A hardware project on

Wireless Communication through Microcontroller

submitted by Satish Chandra Dixit-2009 Himanshu Verma-20095026 Shardool Upadhaya-2009 Shiv Kumar Sharma-2009 B.tech V Semester, Electronics and Communication Engineering (2009-2013) Under guidance of Asim Mukherjee Assistant Professor

ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT MOTILAL NEHRU NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY ALLAHABAD-211004

Department of electronics and Communication Engineering Motilal Nehru National Institute of Technology Allahabad-211004, India

CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that the term project entitled Wireless Communication through Microcontroller submitted by Satish Chandra Dixit (2009), Himanshu Verma (20095026), Shardool upadhaya (2009) and Shiv Kumar Sharma (2009) of B.Tech, Third Year ,Electronics and Communication Engineering of Motilal Nehru National Institute of Technology Allahabad is a bonafide record of students own work carried out under my supervision.

Date:

Asim Mukherjee

Acknowledgement
It is our greatest privilege to express our deep gratitude to our guide, Asim Mukherjee Assistant Professor of Electronics and Communication Engineering Department, MNNIT for his stimulating guidance and profound assistant. We are deeply indebted to them all for their kind help. We shall always cherish our association with him for his consistent encouragement, kind support and freedom. We also feel great pleasure to thank all the staff members of the department for their cooperation which led to the successful completion of our project work. We are also thankful to our friends and colleagues for their support. Needless to say, without all the above helps and support mentioned, the project could not have been completed.

Satish Chandra Dixit-20095079 Himanshu Verma-20095105 Shardool Upadhaya-20095083 Shiv Kumar Sharma-20095003

Abstract

It is a wireless communication project in which a text message is communicated from one place to another place through wireless. The text message is encoded with the help of microcontroller and the encoded message is transmitted through wireless. The transmitted signal is received by a standard receiver, from where the analog signal is fed to another microcontroller where it is decoded and the message is displayed over the LCD display. We can also use many receivers and the message from the transmitter can be sent to all the receivers at the same time. Each of the receivers can be accessed separately knowing their address with the help of microcontroller. The data can be sent through input device such as keyboard. The given data can be encrypted with an algorithm and can be decrypted at the receiver end with the same algorithm using a microcontroller. The decoded data can be displayed over an LCD display. This project can find its application in nearly all areas where data transfer is needed as since wireless communication is fast process and requires less resource.

Contents

Title

Page

CERTIFICATE .i ACKNOWLEDGEMENTii ABSTRACTiii CONTENTSiv CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION 1.1 GENERALv 1.2 Succession of processes involved in Commincation CHAPTER 2 WIRELESS COMMUNICATION 2.1 WIRELESS COMMUNICATION.. 2.1.1 Free space, fixed transmitting and receive antennas............. 2.1.2 Modes of Wireless Transmission.............. 2.2 RADIO FREQUENCY COMMUNICATION................ 2.1.1 Radio wave Production................................ 2.1.2 Radio wave Propagation........... 2.1.3 Radio wave Reception.................. CHAPTER 3 PROJECT DESCRIPTION

3.1 BLOCK DIAGRAM.. iv

3.2 Understanding Components.. 3.2.1 MICROCONTROLLER. 3.2.2 TRANSMITTER MODULE.. 3.2.3 RECEIVER MODULE.. 3.2.4 ANTENNA.. 3.3 CIRCUIT DIAGRAM 3.4 Principles involved in Communication. 3.4.1 Serial Communication. 3.4.2 Amplitude Shift Keying. 3.5 C CODING CHAPTER 4 RESULT AND CONCLUSION 4.1 SIMULATION RESULT.. 4.2 Future scope of microcontroller in Communication.. REFERENCES.

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION

1.1

General Introduction
Today, communication enters our daily lives in so many different ways that it is very easy

to overlook the multitude of its facets. The telephones at our hands, the radios and televisions in our living rooms, the computer terminals in our offices and homes, and our newspapers are all capable of providing rapid communications from every corner of the globe. Communication provides the senses for ships on the high seas, aircraft in flight, and rockets and satellites in space. Communication through a cordless telephone keeps a car driver in touch with the office or home miles away. Communication keeps a weather forecast informed of conditions measured by a multitude of sensors. Indeed the list of applications involving the use of communication in one way or another is almost endless. There are many other forms of communication that do not directly involve the human mind in real time. For example, in computer communications involving communication between two or more computers, human decisions may enter only in setting up the programs or commands for the computer, or in monitoring the results. For every communication system there are three basic elements namely, transmitter , channel, and receiver as depicted in figure 1.1 The transmitter is located on one side and receiver is located on other side and the channel is the physical medium that connects them together. The purpose of the transmitter is to transform the message signal in source of information suitable for transmission over the channel. During its transmission the signal may get attenuated by factors such as noise and interfering signals. The receiver receives the transmitted signal and converts it into the original form and then it is transmitted to the user destination. The signal processing role of the receiver is thus the reverse of that of the transmitter.

Figure 1.1 Elements of a communication system.

