voltage of a half wave rectifier can be calculated with the following two ideal equations: . (5.1) . (5.2)

5.4 Full-wave Rectification

A full-wave rectifier converts the whole of the input waveform to one of constant polarity (positive or negative) at its output. Full-wave rectification converts both polarities of the input waveform to DC (direct current), and is more efficient. However, in a circuit with a non-center tapped transformer, four diodes are required instead of the one needed for half-wave rectification. (Semiconductors, diode).Four diodes arranged this way are called a diode bridge or bridge rectifier:

Figure 5.2: Full-wave bridge rectifier using 4 diodes.

For single-phase AC, if the transformer is center-tapped, then two diodes back-to-back (i.e. anodes-toanode or cathode-to-cathode) can form a full-wave rectifier. Twice as many windings are required on the transformer secondary to obtain the same output voltage compared to the bridge rectifier

above.

Figure 5.3: Full-wave rectifier using a transformer with 2 diodes.

A diode bridge is an arrangement of four diodes in a bridge configuration that provides the same polarity of output for either polarity of input. When used in its most common application, for conversion of an alternating current (AC) input into direct current a (DC) output, it is known as a bridge rectifier. A bridge rectifier provides full-wave rectification from a two-wire AC input, resulting in lower cost and weight as compared to a rectifier with a 3-wire input from a transformer with a center-tapped secondary winding.The essential feature of a diode bridge is that the polarity of the output is the same regardless of the polarity at the input.

Figure 5.4: Half-wave rectifier using a transformer with 4 diodes.

5.5 Integrated Charge Controller Circuitry

Circuitry that functions as a charge regulator controller may consist of several electrical components, or may be encapsulated in a single microchip; an integrated circuit (IC) usually called a charge controller IC

or charge control IC.Charge controller circuits are used for rechargeable electronic devices such as cell phones, laptop computers, portable audio players, and uninterruptible power supplies, as well as for larger battery systems found in electric vehicles and orbiting space satellites. Charge controller circuitry may be located in the battery-powered device, in a battery pack for either wired or wireless (inductive) charging, in line with the wiring, or in the AC adapter or other power supply module. [13]

5.6 Summary
In this chapter we discussed about rectifier and charge controller circuit. By using rectifier the input signal has been rectified and the output sent to the next circuit. Here the process of rectification has been discussed clearly. And in the ending part the controller circuitry has been discussed.

Chapter 6

Signal Transmission
6.1 Introduction
Industrial networks that transmit data using digital signals often are an integral part of a data acquisition or process control solution. A basic understanding of the network technologies that are available for various applications is required to make the best implementation decisions-decisions that can have a profound effect on the ability to adapt to ever-changing technologies. For example, the type of networks or network products selected for a data acquisition application can greatly affect cost/benefit evaluations for future projects. Until recently, fiber optics was an expensive option that seemed like overkill for most applications. But with the information load now likely to flow between nodes on an enterprise network, fiber looks attractive.

Network technologies come in a bewildering array of options, and certain segments of this technology are changing at an incredible rate. The average user might spend weeks researching the various ways to build

or improve a network, just to find that once a decision is made and products are purchased, the next wave of bigger, better, faster technology is now available. A well-designed, integrated solution to data transmission will yield a competitive advantage to any industrial enterprise. Users in all aspects of a business should be able to obtain plant and business data from any physical node, local or remote. "Gluing" pieces of new and/or existing networks together is becoming more feasible with the use of bridging, routing, and media conversion technologies that link local area, wide area, and industrial networks together. And with Internet and wireless technologies, data transmission over large geographic areas is increasingly feasible.

6.2 The OSI Network Model

Nearly all digital network descriptions start with the OSI (Open Systems Interconnect) model (Figure 6.1). It explains the various "layers" of network technology. To the casual user, this model is a little abstract, but there is not a better way to begin to understand what is going on.

