PROJECT REPORT On DISASTER MANAGEMENT IN INDIA Submitted to MAIMS, ROHINI

In partial fulfillment of the requirement for the award of degree Of BACHELORS OF BUSINESS ADMINISTRATION BANKING AND INSURANCE (B&I) SESSION 2010-2013 Submitted by: Enroll no. Under the guidance of: Mrs. CHARU MOHILA

DECLARATION

This is to certify that I have completed the Minor Project Report titled DISASTER MANAGEMENT IN INDIA under the guidance of Mrs. Charu Mohila in partial fulfillment of the requirement for the award of degree of Bachelor of Business Administration (B&I) at Maharaja Agrasen Institute of Management Studies, Delhi. This is an original piece of work and I have not submitted it earlier elsewhere.

Enroll. No. II Year BBA (B&I) MAIMS

CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that the Minor Project Report titled DISASTER MANAGEMENT IN INDIA is an academic work done by submitted in the partial fulfillment of the requirement for the award of the degree of Bachelor of Business Administration (B&I) from Maharaja Agrasen Institute of Management Studies , Delhi , under my guidance & direction. To the best of my knowledge and belief the data & information presented by her in the project has not been submitted earlier.

CHARU MOHILA

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I take this opportunity to express my deep sense of gratitude to all those who have contributed significantly by sharing their knowledge and experience in the completion of this project work. I am highly thankful to Mrs.CHARU MOHILA, my project guide under whose guidance this project work was carried out. I thank her for her continuous support and mentoring during the tenure of the project. Finally, I would also like to thank all my dear friends for their cooperation, advice and encouragement during the long and arduous task of carrying out the project and preparing this report.

Submitted by: Enroll. No. II Year BBA (B&I) MAIMS

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EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
Some 75 percent of the worlds population live in areas affected at least once by earthquake, tropical cyclone, flood or drought between 1980 and 2000. The consequences of such widespread exposure to natural hazard for human development is only now beginning to be identified. Reducing Disaster Risk: A Challenge for Development plays a role in this learning process. Natural disaster risk is intimately connected to processes of human development. Disasters put development at risk. At the same time, the development choices made by individuals, communities and nations can generate new disaster risk. But this need not be the case. Human development can also contribute to a serious reduction in disaster risk. This Project shows that billions of people in more than 100 countries areperiodically exposed to at least one event of earthquake, tropical cyclone, flood or drought. As a result of disasters triggered by these natural hazards, more than 184 deaths per day are recorded in different parts of the world. This Project demonstrates that development processes intervene in the translation of physical exposure into natural disaster events. This is demonstrated by the observation that while only 11 percent of the people exposed to natural hazards live in countries classified as low human development, they account for more than 53 percent of total recorded deaths. The Project argues that disaster risk is not inevitable and offers examples of good practice in disaster risk reduction that can be built into ongoing development planning policy.

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CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION

Purpose of the study :

India is highly vulnerable to Natural Disasters, losing about 2 per cent GDP on an average due to these disasters. Hence, the requirement for protecting lives and assets from disaster as well as to prevent erosion of development gained importance over several years. The purpose of the project is to capture some of the initiatives and flag some areas that need attention. The Government alone cannot undertake these initiatives and even if it does, that is not enough because risk reduction is the responsibility of every development partner. There is, thus a nees to develop capacities of all stakeholders, particularly the citizens of India. Thus, through this project I would expect all to join hands and work with the Government to make the country safe.

Research objective of the study

The projects research goals are classified into 5 main research objectives.