1.2

Succession of processes involved in communication

In the most fundamental sense, communication involves simplicity the transmission of

information from one point to another through a succession of processes, as described here: 1. The generation of a thought pattern or image in the mind of an originator. 2. The description of that image, with a certain measure of precision, by a set of aural or visual symbols. 3. The encoding of these symbols in a form that is suitable for transmission over a physical medium of interest. 4. The transmission of the encoded symbols to the desired destination. 5. The decoding and reproduction of the original symbols. 6. The recreation of the original thought pattern or image with a definable degradation in quality, in the mind of the recipient; the degradation is caused by imperfections in the system.

CHAPTER 2 WIRELESS COMMUNICATION

2.1

Wireless Communication
The development of wireless communication arose from the works of Oersted, Faraday,

Gauss, Maxwell, and Hertz. In 1820, Oersted demonstrated that an electric current produces a magnetic field. In 1831, Michael Faraday showed that an induced current is produced by moving a magnet in the vicinity of a conductor. Thus he demonstrated that a changing magnetic field produces an electric field. With this early work as background, James C. Maxwell in 1864 predicted the existence of electromagnetic radiation and formulated the basic theory that has been in use for over a century. Maxwells theory was verified experimentally by Hertz in 1887.

Base Station:

A fixed station in a mobile radio system used for radio communication with mobile stations. Base stations are located at the center or on the edge of the coverage region and consist of radio channels and transmitter and receiver antennas mounted on a tower.

Control Channel: Radio channels used for transmission of call set up, call request, call Initiation and and other control purposes. Forward Channel: Radio channel used for transmission of information from the base Station to the mobile. Full Duplex: systems Communication system which allow simultaneous two way communication. Transmission and reception is typically on two different channels (FDD). Half Duplex: systems Communication system which allow two way communication by using the same radio channel for both transmission and reception. At any given time, the user can only either transmit or receive information. Handoff: The process of transferring a mobile station from one channel or Base station to another. Mobile Station: A station in cellular radio service intended for use while in motion at Unspecified locations. Mobile stations may be hand held personal Units (portables) or installed in vehicles (mobiles). Reverse Channel: Radio channel used for transmission of information from the mobile to base station. Simplex Systems: Communication system which provide only one-way Communication. Subscriber: A user who pays subscription charges for using a mobile communication system. Transceiver: A device capable of simultaneously transmitting and receiving Radio signals. Table 2.1 Basic definitions of Wireless Communication 6

2.1.1

Free space, fixed transmitting and receive antennas

In the far field, the electric field and magnetic field at any given location are perpendicular

both to each other and to the direction of propagation from the antenna. They are also proportional to each other, so it is sufficient to know only one of them (just as in wired communication, where we view a signal as simply a voltage waveform or a current waveform). In response to a transmitted sinusoid cos 2 ft, we can express the electric far field at time t as E (f, t, (r, , )) = (2.1)

Here, (r; , ) represents the point u in space at which the electric field is being measured, where r is the distance from the transmitting antenna to u and where (, ) represents the vertical and horizontal angles from the antenna to u, respectively. The constant c is the speed of light, and (r, , ) is the radiation pattern of the sending antenna at frequency f in the direction (, ); it also contains a scaling factor to account for antenna losses. Note that the phase of the field varies with , corresponding to the delay caused by the radiation travelling at the speed of light. Next, suppose there is a fixed receive antenna at the location u = (r; , ). The received waveform (in the absence of noise) in response to the above transmitted sinusoid is then

Er (f, t, u) =

(2.2)

Where

the product of the antenna is patterns of transmitting and receives

antennas in the given direction. Our approach to (2.2) is a bit odd since we started with the free space field at u in the absence of an antenna. Placing a receive antenna there changes the electric field in the vicinity of u, but this is taken into account by the antenna pattern of the receive antenna.

Now suppose, for the given u, that we define 7

H(f) =

(2.3)

We then have Er (f; t; u) = H (f) exp (j2 ft). We have not mentioned it yet, but (2.1) and (2.2) are both linear in the input. That is, the received field (waveform) at u in response to a weighted sum of transmitted waveforms is simply the weighted sum of responses to those individual waveforms. Thus, H (f) is the system function for an LTI (linear time-invariant) channel, and its inverse Fourier transform is the impulse response. The need for understanding electromagnetism is to determine what this system function is. We will find in what follows that linearity is a good assumption for all the wireless channels we consider, but that the time invariance does not hold when either the antennas or obstructions are in relative motion.

2.1.2

Modes of wireless transmission:

Wireless communication has become quite prevalent all around the world. Every business

and communication depends on the wireless technologies that form the major part of the telecommunication systems. Be it the phone, the internet or the radio, every gadget seen today use wireless communication in one form or the other. There are many modes of wireless communication.

Radio Frequency Communication:

Radio is the transmission of signals through free space by modulation of electromagnetic waves with frequencies below those of visible light.

Electromagnetic radiation travels by means of oscillating electromagnetic fields that pass through the air and the vacuum of space. Information is carried by systematically changing (modulating) some property of the radiated waves, such as amplitude, frequency, phase, or pulse width. When radio waves pass an electrical

conductor, the oscillating fields induce an alternating current in the conductor. This can be detected and transformed into sound or other signals that carry information.

