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Interphase takes place before mitosis actually occurs. G1 phase: cells grow, biosynthesis, protein synthesis, organelles replicate. S phase: DNA synthesis occurs chromosomes replicate G2 phase: cells grows and prepares for mitosis Mitosis Prophase: the chromosomes become visible as it coils and super coils (shorten and thicken) you can now begin to see that they consist of a pair of sister chromatids. Spindles start to form. The nuclear envelope starts to disappear and the centrioles start to move to opposite of the poles while starting to form the microtubules. Metaphase: the nuclear envelope completely disappears, the microtubules attach to the centromeres of the chromatid pulling them to the equator of the cell. Anaphase: the replicated chromatids are separated from each other as the microtubules begin to shorten pulling the chromatids to two different piles at opposite poles of the cell. Telophase: the spindle fibres break down. The nuclear envelope reappears around the two separate piles of chromosomes. The chromosomes slowly uncoil therefore they are no longer visible using a light microscope. The cell starts to pinch Cytokinesis: the whole cell pinches at the cytoplasm forming two daughter cells which are genetically identical to the mother cell.
The Lungs
Inhaling Diagram contracts to become flatter and pushes digestive organs down External intercostal muscles contract to raise ribs Volume of chest cavity increases Air moves into lungs Pressure in chest cavity drops below atmospheric pressure Exhaling Diagram relaxes and is pushed up by displaces organs underneath External intercostal muscles relax and ribs fall Volume in chest cavity decreases Pressure in lungs increases and rises above atmospheric pressure. Air moves out of the lings
Breathing ventilation of the lungs happens due to pressure changes Brought by the contractions (chest rises)/ relax (chest falls) of external intercostal muscle changes in volume of Thoracic Cavity (chest cavity) no muscles attached to the outside of the lungs
The Lungs
Sigh
Yawn
Time(s)
The Lungs
The lungs are protected by the ribs. Movement of the ribs together with the action of the diaphragm (layer of muscle found beneath the lungs) help to produce breathing movement/ventilation. Gases pass both in and out of thin membrane of the alveoli: oxygen passes in the alveoli to the blood in the capillaries. Carbon dioxide passes from the blood to the air in the alveoli. How the Lungs are adapted for change: Large surface area: provides more space for molecules to pass through. Alveoli are very small (100-300micrometres) but they are found in large amounts on our lungs. Air Nose trachea bronchi A barrier partially permeable to oxygen and carbon dioxide. Bronchioles terminal bronchioles Thin barrier to reduce diffusion distance: the alveoli and capillary (ends of tubes) Alveoli walls are one cell thick (are in close contact) both consist of Squamous cells. Capillaries are narrow so the red blood cells are Gaseous Exchange: movement of gases closer to the air in alveoli therefore reducing the diffusion distance. by diffusion between an organism and Maintenance of steep diffusion gradient: fresh supply of molecules on its environment across a barrier e.g. one side of e.g. capillaries to keep concentration gradient difference high. alveoli Moist: needed for gases to dissolve.
The Lungs
Nose: - Nasal hairs trap large dust particles. - Nasal membrane moisturise the air. Trachea: - C-Shaped rinds or cartilage. - Ciliated epithelium tissue and goblet cells - Smooth muscle Bronchi: - Irregular shaped protons of cartilage - Ciliated epithelium tissue and goblet cells - Plentiful supply of muscle Bronchioles: - similar to bronchi - Lumen is star shaped Alveoli: - No cilia/ goblet cells/ muscle - Very thin membrane - contains macrographs which is a type of white blood cell that digests microbes and dust
Ventilation breathing in and out to supply fresh air to the alveoli. Ventilation is assisted by muscles and elastic tissue (allows stretching of the tubes).
