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MANAGING MOTIVATION AT WORK LEARNING OBJECTIVES After studying this chapter, you will be able to understand : Concept of Motivation

n Motivational process Motivational Drives Motivational Theories Content and Process theories with their implications. Main motivational problems in organizations Managing motivation Concept of Motivation The term motivation is very frequently used in business and other organizations. Employees are categorized as highly motivated or lowly motivated persons. This obviously brings the issue to our mind, what is motivation? Motivation means the individuals willingness/ interest to work. It can be said as the individuals involvement in his or her work. Although a few human activities occur without motivation, all conscious behaviour are seen as motivated, or caused. Anyone, if fall asleep needs no motivation, but to choose the bed or go to bed needs motivation, as it is a conscious action. Motivation refers to the forces within a person that affect his or her direction, intensity and persistence of voluntary behaviour.1 In the above definition three clear terms need explanation. Motivated employees are willing to exert a particular level of effort (intensity), for a certain duration of time (persistence) toward a particular goal (direction). Motivated employees stay long with a task to achieve the goal(s). Now it is clear that, motivation relates to an individual. This is related to an individuals drives and needs. The needs and drives help in motivating an individual. For example, the need for water produces thirst, this leads towards searching for water (the drive) which is motivation. The individual puts his effort to get the result within stipulated time. But if we analyse closely no two persons have equal need or equal motivation to satisfy the need. Here, we can see performance to achieve objective as the result of motivation. Potential performance is the result of Ability (A) and Motivation (M). Results occur or objectives are achieved when motivated employees are

provided with right kind of opportunities to perform, properly utilizing the resources. The goals and incentives are to satisfy ones needs and act as motivational factors leading to improved performance. It is therefore important to understand employee needs and expectations, as they influence the behaviour. Most of the employers face the challenge of motivating their employees. Due to changing business scenario, the nature of jobs have been dramatically changed. The, so called, command-and-control method does not work more. Also, pay-for-performance approach has changed the scenario. These have been added with workforce diversity and globalization. Diverse workers have diverse values which influence the needs and expectations. Along with all these in the final analysis on employee behaviour, the issue raised is why some employees are highly motivated and more involved with the work. The Figure below summarises the role of motivation in performance to answer these questions to some extent. Even when people have a clear objective, the right skills and a supportive work environment, they need sufficient motivation to achieve work objectives. Actually 3 (three) things are important here; the effort, the goals, and the needs. Efforts are the measure of intensity. When somebody is motivated he works hard, but if this hard work is not well-directed and there is no drive the effort becomes fruitless. Finally, it is concluded that motivation is goal achieving/ needsatisfying process. Need is the internal state that makes certain outcomes appear attractive. Need, if not satisfied, creates tension which stimulates individuals drives. The drives generate search behavior to find out particular goals for satisfaction of needs which leads to reduction of tension. Need can be otherwise explained as deficiencies that energizes or triggers behaviors to satisfy those. The stronger your needs, the more motivated you are to satisfy them or we can say that a satisfied need does not motivate. MOTIVATION THEORIES - Motivation theories fall into two main categories : Content theories of motivation and Process theories of motivation. Content theories of motivation explain the dynamics of needs, by understanding peoples needs we can decide the conditions that motivate the persons. - Maslows Needs Hierarchy Theory : This is the best-known content theory developed by Abraham Maslow, which hypothesizes that in each human being