Microwave Communication:
Microwaves, a subset of radio waves, have wavelengths ranging from as long as one meter to as short as one millimeter, or equivalently, with frequencies between 300 MHz (0.3 GHz) and 300 GHz. This broad definition includes both UHF and EHF (millimeter waves), and various sources use different boundaries. In all cases, microwave includes the entire SHF band (3 to 30 GHz, or 10 to 1 cm) at minimum, with RF engineering often putting the lower boundary at 1 GHz (30 cm), and the upper around 100 GHz (3 mm). Microwave radio is used in broadcasting and telecommunication transmissions because, due to their short wavelength, highly directional antennas are smaller and therefore more practical than they would be at longer wavelengths (lower frequencies). There is also more bandwidth in the microwave spectrum than in the rest of the radio spectrum; the usable bandwidth below 300 MHz is less than 300 MHz while many GHz can be used above 300 MHz Typically, microwaves are used in television news to transmit a signal from a remote location to a television station from a specially equipped van. See broadcast auxiliary service (BAS), remote pickup unit (RPU), and studio/transmitter link (STL).

Infrared short range communication:

Infrared (IR) light is electromagnetic radiation with a wavelength longer than that of visible light, measured from the nominal edge of visible red light at 0.74 micrometers ( m), and extending conventionally to 300 m. These wavelengths correspond to a frequency range of approximately 1 to 400 THz, and include most of the thermal radiation emitted by objects near room temperature.

Microscopically, IR light is typically emitted or absorbed by molecules when they change their rotational-vibrational movements.

2.2

Radio Frequency Communication

RF is the wireless transmission of data by digital radio signals at a particular frequency. It

maintains a two-way, online radio connection between a mobile terminal and the host computer. The mobile terminal, which can be portable, even worn by the worker, or mounted on a forklift truck, collects and displays data at the point of activity. The host computer can be a PC, a minicomputer or a much larger mainframe. A basic RF system consists of up to three components: A mobile RF terminal; A base station (sender/receiver); and A network controller.

Figure 2.1

Electromagnetic waves

2.2.1

Radio wave Production:

The four fundamental ways in which radio waves are produced are:

Nonthermal or Synchrotron emission - Synchrotron emission is the most common form of radio emission from outside our solar system and is why the Milky Way appears so bright at radio wavelengths. It is associated with relativistic electrons or cosmic ray electrons, so named because they travel at speeds comparable with that of light.

Thermal emission - This is emission caused by the collisions of non-relativistic electrons, whose speed is determined purely by the kinetic temperature. This raises an important point in temperature measurement. Often in radio astronomy temperature will be talked about in terms of kinetic temperature a measure of the kinetic motions of the particles in an object and not the same as the temperature a thermometer would read.

Plasma oscillations - In areas of space where plasma exists, for example in stars, the electrons can oscillate at a rate determined by the density. The motion of the charged particles produces a wave whose wavelength is determined by the oscillation frequency.

Spectral line (monochromatic) emission - An atom or molecule can absorb or emit radiation by changing its state of motion and subsequently energy level. The change of state can be in the form of an electron changing the level of its orbit or even the spin about its own axis, in the case of molecules also the rotation and relative vibrations.

2.2.2

Radio wave Propagation:

When the electrons in a conductor, (antenna wire) are made to oscillate back and forth, Electromagnetic Waves (EM waves) are produced. These waves radiate outwards from the source at the speed of light, 300 million meters per second. Light waves and radio waves are both EM waves, differing only in frequency and wavelength. EM waves travel in straight lines, unless acted upon by some outside force. They travel faster through a vacuum than through any other medium. As EM waves spread out from a point they decrease in strength in what is described as an "inverse square relationship". 10

Fig 2.2

Propagation of radio waves

Electromagnetic radiation comprises both an Electric and a Magnetic Field. The two fields are at right-angles to each other and the direction of propagation is at right angles to both fields. The Plane of the Electric Field defines the Polarisation of the wave.

2.2.3

Radio wave Reception:

Any transmitting antenna may serve as a receiving antenna. If a wave propagating in space acts on an electric dipole, its electric field excites in the dipole current oscillations, which are then amplified and transformed in frequency and act on the output devices. Dipole radiation patterns can be shown to be identical in the reception and transmission modesthat is, a dipole receives better in the directions in which it radiates better. 11

The energy that a dipole extracts from an electromagnetic wave depends on the relation of its length l, the wavelength , and the angle between the direction v of incidence of the wave and the dipole. The angle between the direction of the electric wave vector and the dipole is also significant (Figure 2.3). Receiving conditions are best when = 0. When = /2 no electric current is excited in the dipolethat is, there is no reception. However, if 0 < /2, then it is obvious that the energy extracted by the receiving antenna from the field is proportional to (E cos ). In other words, this energy is related to the polarization of the incident wave. It follows from the above that, in the case of radiating and receiving dipoles, to ensure optimum receiving conditions both dipoles must lie in one plane and the receiving dipole must be perpendicular to the direction of wave propagation. Here the receiving dipole extracts from an incoming wave as much energy as the wave carries in passing through a cross section in the form of a square of sides /22.