Roles of Tissue
Ciliated Epithelium Tissue: the cilia on parts of the outer membrane of the tissue move in a synchronised pattern to waft mucus back up to the throat to be swallowed. Squamous Epithelium Tissue: is made up of cells that are flattened, so they are very thin. The cells together form a thin, smooth, flat surface making it ideal to line the inside of tubes e.g. blood vessels, where fluid can easily pass over them. Can also form thin walls e.g. the alveolus as is provides a short diffusion pathway for the exchange of gases. Smooth Muscle: can contract so it will constrict the airway making the Lumen of the airway narrower. Found in the bronchioles so it can constrict the air in and from the alveolus. Elastic Fibres: when the smooth muscle contracts it cannot reverse this affect so when the airway constricts, it deforms the elastic fibres in the loose tissue. As the smooth muscle relaxes, the elastic fibres recoil to their original shape and size. Helps widen the airway. Cartilage: plays a structural role. It supports the trachea and bronchi, holding them open. This prevent collapse when the air pressure inside is low during inhalation. Cartilage does not form a complete ring so there can be some flexibility. Goblet Cells and Glandular tissue: secrets mucus. The role of mucus is to trap tiny microbes and dust particles from the air (e.g. pollen and bacteria) to reduce the risk of infection
Closed Blood never leaves the vessels E.g. mammals and fish
The Heart
Blood in from the head and body (deoxygenated blood)
Right Atrium Tricuspid Valve
To the lungs
Pulmonary Artery
Thin Muscle
Thick Muscle
Artery: goes away from the heart Vein: goes to the heart
Right Ventricle
Right
The Heart
Blood Pressure The muscle of each chamber contracts to create increased pressure in the blood. The higher the pressure created in the heart, the further it will be able to push the blood. Atria The muscle of the atria is very thin as its chamber is not needed to create much pressure. There function is to push blood into the ventricle. Right Ventricle The walls of the right Ventricle is much thicker than the walls of the atria enabling it to pump blood out of the heart. However the walls of the right ventricle are much thinner than the walls of the left ventricle. The right ventricle pumps deoxygenated blood to the lungs. The lungs are in the chest cavity besides the heart therefore the blood doesnt need to travel far. The lungs also contain a lot of very fine capillaries that are in close contact with the walls of the alveoli. The alveoli walls are very thin and there is very little tissue fluid therefore the capillaries are not supported and could easily burst. The pressure of the blood must be kept down to prevent the capillaries on the lungs from bursting. Left Ventricle The walls of the left ventricle can be two/three times bigger than those of the right ventricle. The blood from the left ventricle is pumped out through the aorta and needs sufficient pressure to overcome the resistance of the circulation.
Cell Surface Membrane - Cell stability - Keeps organelles in place and within the cell. -Cell shape and structure.
Cytoskeleton - Gives the cell shape as well as hold organelles in place - Responsible for chromosomes moving in mitosis, movement of cilia and flagella, cytoplasm cleavage in cell division etc.
Prokaryotes
Organelles that Plants Cells have that animal cell dont: Chloroplast - Where photosynthesis takes place in plant cells. Cell Wall -gives extra strength to the cell but are freely permeable to solutes. Plasmodesmata - Are holes in the cell wall of plant cells. They connect to cytoplasm of other cells for communication and transport of materials. Vacuole -membrane bound sacs containing water of dilute solutions of salts and other solutes. -gives rigidity and shape to the cell - Usually freely permeable to molecules ions especially gas and water. Organelles that animal Cells have that plant cells dont: Microville -they increase the surface area for absorption of materials
- Used for sticking cells together. - Protection against chemicals and phagocytises
Contains DNA Contains all the enzymes needed for metabolic reactions
The plasma membrane - Separates cell from the outside world. - gives the cell its shape. - keeps organelles in place. - allows simple diffusion of small molecules e.g. carbon dioxide, oxygen, water etc. - separating components from the cytoplasm -cell recognition and signalling.
Passive Process
Diffusion: refers to the tendency of molecules or ions to be distributed evenly out down its concentration gradient so from a region of high concentration to a region of low concentration. Diffusion is a passive process so it only uses kinetic energy. Factors that affect the rate of diffusion: Temperature higher the temperature the more kinetic energy available for faster diffusion. Concentration gradient having more molecules on one side than the other increases the concentration gradient. Stirring/moving of substance increases the movement of molecules therefore it increases its diffusion rate. Surface area larger the surface area the faster the rate of diffusion. Distance/thickness of membranes. Thinker the membrane the slower the diffusion rate. Size of molecules smaller the ions or molecules the quicker they can diffuse. Diffusion is a relatively slow process compared to active transport. Equilibrium: No overall movement of molecules in one direction. So these no net movement. In living organism, many activities or features ensures that equilibrium is not reach. Cells use up carbon dioxide in photosynthesis so the levels within the cell remain much lower than that outside the cell. This maintains the concentration gradient for carbon dioxide. Simple Diffusion Passively diffuses through the Bilayer down a concentration gradient. Molecules such as oxygen, carbon dioxide, water and steroid hormones can simply diffuse across the Bilayer. Facilitated Diffusion Small charged molecules such as sodium ions or larger molecules such as glucose cannot pass through the lipid Bilayer so they have to use the channel protein (open and close to control what enter and exits the cell) and carrier protein (shaped so specific molecules can fit in them) to simply diffuse down a concentration gradient.