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there is a hierarchy of needs that include some lower order needs and some higher order needs. He proposed that unless the lower order needs are satisfied, the higher order need will not be operative. He proposed five levels (hierarchies) of the needs, as described below : Physiological Needs include hunger, thirst, shelter, sex and other bodily. Safety Needs include security and protection from pain, threat or illness (physical and emotional harms). In case of organization it is job security. Social Needs include love, belongingness, affection, acceptance, group membership and friendship. Esteem Needs include the internal factors like self-respect, autonomy, recognition and respect from others. Self - actualisation needs include the growth to the highest extent, realisation of ones potential and self - fulfillment. As the person satisfies the lower-level need, the next higher need in the hierarchy becomes the primary motivation. This process is known as satisfaction - progression process. The higher needs arise after the satisfaction of lower order needs. Lower order needs can be satisfied through external means. In the organisational context pay, job security, etc. are helpful to satisfy the physiological and safety needs. Higher order needs are satisfied by the internal factors like love, affection, recognition, value, self-fulfillment, etc. This theory has received much recognition among the managers as this is easy to understand. But the model is too rigid to explain the dynamic and unstable characteristics of employee needs. Researchers found that human needs do not cluster neatly around five categories. It is also a fact that needs do not appear one after another. Many needs may appear at a time and even higher level needs sometimes appear before satisfaction of lower order needs. However, this theory provided an important introduction to employee needs and laid the foundation for other theories of motivation. Alderfers ERG Theory : Clayto Alderfer developed ERG theory to overcome the limitations with Maslows Needs Hierarchy theory. ERG theory groups human needs into three broad categories : existence(E), relatedness (R) and growth (G). Existence needs include basic material requirements for our existence which correspond to Maslows physiological and security needs. (food, shelter, security and work conditions).

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Relatedness needs include a persons need to interact with other people and it correspond with Maslows social need and external component of esteem. (to receive recognition, interpersonal safety, belongingness, etc.) Growth Needs are concerned with the intrinsic desire of human beings for personal development and achievement. This corresponds the internal component of esteem needs and actualisation needs as described by Maslow. ERG theory states that employees behavior is motivated by more than one needs simultaneously. It also expresses that you can try to achieve something (complete a project) even though your relatedness needs are not satisfied. Unlike Maslows rigid step-like progression, ERG theory has a frustration regression process which clarifies that when an individual is unable to satisfy the higher need becomes frustrated and regresses to the next lower need level. For example, inability to satisfy growth need might increase the desire for more money and lower need becomes major motivator. In summary, ERG theory, like Maslow, argues that lower-needs being satisfied give rise to higher-needs, but multiple needs can operate as motivators at the same time, and frustration in attempting higher order needs can result in regression to a lower order need. ERG theory is more acceptable a theory because of existing differences among individuals as far as education, family background and culture are concerned. Therefore, it is told that ERG theory explains the dynamics of human needs reasonably well. This is accepted as a valid version of need hierarchy. Theory X and Theory Y : Douglas McGregor proposed two distinct views of human beings. One is basically negative and is lebeled as theory X. The other one is positive, and is known as theory. Both the theories are based on managerial assumptions on human nature. Under Theory X, the assumptions of managers about the nature of human beings are : (i) Employees dislike work and avoid it wherever possible; (ii) Employees dislike work, therefore, they need to be compelled, controlled and threatened with punishment to perform and achieve the goal; (iii) Employees usually avoid responsibility, therefore, need to be directed; and (iv) Most workers/ employees seek security associated with work and display little ambition. Under Theory Y the positive assumptions about human beings are : (i) Employees like work, as they like to rest or play; (ii) If committed, they exercise self-control and self-direction; (iii) They are interested to learn and to take responsibility; and (iv) They have the ability to make innovative decisions. The message from these two theories can be related to the theory of Maslow. Theory X people are dominated by lower-order needs and theory Y people are dominated by higher-order needs.

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McGregor himself admitted that theory Y assumptions are more valid than theory X. He proposed that managers should try the ideas of participatory decisionmaking, challenging and innovative jobs, shared responsibility and good interpersonal relationship at the work place to motivate employees, considering the human nature as positive as proposed under theory Y. Although, there is no confirmation on validity of these theories, it is sure that these theories have their implications in appropriate situations. Implications are distinctly visible in government organizations and progressive organizations in India. Motivation - Hygiene Theory : This was proposed by Fredrick Herzberg. This theory proposes that employees are motivated primarily by growth and esteem needs that is through recognition, responsibility, advancement, achievement etc. and therefore these factors are motivating factors or motivators. Factors extrinsic to the work are hygiene factors which help the employees feel satisfied with the job. These include work conditions, job security, work relations, supervisory system, etc. taking care of these factors reduces dissatisfaction of employees, but it does not significantly help in motivating them. Also it is a fact that removing dissatisfying factors does not ensure satisfaction. The theory never views job satisfaction and dissatisfaction as opposites. It says that improving motivators improves satisfaction, but does not decrease job dissatisfaction. Similarly removing dissatisfaction does not motivate employees. However, the theory is criticized because : The criticisms of the theory are : Studies found that employees are motivated by more than the job itself. For example, hygiene factors like job security, work conditions, work relationship motivate person to join the organisation, attend the work on time, perform the jobs better and learn new skills. Financial rewards also act as powerful motivators, although Herzberg showed them as hygiene factors. No overall measurement of satisfaction was shown by the study. For example, a person may dislike the work relationship but may be satisfied with the pay system and security. The theory also ignores situational variables and individual differences in attitudes in the same situation.