Figure 2.3

Electric and Magnetic Field reception

12

CHAPTER 3 PROJECT DESCRIPTION

13

3.1

BLOCK DIAGRAM

Figure 3.1

Block diagram of Transmitter end

Figure 3.2

Block diagram of Receiver end 14

3.2 3.2.1

Understanding Components MICROCONTROLLER

A microcontroller (sometimes abbreviated C, uC or MCU) is a small computer on a single integrated circuit containing a processor core, memory, and programmable input/output peripherals. Program memory in the form of NOR flash or OTP ROM is also often included on chip, as well as a typically small amount of RAM. Microcontrollers are designed for embedded applications, in contrast to the microprocessors used in personal computers or other general purpose applications. Some microcontrollers may use four-bit words and operate at clock rate frequencies as low as 4 kHz, for low power consumption (mill watts or microwatts). They will generally have the ability to retain functionality while waiting for an event such as a button press or other interrupt; power consumption while sleeping (CPU clock and most peripherals off) may be just nanowatts, making many of them well suited for long lasting battery applications. Other microcontrollers may serve performance-critical roles, where they may need to act more like a digital signal processor (DSP), with higher clock speeds and power consumption. Microcontrollers which are most widely used are 89 series of ATMEL such as ATmega32, AT89C51, AT89S52, etc. We have used microcontroller ATmega32 in our project.

3.2.1.1
Features

ATmega32

High-performance, Low-power AVR 8-bit Microcontroller Advanced RISC Architecture 131 Powerful Instructions Most Single-clock Cycle Execution 32 x 8 General Purpose Working Registers Fully Static Operation Up to 16 MIPS Throughput at 16 MHz On-chip 2-cycle Multiplier 15

 32K Bytes of In-System Self-programmable Flash program memory 1024 Bytes EEPROM 2K Byte Internal SRAM Write/Erase Cycles: 10,000 Flash/100,000 EEPROM Data retention: 20 years at 85C/100 years at 25C Optional Boot Code Section with Independent Lock Bits In-System Programming by On-chip Boot Program True Read-While-Write Operation Programming Lock for Software Security JTAG (IEEE std. 1149.1 Compliant) Interface Boundary-scan Capabilities According to the JTAG Standard Extensive On-chip Debug Support Programming of Flash, EEPROM, Fuses, and Lock Bits through the JTAG Interface Peripheral Features Two 8-bit Timer/Counters with Separate Prescalers and Compare Modes One 16-bit Timer/Counter with Separate Prescaler, Compare Mode, and Capture Mode Real Time Counter with Separate Oscillator Four PWM Channels 8-channel, 10-bit ADC 8 Single-ended Channels 7 Differential Channels in TQFP Package Only 2 Differential Channels with Programmable Gain at 1x, 10x, or 200x Byte-oriented Two-wire Serial Interface Programmable Serial USART Master/Slave SPI Serial Interface Programmable Watchdog Timer with Separate On-chip Oscillator On-chip Analog Comparator Special Microcontroller Features Power-on Reset and Programmable Brown-out Detection Internal Calibrated RC Oscillator External and Internal Interrupt Sources Six Sleep Modes: Idle, ADC Noise Reduction, Power-save, Power-down, Standby and Extended Standby I/O and Packages 32 Programmable I/O Lines 40-pin PDIP, 44-lead TQFP, and 44-pad QFN/MLF Operating Voltages 2.7 - 5.5V for ATmega32L 4.5 - 5.5V for ATmega32 Speed Grades 0 - 8 MHz for ATmega32L 0 - 16 MHz for ATmega32

16

Figure 3.3

Pin Description of ATmega32

3.2.2

TRANSMITTER MODULE:

Features
Complete RF Transmitter Transmit Range Up To 50m CMOS / TTL Input No Adjustable Components Very Stable Operating Frequency Low Current Consumption (Typ 11mA) Wide Operating Voltage (1.5-5v) 17

ASK Modulation Available as 315 or 433 MHz

Applications

Wireless Security Systems Car Alarms Remote Gate Controls Remote Sensing Data Capture

Sensor Reporting

Description The Quasar UK AM hybrid transmitter module provides a complete RF transmitter which can be used to transmit data at up to 3 KHz from any standard CMOS/TTL source. The module is very simple to operate and offers low current consumption (typ. 11mA). Data can be supplied directly from a microprocessor or encoding device, thus keeping the component count down and ensuring a low hardware cost. The modules are compatible with the Quasar UK Ltd. range of AM receivers to provide a complete solution.

18

Technical Specifications

Figure 3.3

Pin diagram for Transmitter Module

Dimensions

Pin A B C D E F

Measurements(mm) 13 19 3 2.54 1 5.5 19

Pin Descriptions Pin 1 2 3 4 Name GND IN VCC ANT Description Ground Data Input Supply Voltage External Antenna

Electrical Characteristics Characteristic Supply Voltage Min. 1.5 Typ. 3 11 Max. 5 22 Dimensions Vdc Ma

Supply Current (Vcc=5V 2.9 IN=1kHz) Working Frequency Time for power onto data transmission Data Rate Operating Temperature 200 -20

315/433.92 20

MHz Ms

3000 +60

Hz K

Table 3.1

Pin description and characteristics of transmitter module

20

3.2.3
Features

RECEIVER MODULE

Super Regenerative Radio Receiver CMOS / TTL Output Stable Operating Frequency Low Current Consumption 5Vdc Operating Voltage ASK Demodulation Available as 315 or 433 MHz

Applications Wireless Security Systems Garage Door controller Remote Gate Controls Remote Sensing Data Capture Sensor Reporting

Description The Quasar UK AM hybrid receiver module provides a complete Radio receiver which can be used to receive uudecoded data from the range of Quasar (UK) transmitter modules. The module is very simple to operate and offers a low current consumption, allowing for extended battery life when used in mobile applications. Data can be fed directly into a microprocessor or decoding device, thus keeping the component count down and ensuring a low hardware cost. All receivers are compatible, producing a CMOS/TTL output, and only require connections to power and antenna. 21