1. Characterization of hazards, vulnerability, and risk i. Identifyimg hazards and vulnerabilities leading to risk ii.forecasting hazards and assessing risks

2. Understanding the various principles of Disaster Management

3. Knowing about the Development Strategies of Disaster Management.

4. Reducing risk and curbing losses through knowledge-base actions

5. List activities needed for post-disaster management

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY -

MEANING OF RESEARCH Research in common parlance refers to a search for knowledge. Once can also define research as a scientific and systematic search for pertinent information on a specific topic. In fact, research is an art of scientific investigation. The Advanced Learners Dictionary of Current English lays down the meaning of research as a careful investigation or inquiry especially through search for new facts in any branch of knowledge. Some people consider research as a movement, a movement from the known to the unknown. It is actually a voyage of discovery. We all possess the vital instinct of inquisitiveness for, when the unknown confronts us, we wonder and our inquisitiveness makes us probe and attain full and fuller understanding of the unknown. This inquisitiveness is the mother of all knowledge and the method, which man employs for obtaining the knowledge of whatever the unknown, can be termed as research.

OBJECTIVES OF RESEARCH The purpose of research is to discover answers to questions through the application of scientific procedures. The main aim of research is to find out the truth which is hidden and which has not been discovered as yet. Though each research study has its own specific purpose and they are: 1. To gain familiarity with a phenomenon or to achieve new insights into it (studies with this object in view are termed as exploratory or formulative research studies);

2. To portray accurately the characteristics of a particular individual, situation or a group (Studies with this object in view are known as descriptive research studies);

3. To determine the frequency with which something occurs or with which it is associated with something else (studies with this object in view are known as diagnostic research studies);

The basic types of research are:-

Descriptive and Analytical Research

Descriptive research includes surveys and fact-finding enquiries of different kinds. The major purpose of descriptive research is description of the state of affairs as it exists at present. The main characteristic of this method is that the researcher has no control over the variables; he can only report what has happened or what is happening. The methods of research utilized in descriptive research are survey methods of all kinds, including comparative and correlation methods.

In analytical research, on the other hand, the researcher has to use facts or information already available, and analyze these to make a critical evaluation of the material.

Types of Data Primary data 1. Primary research entails the use of immediate data in determining the survival of the market. The popular ways to collect primary data consist of surveys, interviews and focus groups, which shows that direct relationship between potential customers and the companies. 2. Primary data is accumulated by the researcher particularly to meet up the research objective of the subsisting project. 3. Primary data is more accommodating as it shows latest information. 4. It is completely tailor-made and there is no problem of adjustments. 5. It takes a lot of time and the unit cost of such data is relatively high.

Secondary data 1. Secondary research is a means to reprocess and reuse collected information as an indication for betterments of the service or product. 2. In secondary data, information relates to a past period. Hence, it lacks aptness and therefore, it has unsatisfactory value. 3. Secondary data is obtained from some other organization than the one instantaneously interested with current research project. Secondary data was collected and analyzed by the organization to convene the requirements of various research objectives. 4. Secondary data though old may be the only possible source of the desired data on the subjects, which cannot have primary data at all. 5. Firm in which secondary data are accumulated and delivered may not accommodate the exact needs and particular requirements of the current research study. Many a time, alteration or modifications to the exact needs of the investigator may not be sufficient. 6. Secondary data is available effortlessly, rapidly and inexpensively.

My Minor Project Report is based on analytical research and Secondary data .

Chapter 2 DISASTER IN INDIA - AN OVERVIEW

2.1 Definition
Disaster is an event or series of events, which gives rise to casualties and damage or loss of properties, infrastructures, environment, essential services or means of livelihood on such a scale which is beyond the normal capacity of the affected community to cope with. Disaster is also sometimes described as a catastrophic situation in which the normal pattern of life or eco-system has been disrupted and extra-ordinary emergency interventions are required to save and preserve lives and or the environment. The Disaster Management Act, 2005 defines disaster as a catastrophe, mishap, calamity or grave occurrence in any area, arising from natural or man made causes, or by accident or negligence which results in substantial loss of life or human suffering or damage to, and destruction of, property, or damage to, or degradation of, environment, and is of such a nature or magnitude as to be beyond the coping capacity of the community of the affected area. The United Nations defines disaster as the occurrence of sudden or major misfortune which disrupts the basic fabric and normal functioning of the society or community.