Active Transport
Active transport requires the usage of ATP energy as ions go up a concentration gradient as big ions travel from a region on low concentration to a region of high concentration; they carry specific molecules one way across the membrane to ensure this occurs ATP energy changes the shape of the carrier protein so that only specific ions can enter and exit the carrier protein. Active transport is a much faster process than simply diffusion. Big ions cannot diffuse simply through the lipid Bilayer or even use the channel protein like in facilitated diffusion instead they require the help carrier proteins that changes shape in a way that fits the molecules they carry, they act as pumps as the carrier protein flips over or carries the ions across the phospholipids Bilayer. Examples of ions that travel using active transport is K+, Na+, Ca^2+ etc. Bulk transport: Is another example of active transport. Some cells need to move large quantities of materials either in or outside the cell. The process is described as endocytosis when it involves bringing molecules into the cell, and exocytosis involves moving materials out of the cell. Bulk transport is possible because membranes can easily fuse and separate by pinching off. Bulk transport also requires the usage of ATP energy. Endo inwards Pino liquid material Exo outwards Phango solid material.
Concentration Gradient: the bigger the concentration gradient between two solutions, the faster the rate of diffusion.
Solution 1
Membrane 2
The Lung
Tidal Volume: volume of air moves into the lungs during each breath when you at rest. Inspiratory reserve: is how much more air can be breathed in over and above the normal tidal volume when you take in a big breath. Expiratory reserve: is how much more air can be breathed out over and above the amount that is breathed in a tidal volume breath. Vital Capacity: is the largest volume of air that can be moved into and out of the lungs in any one breath. Dead Space: is the air in the bronchioles, bronchi and trachea where no gas exchange takes place. Residual Volume: is the volume of the air that always remains in the lungs even after the biggest possible exhalation.
Prokaryotes Vs Eukaryotes
Prokaryotes
No nucleus DNA is circular without No membrane bound organelles Ribosomes in the 70s type Single cell organisms Relatively small organisms Reproduction is also asexual No cytoskeleton Always single celled organism
Eukaryotes
Always Has a nucleus DNA is linear and condensed into chromosomes Has many membrane bound organelles Ribosomes is the 80s type Single or multi-cellular organism Relatively big organisms Reproduction cane asexual or sexual Always has cytoskeleton Often multi-cellar
Transverse Section
Electron Microscope
Transmission Image -internal images can be seen e.g. mitochondrion etc. - X500 000 Scanning Image -can only see external features e.g. Microville - X100 000
Measuring
Units of measurement: 1cm = 10mm 1m = 1000mm 1mm = 1000m 1m = 1000nm = Micrometer n = Nanometre m = Metre mm = Millimetre cm = Centimetre
Definition
Magnification: the extent to which an image has been enlarged. Resolution: the ability to see two distinct points separately that are very close together.
I A M
Image size on paper Actual image size Magnification
Mitosis
Cell Division Replace old worn out cells Repair Asexual reproduction Growth
46 46
92
46
Prior to cell division, a cell must duplicate everything inside it. INTERPHASE: G1 (cells gets signals when ready to divide), S, G2 cell gets ready to divide This is the stage in which a cell is getting ready to divide. This is when organelles and DNA are replicated. Thus, during Interphase, the amount of DNA in the cell doubles (e.g. in humans before Interphase occurs there is 46 chromosomes however after Interphase take place there is 92 chromosomes). During Interphase intense metabolic activity occurs: to produce ATP for energy via aerobic respiration. ATP is needed for protein synthesis and lipid synthesis. Protein is needed to synthesise organelles.
Mitosis Vs Meiosis
Mitosis Division of body cells (asexual reproduction) Result is two genetically identical cells form mother cell Daughter cells of chromosomes stay the same in number as mother cells Does not make any changes to DNA4has one division. Meiosis Division of sex cells (sexual reproduction) Result is four non identical cells from one mother cell Number of chromosomes is halved Creates variation in the DNA of chromosomes Two cellular divisions occur
Fertilise Fertilise
50% of sperm will carry X chromosomes while the other 50% will be Y
Meiosis
or
Girl
100% of egg cells will be X chromosomes
Boy
Cell Specialisation
Sperm cell: function is to fertilise the egg cell.