Figure 3.4

Pin diagram for Receiver Module

Technical Specifications

Pin Descriptions

Pin
1 2,3,8 6,7 4,5

Description
External Antenna Ground Data input Supply Voltage

22

Electrical Characteristics

Table 3.2

Pin description and characteristics of transmitter module

3.2.4

Antenna:

An antenna can be defined as any wire, or conductor, that carries a pulsing or alternating current. Such a current will generate an electromagnetic field around the wire and that field will pulse and vary as the electric current does. If another wire is placed nearby, the electromagnetic field lines that cross this wire will induce an electric current that is a copy of the original current, only weaker. If the wire is relatively long, in terms of wavelength, it will radiate much of that field over long distances.

Figure 3.5

Antenna wave transmission

23

3.3

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

Microcontroller is connected to the input keys on the transmitter side. In the microcontroller the input data has been encoded in particular form say complement of some binary data and is printed on the 16X2 LCD. Encoding can be of any type. When some key such as A has been printed whose binary data is 01000001 , it is complemented in microcontroller to produce 10111110 which is then transmitted from Tx pin of microcontroller to the receiver circuit with the help of Transmitter module. On the receiver side, this data is received by Receiver module and then it is transmitted to microcontroller through Rx pin of it. There it is decoded again to get

24

original data for example A is again complemented here to produce 01000001. The LCD prints the original character from the microcontroller and thus the data is transmitted wirelessly from one place to another.

3.4

Principals involved in Communication

3.4.1

Serial Communication

Serial communications send a single bit at a time between computers. This only requires a single communication channel, as opposed to 8 channels to send a byte. With only one channel the costs are lower, but the communication rates are slower. The communication channels are often wire based, but they may also be can be optical and radio. To transmit data, the sequence of bits follows a pattern, like that shown in Figure 3.8. The transmission starts at the left hand side. Each bit will be true or false for a fixed period of time, determined by the transmission speed. A typical data byte looks like the one below. The voltage/current on the line is made true or false. The width of the bits determines the possible bits per second (bps). The value shown before is used to transmit a single byte. Between bytes, and when the line is idle, the Txd is kept true, this helps the receiver detect when a sender is present. A single start bit is sent by making the Txd false. In this example the next eight bits are the transmitted data, a byte with the value 17. The data is followed by a parity bit that can be used to check the byte. In this example there are two data bits set, and even parity is being used, so the parity bit is set. The parity bit is followed by two stop bits to help separate this byte from the next one.

Figure 3.8

Serial data communication 25

Descriptions: before - this is a period where no bit is being sent and the line is true. start - a single bit to help get the systems synchronized. data - this could be 7 or 8 bits, but is almost always 8 now. The value shown here is a byte with the binary value 00010010 (the least significant bit is sent first). parity - this lets us check to see if the byte was sent properly. The most common choices here are no parity bit, an even parity bit, or an odd parity bit. In this case there are two bits set in the data byte. If we are using even parity the bit would be true. If we are using odd parity the bit would be false. stop - the stop bits allow a pause at the end of the data. One or two stop bits can be used. idle - a period of time where the line is true before the next byte.

3.4.2

Amplitude Shift Keying

The transmission of digital signals is increasing at a rapid rate. Low-frequency analogue signals are often converted to digital format (PAM) before transmission. The source signals are generally referred to as baseband signals. Of course, we can send analogue and digital signals directly over a medium. From electro-magnetic theory, for efficient radiation of electrical energy from an antenna it must be at least in the order of magnitude of a wavelength in size; c = f, where c is the velocity of light, f is the signal frequency and is the wavelength. For a 1kHz audio signal, the wavelength is 300 km. An antenna of this size is not practical for efficient transmission. The low-frequency signal is often frequency-translated to a higher frequency range for efficient transmission. The process is called modulation. The use of a higher frequency range reduces antenna size. In the modulation process, the baseband signals constitute the modulating signal and the high-frequency carrier signal is a sinusoidal waveform. There are three basic ways of modulating a sine wave carrier. For binary digital modulation, they are called binary amplitude-shift keying (BASK), binary frequency-shift keying (BFSK) and binary phase shift keying (BPSK). Modulation also leads to the possibility of frequency multiplexing. In a 26

frequency-multiplexed system, individual signals are transmitted over adjacent, non overlapping frequency bands. They are therefore transmitted in parallel and simultaneously in time. If we operate at higher carrier frequencies, more bandwidth is available for frequency-multiplexing more signals.

Binary Amplitude-Shift Keying (BASK)

A binary amplitude-shift keying (BASK) signal can be defined by s(t) = A m(t) cos 2fct, 0 t T

where A is a constant, m(t) = 1 or 0, fc is the carrier frequency, and T is the bit duration. It has a power P = A2/2, so that A = 2P . Thus equation (22.1) can be written as s(t) = 2P cos 2fct, = cos 2fct, 0 0 0 t t t T T T

= cos 2fct,

where E = P T is the energy contained in a bit duration. If we take 1(t) = cos 2fctas the orthonormal basis function, the applicable signal space or constellation diagram of the BASK signals is shown in Figure 3.9. Figure 3.10 shows the BASK signal sequence generated by the binary sequence 0 1 0 1 0 0 1. The amplitude of a carrier is switched or keyed by the binary signal m(t). This is sometimes called on-off keying (OOK).