Figure 6.1: The Seven Layer OSI Network Model

Sometimes it helps to understand each layer by examining the technology it represents. The Application Layer is the most intuitive because it is what the user sees. It represents the problem the user wants the system to solve. Internet browsers and e-mail programs are good examples. They allow the user to input and read data while connected between a client PC and a server somewhere on the Internet. In an industrial application, a program on a programmable logic controller (PLC) might control a smart valve. The Presentation Layer performs formatting on the data going to and from the application. This layer performs such services such as encryption, compression, and conversion of data from one form to another. For example, an application (one layer up) might send a time stamp formatted in 12-hour. in 24-hour time, which can be accepted or presented at the next node's application in the form that it needs. One advantage to presentation services is that they help eliminate overhead or embedded services, in application programs. The Session Layer establishes the connection between applications. It also enforces dialogue rules, which specify the order and speed of data transfer between a sender and a receiver. For Example, the session layer would control the flow of data between an application and a printer with a fixed buffer, to avoid buffer overflows. In the time stamp example, once the data is presented in 24-hour time format, an identifier and length indicator are appended to the data string.

The Transport Layer is essentially an interface between the processor and the outside world. It generates addresses for session entities and ensures all blocks or packets of data have been sent or received. In the time stamp example, an address for each session entity (sender and receiver) and checksum are appended to the block generated by the session layer. The Network Layer performs accounting, addressing, and routing functions on messages received from the transport layer. If the message is lengthy, this layer will break it up and sequence it over the network. This layer also uses a network routing table to find the next node on the way to the destination address. In the time stamp example, a node address and sequence number are appended to the message received from the session layer. The Data Link Layer establishes and controls the physical path of communication from one node to the next, with error detection. This layer performs media access control (MAC) to decide which node can use the media and when. The rules used to perform these functions also are known as protocols. Ethernet and token ring contention are examples of protocols. In the time stamp example, a header and trailer are appended to the message received from the transport layer for flagging the beginning and end of the frame, type of frame (control or data), checksum, and other functions. The Physical Layer is perhaps the most conspicuous layer from a cost point of view. It is relatively easy to understand the labor and material costs of pulling cables, along with a physical infrastructure (conduits, raceways, and duct banks) for maintaining cable integrity. This layer does not add anything to the message frame. It simply converts the digital message received from the data link layer into a string of ones and zeroes represented by a signal on the media. One example is RS-485, where a binary 1 is represented by a Mark, or Off state, and a binary 0 is represented by a Space, or On state. A Mark is a negative voltage between terminals on the generator, while a Space is a positive voltage on those terminals.

Figure 6.2: Showing the transmission

6.3 Transmitter
A transmitter is an electronic device which, usually with the aid of an antenna, propagates an electromagnetic signal such as radio, television, or other telecommunications.

6.4 Transmitter types

Generally in communication and information processing, a transmitter is any object (source) which sends information to an observer (receiver). When used in this more general sense, vocal cords may also be considered an example of a transmitter. In radio electronics and broadcasting, a transmitter usually has a power supply, an oscillator, a modulator, and amplifiers for audio frequency (AF) and radio frequency (RF). The modulator is the device which piggybacks (or modulates) the signal information onto the carrier frequency, which is then broadcast. Sometimes a device (for example, a cell phone) contains both a transmitter and a radio receiver, with the combined unit referred to as a transceiver. In amateur radio transmitter can be a separate piece of electronic gear or a subset of a transceiver, and often referred to using an abbreviated form; "XMTR". In most parts of the world, use of transmitters is strictly controlled by laws since the potential for dangerous interference (for example to emergency communications) is considerable. In consumer electronics, a common device is a Personal FM transmitter, a very low power transmitter generally designed to take a simple audio source like an iPod, CD player, etc. And transmit it a few feet to a standard FM radio receiver. Most personal FM transmitters in the United States fall under Part 15 of the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) regulations to avoid any user licensing requirements. In industrial process control, a "transmitter" is any device which converts measurements from a sensor into a signal, conditions it, to be received, usually sent via wires, by some display or control device located a distance away. Typically in process control applications the "transmitter" will output an analog 4 - 20 mA current loop or digital protocol to represent a measured variable within a range. For example, a pressure transmitter might use 4 mA as a representation for 50 psig of pressure and 20 mA as 1000 psig of pressure and any value in between proportionately ranged between 50 and 1000 to represent a process variable. [14]