However, this recognises the fact that job contents work as the major motivators. This has helped for development of job enrichment programs. McClellands Theory of Needs : This is also known as theory of learned needs. David McClelland developed this theory after studying the secondary needs of people which are learned and reinforced through childhood learning, parental styles, and social norms. McClelland considered : Need for Achievement, Need Motivation 5

for affiliation, and Need for Power, the secondary (learned) needs as the important sources of motivation. As described by him; Need for Achievement (nAch) is the most widely studied learned need. People with high nAch want to accomplish resonably challenging goals, as they have the drive to excel, to achieve, to succeed through their own efforts. However, high nAch people are found performing large companies or as the owners of organization where they get maximum freedom. Need for Affiliation (nAff) refers to the desire to seek approval from others, close interpersonal relationships and avoid conflict and confrontation. These people try to project a favourable image of themselves and take steps to be liked by others. This is similar to Maslows social need and Alderfers relatedness theory. These people are more effective in event management, coordinating people, mediating conflicts, social interaction, etc. Need for Power (nPow) refers to the desire to control ones environment, including people and material resources. The desire to have control over others and take the leadership comes under this need. Powers are of two types such as : Personalised power and socialized power. Personalised power refers to use of power for own sake. Socialized power is used as the means to help others, by improving society or increasing organizational effectiveness. Effective leaders, as told by McClelland should possess more socialized power because they have greater social responsibility. McClelland argued that above three needs are learned and are not instinctive. He developed training programmes to accelerate these needs. Implications of Content Theories of Motivation Content theories are found well accepted across the countries and cultures. However, it was definitely proved that needs bring the drive and act as the motivators. But it is a fact that multiple needs dominate the human behavior. Managers are to be careful in identifying the dominating needs and arrange rewards so that workers will be motivated at the workplace. Only financial rewards do not work as motivators all the time, recognition, belongingness etc. also act as the motivators depending on the situation. PROCESS THEORIES OF MOTIVATION : Process theories describe the process through which need deficiencies are translated into behaviour. Three most popular process theories are : Expectancy theory, Equity theory and Goal setting theory. Expectancy Theory of Motivation : Victor Vrooms Expectancy theory is based on the idea that work effort is directed towards behaviors that people believe will lead towards desired outcomes like rewards and achievements.

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This is the tendency to act in a certain way that depends on the strength of an expectation that the act will be followed by an outcome or result. Through our experience we expect that we can achieve various levels of performance. We also develop expectations about whether job performance and work behavior lead towards particular result. Finally, we direct our effort toward outcomes that help us fulfilling our needs. The theory focuses on three relationships : (i) Effort performance- expectancy which is individuals perception that his/ her efforts will result in a particular level of performance. It is the employees belief on his/her own effort to bring the desired level of performance. (ii) Performance - Reward Expectancy is the perceived probability that a specific behavior or performance level will lead to specific results, which are expected. The main point is individuals your motivation depends on the probability that a behavior (job performance) will bring the results he/she thinks about. Rewards - Personal Goals (O - G) Relationship is otherwise known as outcome valences. Valences refer to the anticipated results towards which individual is attracted. This is the degree of attractiveness of those results for the individual for attaining the personal goals.