27

Figure 3.9

BASK signal constellation diagram.

Figure 3.10

(a) Binary modulating signal and (b) BASK signal.

28

CHAPTER 4 RESULT AND CONCLUSION

RESULT
Any binary data was perfectly received by the receiver side. Depending upon the range of the transmitter and receiver module the data was transmitted within the optimum range of transmitter and receiver module that is 50 m.

CONCLUSION
While transmiting the data through the microcontroller the data is made more secure as comparision to general transmission. This is because the data can be encoded to a particular form say for example complement or sum other operations. This encoding makes the data difficult to edcode for the hackers and thus this data is transmitted safely from one place to other. Using this wireless transmission through micronroller we can make use of the data from microcontroller to drive machines such as motors and generators and thus control their operations.

FUTURE SCOPE OF MICROCONTROLLER IN COMMUNICATION

1-

Remote data acquisition using Wireless with the help of microcontroller (SCADA System)

Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition (SCADA) is a process control system that enables a site operator to monitor and control processes that are distributed among various remote sites. A properly designed SCADA system saves time and money by eliminating the need for service personnel to visit each site for inspection, data collection/logging or make adjustments.

2-

Use of microcontrollers in automobiles.

Microcontrollers have been at the heart of safety critical systems for many years. Almost all of the safety critical automotive systems in which they have been used have provided a fail-safe function. In the near future, there will be an added requirement for fault-tolerant microcontroller based systems.

3-

Internet-Based Remote Control using a Microcontroller and an Embedded Ethernet.

Internet capabilities imparted to a microcontroller by the use of embedded ethernet for data communication and Java for GUI functionality provides the future way of controlling heavy machines with the help of microcontroller.

4-

Fast track voting which could be used in small scale elections, like resident welfare

association panchayat level election and other society level elections It could also be used to conduct opinion polls during annual share holders meeting. It could also be used to conduct general assembly elections where numbers of candidates are less than or equal to eight in the current situation.

REFERENCES

C CODING
Transmitter coding
#include <mega32.h> #include<delay.h> // Alphanumeric LCD Module functions #asm .equ __lcd_port=0x18 ;PORTB #endasm #include <lcd.h> #define RXB8 1 #define TXB8 0 #define UPE 2 #define OVR 3 #define FE 4

#define UDRE 5 #define RXC 7 #define FRAMING_ERROR (1<<FE) #define PARITY_ERROR (1<<UPE) #define DATA_OVERRUN (1<<OVR) #define DATA_REGISTER_EMPTY (1<<UDRE) #define RX_COMPLETE (1<<RXC) // USART Receiver buffer #define RX_BUFFER_SIZE 8 char rx_buffer[RX_BUFFER_SIZE]; #if RX_BUFFER_SIZE<256 unsigned char rx_wr_index,rx_rd_index,rx_counter; #else unsigned int rx_wr_index,rx_rd_index,rx_counter; #endif // This flag is set on USART Receiver buffer overflow bit rx_buffer_overflow; // USART Receiver interrupt service routine interrupt [USART_RXC] void usart_rx_isr(void) { char status,data; status=UCSRA; data=UDR; if ((status & (FRAMING_ERROR | PARITY_ERROR | DATA_OVERRUN))==0) { rx_buffer[rx_wr_index]=data; if (++rx_wr_index == RX_BUFFER_SIZE) rx_wr_index=0; if (++rx_counter == RX_BUFFER_SIZE) { rx_counter=0; rx_buffer_overflow=1; }; }; } #ifndef _DEBUG_TERMINAL_IO_

// Get a character from the USART Receiver buffer #define _ALTERNATE_GETCHAR_ #pragma used+ char getchar(void) { char data; while (rx_counter==0); data=rx_buffer[rx_rd_index]; if (++rx_rd_index == RX_BUFFER_SIZE) rx_rd_index=0; #asm("cli") --rx_counter; #asm("sei") return data; } #pragma used#endif // USART Transmitter buffer #define TX_BUFFER_SIZE 8 char tx_buffer[TX_BUFFER_SIZE]; #if TX_BUFFER_SIZE<256 unsigned char tx_wr_index,tx_rd_index,tx_counter; #else unsigned int tx_wr_index,tx_rd_index,tx_counter; #endif // USART Transmitter interrupt service routine interrupt [USART_TXC] void usart_tx_isr(void) { if (tx_counter) { --tx_counter; UDR=tx_buffer[tx_rd_index]; if (++tx_rd_index == TX_BUFFER_SIZE) tx_rd_index=0; }; }