Figure 6.3: WDET-FM transmitter

6.5 Power output

In broadcasting and telecommunication, the part which contains the oscillator, modulator, and sometimes audio processor, is called the "exciter". Most transmitters use heterodyne principle, so they also have a frequency conversion units. Confusingly, the high-power amplifier which the exciter then feeds into is often called the "transmitter" by broadcast engineers. The final output is given as transmitter power output (TPO), although this is not what most stations are rated by. Effective (ERP) is used when calculating station coverage, even for most non-broadcast stations. It is the TPO, minus any attenuation or radiated loss in the line to the antenna, multiplied by the gain (magnification) which the antenna provides toward the horizon. This is important, because the electric utility bill for the transmitter would be enormous otherwise, as would the cost of a transmitter. For most large stations in the VHF- and UHF-range, the transmitter power is no more than 20% of the ERP. For VLF, LF, MF and HF the ERP is typically not

determined separately. In most cases the transmission power found in lists of transmitters is the value for the output of the transmitter. This is only correct for omni directional aerials with a length of a quarter wavelength or shorter. For other aerial types there are gain factors, which can reach values until 50 for shortwave directional beams in the direction of maximum beam intensity. Since some authors take account of gain factors of aerials of transmitters for frequencies below 30 MHz and others not, there are often discrepancies of the values of transmitted powers.

6.6 Power Supply

Transmitters are sometimes fed from a higher voltage level of the power supply grid than necessary in order to improve security of supply. For example, the Allouis, Konstantynow and Roumoules transmitters are fed from the high-voltage network (110 kV in Alouis and Konstantynow, 150 kV in Roumoules) even though a power supply from the medium-voltage level of the power grid (about 20 kV) would be able to deliver enough power.

6.7 Cooling of Final Stages

Low-power transmitters do not require special cooling equipment. Modern transmitters can be incredibly efficient, with efficiencies exceeding 98 percent. However, a broadcast transmitter with a megawatt power stage transferring 98% of that into the antenna can also be viewed as a 20 kilowatt electric heater. For medium-power transmitters, up to a few hundred watts, air cooling with fans is used. At power levels over a few kilowatts, the output stage is cooled by a forced liquid cooling system analogous to an automobile cooling system. Since the coolant directly touches the high-voltage anodes of the tubes, only distilled, deionised water or a special dielectric coolant can be used in the cooling circuit. This high-purity coolant is in turn cooled by a heat exchanger, where the second cooling circuit can use water of ordinary quality because it is not in contact with energized parts. Very-high-power tubes of small physical size may use evaporative cooling by water in contact with the anode. The production of steam allows a high heat flow in a small space.

6.8 Protection Equipment

The high voltages used in high power transmitters (up to 40 kV) require extensive protection equipment. Also, transmitters are exposed to damage from lightning. Transmitters may be damaged if operated without an antenna, so protection circuits must detect the loss of the antenna and switch off the transmitter immediately. Tube-based transmitters must have power applied in the proper sequence, with the filament voltage applied before the anode voltage; otherwise the tubes can be damaged. The output stage must be monitored for standing waves, which indicate that generated power is not being radiated but instead is being reflected back into the transmitter. Lightning protection is required between the transmitter and antenna. This consists of spark gaps and gas-filled surge arresters to limit the voltage that appears on the transmitter terminals. The control instrument that measures the voltage standing-wave ratio switches the transmitter off briefly if a higher voltage standing-wave ratio is detected after a lightning strike, as the reflections are probably due to lightning damage. If this does not succeed after several attempts, the antenna may be damaged and the transmitter should remain switched off. In some transmitting plants UV detectors are fitted in critical places, to switch off the transmitter if an arc is detected. The operating voltages, modulation factor, frequency and other transmitter parameters are monitored for protection and diagnostic purposes, and may be displayed locally and/or at a remote control room.