(iii)

Work motivation is the combination of high expectancy, high instrumentality (reward) and high attraction to the higher level of personal goals. This theory helps us in understanding individuals goals, the linkage between effort and performance, between performance and reward, between the rewards and individual goal satisfaction. But this theory proposes a difficult measurement of individual performance and is silent in case of group performance. This theory does not establish any relationship between opportunity and ability to perform. It is a fact that favourable work conditions, modern equipments, job related decisions, etc. provides opportunity as part of job environment to influence the performance. Equity Theory : This theory explains how people develop fairness regarding the distribution and exchange of resources. We perceive what we get from a job situation (outcomes) in relation to what we put into it (inputs) and then we compare the outcome - input ratio with that of other relevant individuals. When we perceive this ratio as equal, a state of equity exists - we perceive the situation as fair and just. When we found this unequal, we experience inequitable treatment which motivates us to act on emotions. The theory has four main elements :

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(1)

Outcome/ input ratio This is value of outcomes (pay, promotions, recognitions, etc.) received divided by the value of inputs (skills, effort, experience, amount of time worked, performance results and other contributions of employee). This ratio varies from individual to individual because people value outcomes differently because they have different needs. Comparison : Equity theory says that we compare our outcomes with others (may be another person, the group, etc.) It may be someone in the same job, another job or another organization. Equity Evaluation : This is done by determining our own outcome/ input ratio and comparing it with others. This has three situations, under reward inequity (when others found better rewarded), equity condition (when it is found similar) and over reward inequity (when self gets more than other).

(2) (3)

(4)

Consequences of Inequity: People feel an uncomfortable emotional tension when they perceive inequity. If such tension is strong enough it motivates employee to take steps to reduce such tension. There are six possible ways to reduce such tension; such as : Changing inputs : Employees try to reduce their efforts and performances; Changing outcomes : By producing more, they change the reward or even they demand for it through formal means to get better. Changing perceptions : Employees may distort inputs and outcomes to restore equity. Leaving the field : Employees reduce the inequity feelings, by getting away from inequitable situation, Through more time off from work, transfer, resignation, separation, etc. Choose a different referent : It may not be possible to get as much as x gets but I am doing better than y. I should get better. Acting on comparison other : When you are under-rewarded you think that other workers should be doing larger share of the work-load for which they get better.

(a) (b) (c) (d)

(e) (f)

Equity theory has received considerable support in research and practice. When we ask the questions why employees leave the organization, why they abstain from work place, why they steal from workplace the answer may be inequitable treatment. Employees needed to be fairly treated by the organization as far as distribution of rewards is concerned. GOAL SETTING THEORY Edwin Locke proposed that intentions to work towards a goal are major source of motivation. Goals are the immediate or ultimate objectives that employees are trying to accomplish from their work effort. Goal tells the

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employee what needs to be done and how much effort is required to be given for achieving the goal. Specific goals produce a higher level of output than the generalised goal. But once an employee accepts a hard task, he or she will put more effort until it is achieved, lowered or abandoned. People do better when they get feedback on how well they are progressing toward their goals because this identifies the lacuna on the way of performance. Goal - setting is the process of motivating employees and clarifying their role perceptions by establishing performance objectives. It potentially improves employee performance in two ways : (i) by stretching the intensity and persistence of efforts, and (ii) by giving employees clear role perceptions. There are mixed evidences on improvement of performance if employees given the chance to participate in goal setting process. But people when assigned with difficult goals the resistance increases. When they participate in goal-setting, they even accept more difficult jobs. OB scholars have identified specific conditions to maximise task efforts and performance : Specific goals : Employees put more effort towards a task when they work towards specific goals rather than when they are assigned to perform towards generalized goals. Relevant goals : Goal must be relevant to the individuals job and must be achievable. Challenging goals : Employees put more intense and persistent effort when they have challenging rather than easy goals. Goal commitment : If goals become very difficult, employees may not be committed to achieve them. At this point work efforts fall dramatically. Employees with high self - efficacy (individuals belief that he/ she is capable of performing task) are more likely to accept the task because they believe that they can choose successful strategies to reach those goals. Employees with low-selfefficacy may be in panic when they are assigned with too difficult goals. Participation in Goal Setting : To build and maintain commitment of employees to goals, they are to be involved in the goal-setting process. This enhances goalcommitment of employees than if goals are assigned to them by supervisor/boss. Goal feedback : Feedback helps in goal-setting and acts as an essential motivator, as it gives information on goal-accomplishment. This also helps the employees to know the progress as well as mistakes on the way to reach the goal. But, goal-setting is culture bound and depends on the nature of job. This should match the ability and qualifications of employees. A Brief Note of Theories of Motivation. Motivation 9

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