#ifndef _DEBUG_TERMINAL_IO_ // Write a character to the USART Transmitter buffer #define _ALTERNATE_PUTCHAR_ #pragma used+ void putchar(char c) { while (tx_counter == TX_BUFFER_SIZE); #asm("cli") if (tx_counter || ((UCSRA & DATA_REGISTER_EMPTY)==0)) { tx_buffer[tx_wr_index]=c; if (++tx_wr_index == TX_BUFFER_SIZE) tx_wr_index=0; ++tx_counter; } else UDR=c; #asm("sei") } #pragma used#endif // Standard Input/Output functions #include <stdio.h> // Declare your global variables here void print(int a) { if(a == 0) { lcd_putchar('0'); return; } print(a / 8); lcd_putchar(a % 8 + '0'); } void main(void) { // Declare your local variables here

unsigned char a,b; // Input/Output Ports initialization // Port A initialization // Func7=In Func6=In Func5=In Func4=In Func3=In Func2=In Func1=In Func0=In // State7=T State6=T State5=T State4=T State3=T State2=T State1=T State0=T PORTA=0x00; DDRA=0x00; // Port B initialization // Func7=In Func6=In Func5=In Func4=In Func3=In Func2=In Func1=In Func0=In // State7=T State6=T State5=T State4=T State3=T State2=T State1=T State0=T PORTB=0x00; DDRB=0x00; // Port C initialization // Func7=In Func6=In Func5=In Func4=In Func3=In Func2=In Func1=In Func0=In // State7=T State6=T State5=T State4=T State3=T State2=T State1=T State0=T PORTC=0x00; DDRC=0x00; // Port D initialization // Func7=In Func6=In Func5=In Func4=In Func3=In Func2=In Func1=In Func0=In // State7=T State6=T State5=T State4=T State3=T State2=T State1=T State0=T PORTD=0x00; DDRD=0x00; // Timer/Counter 0 initialization // Clock source: System Clock // Clock value: Timer 0 Stopped // Mode: Normal top=FFh // OC0 output: Disconnected TCCR0=0x00; TCNT0=0x00; OCR0=0x00; // Timer/Counter 1 initialization // Clock source: System Clock // Clock value: Timer 1 Stopped // Mode: Normal top=FFFFh

// OC1A output: Discon. // OC1B output: Discon. // Noise Canceler: Off // Input Capture on Falling Edge // Timer 1 Overflow Interrupt: Off // Input Capture Interrupt: Off // Compare A Match Interrupt: Off // Compare B Match Interrupt: Off TCCR1A=0x00; TCCR1B=0x00; TCNT1H=0x00; TCNT1L=0x00; ICR1H=0x00; ICR1L=0x00; OCR1AH=0x00; OCR1AL=0x00; OCR1BH=0x00; OCR1BL=0x00; // Timer/Counter 2 initialization // Clock source: System Clock // Clock value: Timer 2 Stopped // Mode: Normal top=FFh // OC2 output: Disconnected ASSR=0x00; TCCR2=0x00; TCNT2=0x00; OCR2=0x00; // External Interrupt(s) initialization // INT0: Off // INT1: Off // INT2: Off MCUCR=0x00; MCUCSR=0x00; // Timer(s)/Counter(s) Interrupt(s) initialization

TIMSK=0x00; // USART initialization // Communication Parameters: 8 Data, 1 Stop, No Parity // USART Receiver: On // USART Transmitter: On // USART Mode: Asynchronous // USART Baud rate: 9600 UCSRA=0x00; UCSRB=0xD8; UCSRC=0x86; UBRRH=0x03; UBRRL=0x40; // Analog Comparator initialization // Analog Comparator: Off // Analog Comparator Input Capture by Timer/Counter 1: Off ACSR=0x80; SFIOR=0x00; // LCD module initialization lcd_init(16); // Global enable interrupts #asm("sei") while (1) { // Place your code here a = PINC; b = 0b11001000; //print(a); //delay_ms(1000); //lcd_clear(); if(a&0x01) { //putchar('k'); putchar(b); lcd_putchar('A'); }

else if(a&0x02) { //putchar('k'); putchar(b + 1); lcd_putchar('B'); } //else if(a&0x04) // { //putchar('k'); // putchar(b + 2); // lcd_putchar('C'); // } else if(a&0x08) { //putchar('k'); putchar(b + 3); lcd_putchar('D'); } else if(a&0x10) { //putchar('k'); putchar(b + 4); lcd_putchar('E'); } else if(a&0x20) { //putchar('k'); putchar(b + 5); lcd_putchar('F'); } else if(a&0x40) { //putchar('k'); putchar(b + 6);

lcd_putchar('G'); } else if(a&0x80) { //putchar('k'); putchar(b + 7); lcd_putchar('H'); } delay_ms(100); }; }

Receiver coding
#include <mega32.h> #include<delay.h> unsigned char a, b; char getchar(void); // Alphanumeric LCD Module functions #asm .equ __lcd_port=0x18 ;PORTB #endasm #include <lcd.h> #define RXB8 1 #define TXB8 0 #define UPE 2 #define OVR 3 #define FE 4 #define UDRE 5 #define RXC 7 #define FRAMING_ERROR (1<<FE) #define PARITY_ERROR (1<<UPE) #define DATA_OVERRUN (1<<OVR) #define DATA_REGISTER_EMPTY (1<<UDRE) #define RX_COMPLETE (1<<RXC)