6.9 Main and Relay (repeater) Transmitters

Transmitting stations are usually either classified as main stations or relay stations (also known as repeaters, translators or sometimes "transposes. Main stations are defined as those that generate their own modulated output signal from a base band (unmodulated) input. Usually main stations operate at high power and cover large areas. Relay stations (translators) take an already modulated input signal, usually by direct reception of a parent station off the air, and simply re-broadcast it on another frequency. Usually relay stations operate at medium or low power, and are used to fill in pockets of poor reception within, or at the fringe of, the service area of a parent main station.

6.10 Transmitters in Culture

Some cities in Europe, like Mhlacker, Ismaning, Langenberg, Kalundborg, Hrby and Allouis became famous as sites of powerful transmitters. For example, Goliath transmitter was a VLF transmitter of the German Navy during World War II located near Kalbe an der Milde in Saxony-Anhalt, Germany. Some transmitting towers like the radio tower Berlin or the TV tower Stuttgart have become landmarks of cities. Many transmitting plants have very high radio towers that are masterpieces of engineering. Having the tallest building in the world, the nation, the state/province/prefecture, city, etc., has often been considered something to brag about. Often, builders of high-rise buildings have used transmitter antennas to lay claim to having the tallest building. A historic example was the "tallest building" feud between the Chrysler Building and the Empire State Building in York.Some towers have an observation deck accessible to tourists. An example is the Ostankino Tower in Moscow, which was completed in 1967 on the 50th anniversary of the October Revolution to demonstrate the technical abilities of the Soviet Union. As very tall radio towers of any construction type are prominent landmarks, requiring careful planning and construction, and high-power transmitters especially in the long- and medium-wave ranges can be received over long distances, such facilities were often mentioned in propaganda. Other examples were the Deutschlandsender Herzberg/Elster and the Warsaw Radio Mast.KVLY-TV's tower located near Blanchard, North Dakota was the tallest artificial structure in the world when it was completed in 1963. It was surpassed in 1974 by the Warszawa radio mast, but regained its title when the latter collapsed in 1991. It was surpassed by the Burj Khalifa skyscraper in early 2009, but the KVLY-TV mast is still the tallest transmitter. [15]

RF OSCILATOR BUFFER AMPLIFIER DRIVER STAGE POWER AMPLIFIER

MICROPHONE PRE AMPLIFIER

AUDIO AMPLIFIER

MODULATOR

Figure 6.4: Block diagram of a simple amplitude modulated transmitter

6.11 Receiver
Signals enter the front end circuitry from the antenna. This contains the front end tuning for the superheat to remove the image signal and often includes an RF amplifier to amplify the signals before they enter the mixer. The level of this amplification is carefully calculated so that it does not overload the mixer when strong signals are present, but enables the signals to be amplified sufficiently to ensure a good signal to noise ratio is achieved. The tuned and amplified signal then enters one port of the mixer. The local oscillator signal enters the other port. The local oscillator may consist of a variable frequency oscillator that can be tuned by altering the setting on a variable capacitor. Alternatively it may be a frequency synthesizer that will enable greater levels of stability and setting accuracy. Once the signals leave the mixer they enter the IF stages. These stages contain most of the amplification in the receiver as well as the filtering that enables signals on one frequency to be separated from those on the next. Filters may consist simply of LC tuned transformers providing inter-stage coupling, or they may be much higher performance ceramic or even crystal filters, dependent upon what is required. Once the signals have passed through the IF stages of the super heterodyne receiver, they need to be demodulated. Different demodulators are required for different types of transmission, and as a result some receivers may have a variety of demodulators that can be switched in to accommodate the different types of transmission that are to be encountered. The output from the demodulator is the recovered audio. This is passed into the audio stages where they are amplified and presented to the headphones or loudspeaker.