Mitochondria - for ATP energy produced via aerobic respiration. So sperm are move its tail to get to the egg Head- carries genetic material and an acrosome which is a specialised Lysosome that contains powerful digestive enzymes to penetrate the eggs cell membrane to order to fertilise it.
Flagellum movement of the cell. Helps to propel the cell up the uterine tract towards the egg.
Cell Specialisation
Palisade mesphyll cell: function is to carry out photosynthesis as is contains many chloroplasts. Nerve cell: function is to conduct nerve impulses. Muscle cell: function is to cause movement. Red blood cells: function is to carry oxygen from the lungs to tissue. It shape biconcave discs Increases the surface area therefore more oxygen and carbon dioxide can diffuse in so this can occur. Red blood cells have a flexible membrane so it is able to squeeze into really narrow capillaries. They dont have nucleus and other organelles except ribosomes to make protein, thus there is more room for haemoglobin and has a greater capacity to carry oxygen. Note: all blood cells are produced undifferentiated stem cells in bone marrow.
Cell Specialisation
Root hair cell: it has a large surface area for absorption water and mineral ions from the soil.
Mitochondria to provide energy for active transport of ions against its Flexible cell membrane which concentration means they can squeeze gradient. through small gaps in the capillaries to travel to where they are needed in the body. They are adapted by having a large nucleus which contains many copies of genes for the control of the production of antibodies. Cell membrane has a sensitive surface to enable the cell to detect foreign bodies and destroy.
The cytoplasm contains enzymes. This means that once a micro-organism is ingested by the cell, it will be digested by these enzymes.
Micro-hair like projections that increase the surface area of the cell therefore more water can diffuse into the root hair.
White blood cells: are in the blood to digest invading microorganism that the organism or cell dont recognise.
Gas Exchange
Single cell organisms (e.g. Amoeba fresh water dweller) High surface area to volume ratio therefore all gas exchange is possible via simple diffusion. Gas has short diffusion path to the centre of the cell. Therefore single celled organisms dont need a specialised area to carry out gases exchange. Multi-cellular organism The gas diffusion path is longer therefore it will take longer of gases such as oxygen and carbon dioxide to diffuse to the centre of the cell. So the centre may starve from oxygen. Complex organism (e.g. mammal) The gases exchange pathway is much longer therefore you cannot rely on simple diffusion for gas exchange into the centre is not possible so a circulatory system (e.g. capillary) is needed and a pump.
Plant
Stomata: pore in leaf epidermis, surrounded by two guard cells. Changes in turgidity of the guard cells can open or close the stoma. Stomata allow gases exchange in plants and also allow transpiration. Guard cell: plays a part in gases exchange in plant leaves and they become turgid when water enters causing the walls to stretch opening the pores between them. They have many mitochondria for active transport of ions they take up. Xylem: Well suited for moving water and minerals up the plant. Phloem: Play an important role in moving products of photosynthesis up and down the plant in sieve tubes. Pit: allow lateral (sideways) flow of water so other parts of the plant get water. Spiral band of Lignin: waterproofing, support and strength stops vessels from collapsing under pressure, rigidity maintains continuous column of water. Plants cant control is own temperature so its depends on the surrounding temperature. Transpiration los of vapour from the leaf stomata due to photosynthetic gas exchange.
Inevitable
The Leaf
Leafs are the major organ of photosynthesis in a plant, their cells and overall shape are arranged to help maximise the rate of photosynthesis. Requirements of photosynthesis: Light Water Carbon dioxide Presence of chlorophyll The leaf has adapted in a number of ways: The upper epidermis lets light through (transparent) Palisade layer underneath consists of a long, thin, tightly packed cells containing a lot of chloroplast. Loosely packed spongy mesophyll layer that allows circulation of gases. Lower epidermis layer that has stomata (pores). Allow gases to be exchanged between the leaf and the outside air. A leaf vein system that contains xylem and phloem tissues to support the leaf as well as carrying the transport tissue.
Only exception is the pulmonary artery that carries deoxygenated blood and the pulmonary vein that carries oxygenated blood
Electrocardiogram (ECG)
P - Wave- Atria contracts QRS complex Ventricle contracts T - Wave - Diastole (total relaxation of the heart)