// USART Receiver buffer #define RX_BUFFER_SIZE 8 char rx_buffer[RX_BUFFER_SIZE]; #if RX_BUFFER_SIZE<256 unsigned char rx_wr_index,rx_rd_index,rx_counter; #else unsigned int rx_wr_index,rx_rd_index,rx_counter; #endif // This flag is set on USART Receiver buffer overflow bit rx_buffer_overflow; // USART Receiver interrupt service routine interrupt [USART_RXC] void usart_rx_isr(void) { char status,data; status=UCSRA; data=UDR; if ((status & (FRAMING_ERROR | PARITY_ERROR | DATA_OVERRUN))==0) { rx_buffer[rx_wr_index]=data; if (++rx_wr_index == RX_BUFFER_SIZE) rx_wr_index=0; if (++rx_counter == RX_BUFFER_SIZE) { rx_counter=0; rx_buffer_overflow=1; }; }; } #ifndef _DEBUG_TERMINAL_IO_ // Get a character from the USART Receiver buffer #define _ALTERNATE_GETCHAR_ #pragma used+ char getchar(void) { char data;

while (rx_counter==0); data=rx_buffer[rx_rd_index]; if (++rx_rd_index == RX_BUFFER_SIZE) rx_rd_index=0; #asm("cli") --rx_counter; #asm("sei") return data; } #pragma used#endif // USART Transmitter buffer #define TX_BUFFER_SIZE 8 char tx_buffer[TX_BUFFER_SIZE]; #if TX_BUFFER_SIZE<256 unsigned char tx_wr_index,tx_rd_index,tx_counter; #else unsigned int tx_wr_index,tx_rd_index,tx_counter; #endif

// USART Transmitter interrupt service routine interrupt [USART_TXC] void usart_tx_isr(void) { if (tx_counter) { --tx_counter; UDR=tx_buffer[tx_rd_index]; if (++tx_rd_index == TX_BUFFER_SIZE) tx_rd_index=0; }; } #ifndef _DEBUG_TERMINAL_IO_ // Write a character to the USART Transmitter buffer #define _ALTERNATE_PUTCHAR_ #pragma used+ void putchar(char c)

{ while (tx_counter == TX_BUFFER_SIZE); #asm("cli") if (tx_counter || ((UCSRA & DATA_REGISTER_EMPTY)==0)) { tx_buffer[tx_wr_index]=c; if (++tx_wr_index == TX_BUFFER_SIZE) tx_wr_index=0; ++tx_counter; } else UDR=c; #asm("sei") } #pragma used#endif // Standard Input/Output functions #include <stdio.h> // Declare your global variables here void main(void) {// Declare your local variables here

// Input/Output Ports initialization // Port A initialization // Func7=In Func6=In Func5=In Func4=In Func3=In Func2=In Func1=In Func0=In // State7=T State6=T State5=T State4=T State3=T State2=T State1=T State0=T PORTA=0x00; DDRA=0x00; // Port B initialization // Func7=In Func6=In Func5=In Func4=In Func3=In Func2=In Func1=In Func0=In // State7=T State6=T State5=T State4=T State3=T State2=T State1=T State0=T PORTB=0x00; DDRB=0x00; // Port C initialization

// Func7=In Func6=In Func5=In Func4=In Func3=In Func2=In Func1=In Func0=In // State7=T State6=T State5=T State4=T State3=T State2=T State1=T State0=T PORTC=0x00; DDRC=0x00; // Port D initialization // Func7=In Func6=In Func5=In Func4=In Func3=In Func2=In Func1=In Func0=In // State7=T State6=T State5=T State4=T State3=T State2=T State1=T State0=T PORTD=0x00; DDRD=0x00; // Timer/Counter 0 initialization // Clock source: System Clock // Clock value: Timer 0 Stopped // Mode: Normal top=FFh // OC0 output: Disconnected TCCR0=0x00; TCNT0=0x00; OCR0=0x00; // Timer/Counter 1 initialization // Clock source: System Clock // Clock value: Timer 1 Stopped // Mode: Normal top=FFFFh // OC1A output: Discon. // OC1B output: Discon. // Noise Canceler: Off // Input Capture on Falling Edge // Timer 1 Overflow Interrupt: Off // Input Capture Interrupt: Off // Compare A Match Interrupt: Off // Compare B Match Interrupt: Off TCCR1A=0x00; TCCR1B=0x00; TCNT1H=0x00; TCNT1L=0x00; ICR1H=0x00;

ICR1L=0x00; OCR1AH=0x00; OCR1AL=0x00; OCR1BH=0x00; OCR1BL=0x00; // Timer/Counter 2 initialization // Clock source: System Clock // Clock value: Timer 2 Stopped // Mode: Normal top=FFh // OC2 output: Disconnected ASSR=0x00; TCCR2=0x00; TCNT2=0x00; OCR2=0x00; // External Interrupt(s) initialization // INT0: Off // INT1: Off // INT2: Off MCUCR=0x00; MCUCSR=0x00;

// Timer(s)/Counter(s) Interrupt(s) initialization TIMSK=0x00; // USART initialization // Communication Parameters: 8 Data, 1 Stop, No Parity // USART Receiver: On // USART Transmitter: On // USART Mode: Asynchronous // USART Baud rate: 9600 UCSRA=0x00; UCSRB=0xD8; UCSRC=0x86; UBRRH=0x03; UBRRL=0x40;

// Analog Comparator initialization // Analog Comparator: Off // Analog Comparator Input Capture by Timer/Counter 1: Off ACSR=0x80; SFIOR=0x00; // LCD module initialization lcd_init(16); // Global enable interrupts #asm("sei") lcd_clear(); lcd_putsf("welcome"); delay_ms(1000); lcd_clear(); while (1) { // Place your code here a=getchar(); b = a >> 3; if(b == 0b00011001) lcd_putchar((a & 0b00000111) + 'A'); //delay_ms(10); }; }