RF AMPLIFIER MIXER

IF AMPLIFIER & FILTER

AF DEMODULA TOR AMPLIFIER

LOCAL OSCILLATOR

Figure 6.5: Block diagram of a basic super heterodyne radio receiver

6.12 Further Developments for Super Heterodyne Block Diagram

The diagram above shows a very basic version of the superheat or super heterodyne receiver. Many sets these days are far more complicated. Some superheat radios have more than one frequency conversion, and other areas of additional circuitry to provide the required levels of performance. However the basic super heterodyne concept remains the same, using the idea of mixing the incoming signal with a locally generated oscillation to convert the signals to a new frequency. [16]

Figure 6.6: Physical outer diagram of signal transmitted device

6.13 Summary
In this chapter we discussed about receiver and transmitter. The main key points are given below: Transmitter There are distinct advantages in using a smart transmitter. The most important include ease of installation and communication, self-diagnosis, improved and digital reliability. Smart transmitters are also less subject to effects of temperature and humidity than analog devices. And although vibration can still affect them, the effects are far less than with analog devices. Smart transmitters also provide increased accuracy. And because can replace several different types of devices, using them allows for inventory reduction. Receiver i. Super heterodyne receivers reduce the signal frequency be mixing in a signal from a local oscillator to produce the intermediate frequency (IF). ii. Super heterodyne receivers have better performance because the components can be optimized to work a single intermediate frequency, and can take advantage of arithmetic selectivity.

Chapter 7

Design and Implementation

7.1 Introduction
This circuit has been implemented for the protection of the transformer in the rural area of Bangladesh. This circuit has four major parts. Especially the input voltage and current, then the rectifier, Charge controller device and Communication device. Rectifier will rectify the input signals and converted to AC to DC. There are two switches which has been connected to the neutral. One from Transformer neutral side and another from customers. Depending on the situation the circuit has been implemented. Six volt dc relay is using this operation. At starting relay set open to close condition.

Figure 7.1: Schematic diagram which will provide protection to the transformer.

7.2 Different Conditions

First of all some conditions has been observed. That when the two neutrals are which position. What happened when both Neutral switch is open or closed, or one open another close has been considered. T is represented by Transformer side neutral and C is represented by customers side neutral. i. When T and C both are close then output show on 1.1V approximately, after inverted (using NOT gate) the output show zero volt and relay does not operated. Figure is shown below:

Figure 7.2: Condition observed when both the neutral T & C are closed.

ii.

When T is close and C is open then output show on 1.1V approximately, after inverted the output show zero volt and relay does not still operated. T is represented by Transformer side neutral and C is represented by customers side neutral. Figure is shown below:

Figure 7.3: Condition observed when both the neutral T closed & C are opened.

iii.

When T is open and C is close then output near to zero after Inverted (using NOT gate) the output show 1V and relay is close and conduct to mobile device for transmitted the signal to control room. Figure is shown below:

Figure 7.4: Condition observed when both the neutral T opened & C closed.

iv.

When T and C both are open then output near to zero after Inverted (using NOT gate) the output show 1V and relay is close and conduct to mobile device for transmitted the signal to control room. Figure is shown below:

Figure 7.5: Condition observed when both the neutral T & C are opened.

Figure 7.6: Graph of different conditions of the neutral

7.3 Advantages
If the operator can miss the 1st call then it is possible to generate again and again call. Sometimes mobile operator can send any SMS or call to that mobile device. It is possible to filter this type of wrong signals. iii. If load shedding is occur under normal condition than backup is ready to supply the available power. i. ii.

7.4 Printed Circuit Board on This Project

A printed circuit board, or PCB, is used to mechanically support and electrically connect electronic components using conductive pathways, tracks or signal traces etched from copper sheets laminated onto a non-conductive substrate. It is also referred to as printed wiring board (PWB) or etched wiring board. A PCB populated with electronic components is a printed circuit assembly (PCA), also known as a printed circuit board assembly (PCBA). PCBs are inexpensive, and can be highly reliable. They require much more layout effort and higher initial cost than either wire-wrapped or point-to-point constructed circuits, but are much cheaper and faster for

high-volume production. Much of the electronics industry's PCB design, assembly, and quality control needs are set by standards that are published by the IPC organization.

.
Figure 7.7: PCB layout

7.5.1 Need for PCB

i. ii. iii. No wires Makes a design permanent In industrial scale production of circuits

7.5.2 Steps in Making a PCB

i. ii. iii. Design schematic Design layout Fabricate the layout

7.6 Schematic Capture & Design Layout

i. ii. iii.

iv.

v.

Schematic capture or schematic entry is done through an EDA tool. Card dimensions and template are decided based on required circuitry and case of the PCB. Determine the fixed components and heat sinks if required. Deciding stack layers of the PCB. 4 to 12 layers or more depending on design complexity. Ground plane and Power plane are decided. Signal planes where signals are routed are in top layer as well as internal layers. Line impedance determination using dielectric layer thickness, routing copper thickness and trace-width. Trace separation also taken into account in case of differential signals. Micro strip, strip line or dual strip line can be used to route signals. Placement of the components. Thermal considerations and geometry are taken into account. Vias and lands are marked.

vi. vii.

Routing the signal trace. For optimal EMI performance high frequency signals are routed in internal layers between power or ground planes as power plane behaves as ground for AC. Gerber File generation for manufacturing.

Figure 7.8: showing the design layout

7.7 Screen Printing

Line art and text may be printed onto the outer surfaces of a PCB by screen printing. When space permits, the screen print text can indicate component designators, switch setting requirements, test points, and other features helpful in assembling, testing, and servicing the circuit board. Screen print is also known as the silk screen, or, in one sided PCBs, the red print. Lately some digital printing solutions have been developed to substitute the traditional screen printing process. This technology allows printing variable data onto the PCB, including serialization and barcode information for traceability purposes.

Figure 7.9: Showing the screen printing

7.8 Patterning (Etching)

The vast majority of printed circuit boards are made by bonding a layer of copper over the entire substrate, sometimes on both sides, (creating a "blank PCB") then removing unwanted copper after applying a temporary mask (e.g. by etching), leaving only the desired copper traces. A few PCBs are made by adding traces to the bare substrate (or a substrate with a very thin layer of copper) usually by a complex process of multiple electroplating steps. There are three common "subtractive" methods (methods that remove copper) used for the production of printed circuit boards: 1. Silk screen printing uses etch-resistant inks to protect the copper foil. Subsequent etching removes the unwanted copper. Alternatively, the ink may be conductive, printed on a blank (nonconductive) board. The latter technique is also used in the manufacture of hybrid circuits. 2. Photoengraving uses a photo mask and chemical etching to remove the copper foil from the substrate. The photo mask is usually prepared with a photo plotter from data produced by a technician using CAM, or computer-aided manufacturing software. Laser-printed transparencies are typically employed for photo tools; however, direct laser imaging techniques are being employed to replace photo tools for high-resolution requirements.

3. PCB milling uses a two or three-axis mechanical milling system to mill away the copper foil from the substrate. A PCB milling machine (referred to as a 'PCB Prototype') operates in a similar way to a plotter, receiving commands from the host software that control the position of the milling head in the x, y, and (if relevant) z axis. Data to drive the Prototype is extracted from files generated in PCB design software and stored in HPGL or Gerber file format.

"Additive" processes also exist. The most common is the "semi-additive" process. In this version, the un patterned board has a thin layer of copper already on it. A reverse mask is then applied. (Unlike a subtractive process mask, this mask exposes those parts of the substrate that will eventually become the traces.) Additional copper is then plated onto the board in the unmasked areas; copper may be plated to any desired weight. Tin-lead or other surface plantings are then applied. The mask is stripped away and a brief etching step removes the now-exposed original copper laminate from the board, isolating the individual traces. Some boards with plated thru holes but still single sided were made with a process like this. General Electric made consumer radio sets in the late 1960s using boards like these.

Figure 7.10: Showing the pattering Proccess

7.9 Drilling
Holes through a PCB are typically drilled with tiny drill bits made of solid tungsten carbide. The drilling is performed by automated drilling machines with placement controlled by a drill tape or drill file. These computer-generated files are also called numerically controlled drill (NCD) files or "Excel Lon files". The drill file describes the location and size of each drilled hole. These holes are often filled with annular rings (hollow rivets) to create vias. Vias allow the electrical and thermal connection of conductors on opposite sides of the PCB. Most common laminate is epoxy filled fiberglass. Drill bit wear is partly due to embedded glass, which is harder than steel. High drill speed necessary for cost effective drilling of hundreds of holes per board causes very high temperatures at the drill bit tip, and high temperatures (400-700 degrees) soften steel and decompose (oxidize) laminate filler. Copper is softer than epoxy and interior conductors may suffer damage during drilling. When very small vias are required, drilling with mechanical bits is costly because of high rates of wear and breakage. In this case, the vias may be evaporated by lasers. Laser-drilled vias typically have an inferior surface finish inside the hole. These holes are called micro vias. It is also possible with controlled-depth drilling, laser drilling, or by pre-drilling the individual sheets of the PCB before lamination, to produce holes that connect only some of the copper layers, rather than passing through the entire board. These holes are called blind vias when they connect an internal copper layer to an outer layer, or buried vias when they connect two or more internal copper layers and no outer layers. The walls of the holes, for boards with 2 or more layers, are made conductive then plated with copper to form plated-through holes that electrically connect the conducting layers of the PCB. For multilayer boards, those with 4 layers or more, drilling typically produces a smear of the high temperature decomposition products of bonding agent in the laminate system. Before the holes can be plated through, this smear must be removed by a chemical de-smear process, or by plasma-etch. Removing (etching back) the smear also reveals the interior conductors as well.

Figure 7.11: Showing the drilling Proccess

7.10 Connect the Components and Soldering

Soldering is a process in which two or more metal items are joined together by melting and flowing a filler metal into the joint, the filler metal having a relatively low melting point.Soft soldering is characterized by the melting point of the filler metal, which is below 400 C (752 F).The filler metal used in the process is called solder.

Figure 7.12: Showing the soldering Proccess

Soldering filler materials are available in many different alloys for differing applications. In electronics assembly, the eutectic alloy of 63% tin and 37% lead (or 60/40, which is almost identical in performance to the eutectic) has been the alloy of choice. Other alloys are used for plumbing, mechanical assembly, and other applications. A eutectic formulation has several advantages for soldering; chief among these is the coincidence of the liquidus and solidus temperatures, i.e. the absence of a plastic phase. This allows for quicker wetting out

as the solder heats up, and quicker setup as the solder cools. A non-eutectic formulation must remain still as the temperature drops through the liquidus and solidus temperatures. Any differential movement during the plastic phase may result in cracks, giving an unreliable joint. Additionally, a eutectic formulation has the lowest possible melting point, which minimizes heat stress on electronic components during soldering. Common solder alloys are mixtures of tin and lead, respectively: 63/37: melts at 183 C (361 F) (eutectic: the only mixture that melts at a point, instead of over a range) 60/40: melts between 183190 C (361374 F) 50/50: melts between 185215 C (365419 F)

Figure 7.13: Showing connect the components

7.10 Conclusion
In this chapter the different conditions for the connected and Disconnected Neutral has been observed. And in its different conditions it has various kinds of wave shapes. That also has been discussed. Then the PCB layout has been discussed briefly specially the design layout, screen printing, patterning, and drilling in the last ending.

Chapter 8

Discussion and Conclusion

8.1 Discussions
The transformer protection circuit provides the protection of the transformer especially in the rural areas. The circuit which has been designed in this project is capable to meet the demand of the age. It provides a lot of facilities. It is cheaper and lighter. And the requirement that has been used is also available. It provides the consumer with the opportunity to have the record the information. In this project, the idea to protect the transformer from unauthorized person is mainly come from the national problem of the rural area of Bangladesh in this project a non-inverting amplifier is used to compare the on/off conditions. With the disconnection of the line the amplifier will send off condition (zero). Then it will be inverted to on condition (one) and send it to the relay. After the activation of that relay it will contact the switch to the device, and then a signal will send the central control room. Until the authority takes any action, it will ring. Under load shedding also it can be operate, because a charge controller device is connected to the circuit which will give backup to the device. The whole device should be packed in an isolated box and it will be attached with the transformer. The Not Gate - HD74HC04P and OAMP - HA17741 has been used which is cheap in cost and easier to operate and much available the others chip. This Not Gate - HD74HC04P will help to invert the input signal which has been given from the source (three phase line).And from them output that has been given by the OAMP - HA17741 will help the relay to operate and make the contact close. Thus the operation can be done. .

8.2 Suggestions for Future Work

In future in this project a digital alarm can be added which will be better for the protection. And a microprocessor based display board can also be added through which the authority of the electricity development board can have the record of daily consumption from the central control room. They do not even need to come to check every Message or data that has been given by each transformer. Because the Main circuit which protect the transformer will be attached with the transformer. This can be done by transmitting signals through the wireless system.

8.3 Conclusion
This Project reveals a great innovative idea. By modifying these types of protection circuit, all the aim can be achieved. It can provide high performance within a limited cost. The amount of requirements is less which makes it more feasible. And the requirements are available in the market which makes it easier to do.

References
[1] Hammond, John Winthrop. Men and Volts, the Story of General Electric, published 1941 by J.B.Lippincott. Citations: design, early types - 106-107; design, William Stanley, first built - 178; oil-immersed, began use of - 238. [2] Daniels, A.R. (1985). Introduction to Electrical Machines, Macmillan. [3] Central Electricity Generating Board (1982). Modern Power Station Practice, Pergamon. [4] McLaren, Peter (1984). Elementary Electric Power and Machines, Ellis Horwood. [5] D.F. Stout Handbook of Operational Amplifier Circuit Design (McGraw-Hill, 1976) [6] Flanagan, William (1993). Handbook of Transformer Design and Applications. McGraw-Hill. [7] Gottlieb, Irving (1998). Practical Transformer Handbook, Elsevier. [8] MAXIM Application Note 1108: Understanding Single-Ended, Pseudo-Differential and FullyDifferential ADC Inputs Retrieved November 10, 2007. [9] Jung, Walter G. (2004). "Chapter 8: Op Amp History". Op Amp Applications Handbook. Newnes. p. 777. ISBN 9780750678445. http://books.google.com/books?id=dunqt1rt4sAC. Retrieved 2008-11-15. [10] Jung, Walter G. (2004). "Chapter 8: Op Amp History". Op Amp Applications Handbook. Newnes. P,779. [11] Hawkins Electrical Guide, 1917, Chapter 54: Rectifiers. [12] Ryan, H.M. (2004). High Voltage Engineering and Testing, CRC Press. [13] Mason, C. R., Art & Science of Protective Relaying, Chapter 2, GE Consumer & Electrical [1] [14] Zocholl, Stan (2003). AC Motor Protection. Schweitzer Engineering Laboratories, Inc. [15]Terrell Croft and Wilford Summers (ed) (1987). American Electricians' Handbook, Eleventh Edition. New York: McGraw Hill. [16]. Pictures of a mercury arc rectifier in operation can be seen here: Belsize Park deep shelter rectifier.

Necessary links:
1. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transformer 2. http://info.ee.surrey.ac.uk/Workshop/advice/coils/power_loss.html#copper 3. http://www.kpsec.freeuk.com/components/relay.htm 4. http://www.opamp-electronics.com/tutorials/digital_theory_ch_005.htm (construction) 5. http://www.the12volt.com/relays/ (total relay start diagrams) 6. http://www.play-hookey.com/analog/opamp_characteristics.html 7. http://wiki.answers.com/Q/How_does_741_op-amp_chip_works 8. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rectifier 9. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rectifier 10. http://www.physics.iitm.ac.in/courses_files/courses/eleclab03_odd/characteristicc_0f_741.htm 11. http://wiki.answers.com/Q/Pin_configuration_of_ic_inverter_7404 12. http://www.visionics.ee/curriculum/Experiments/HW%20Rectifier/Half%20Wave%20Rectifier.ht ml

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