2.2 Etymology
The word Disaster derives from Middle French desastre1 and that from Old Italian disastro, The root of the word disaster2 (bad star in Greek and Latin) comes from an astrological theme in which the ancients used to refer to the destruction or deconstruction of a star as a disaster.

2.3 Introduction
Indias geo-climatic conditions as well as its high degree of socio-economic vulnerability, makes it one of the most disaster prone country in the world. A disaster is an extreme disruption of the functioning of a society that causes widespread human, material, or environmental losses that exceed the ability of the affected society to cope with its own resources. Disasters are
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sometimes classified according to whether they are natural disasters, or human-made disasters. For example, disasters caused by floods, droughts, tidal waves and earth tremors are generally considered natural disasters. Disasters caused by chemical or industrial accidents, environmental pollution, transport accidents and political unrest are classified as human-made or humaninduced disasters since they are the direct result of human action.

A more modern and social understanding of disasters, however, views this distinction as

artificial since most disasters result from the action or inaction of people and their social and economic structures. This happens by people living in ways that degrade their environment, developing and over populating urban centres, or creating and perpetuating social and economic systems. Communities and population settled in areas susceptible to the impact of a raging river or the violent tremors of the earth are placed in situations of high vulnerability because of their socio-economic conditions. This is compounded by every aspect of nature being subject to seasonal, annual and sudden fluctuations and also due to the unpredictability of the timing, frequency and magnitude of occurrence of the disasters.

2.4 Disasters not new to Mankind

Disasters are not new to mankind. They have been the constant, though inconvenient, companions of the human beings since time immemorial. Disasters can be natural or humanmade. Earthquake, cyclone, hailstorm, cloud-burst, landslide, soil erosion, snow avalanche, flood etc. are the examples of natural disasters while fire, epidemics, road, air, rail accidents and leakages of chemicals/ nuclear installations etc. fall under the category of human-made disasters. The High Power Committee on Disaster Management, constituted in 1999, has identified 31 various disasters categorized into five major sub-groups which are given in Box 2.1.

BOX 2.1 : List of various disasters i. Water and climate related disasters a) Floods and drainage management b) Cyclones c) Tornadoes and hurricanes d) Hailstorm e) Cloud burst f ) Heat wave and cold wave g) Snow avalanches h) Droughts i) Sea erosion j) Thunder and lightening k) Tsunami ii. Geological related disasters a) Landslides and a) Landslides and mudflows b) Earthquakes c) Dam failures/ Dam bursts d) Minor fires a) Chemical and industrial disasters b) Nuclear disasters a) Forest fires b) Urban fires c) Mine flooding d) Oil spills e) Major building collapse f ) Serial bomb blasts g) Festival related disasters h) Electrical disasters and fires i) Air, road and rail accidents j) Boat capsizing k) Village fire a) Biological disasters and epidemics b) Pest attacks c) Cattle epidemics d) Food poisoning
Source: High Powered Committee Report-1999

ii. Geological related disasters

iii. Chemical, industrial and nuclear related disasters iv. Accident related disasters

v. Biological related disasters

Note: After 2004, Tsunami has also been included in the list of disasters

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2.5 Disasters Global Scenario

Disasters - natural or human-made are common throughout the world. Disasters continue to occur without warning and are perceived to be on an increase in their magnitude, complexity, frequency and economic impact. Hazards pose threats to people and assume serious proportions in the under developed countries with dense population. During the second half of the 20th century, more than 200 worst natural disasters occurred in the different parts of the world and claimed lives of around 1.4 million people. Losses due to natural disasters are 20 times greater (as % of GDP) in the developing countries than in industrialized one. Asia tops the list of casualties due to natural disasters.

There have been several natural, as well as, man-made disasters. Records of natural disasters can be traced way back to 430 B.C. when the Typhus epidemic was reported in Athens. Ten deadliest natural disasters recorded in the world are dated back to 1556 when an earthquake in Shaanxi province of China occurred on 23rd January, 1556 and 8,30,000 casualties were recorded. List of ten deadliest disasters which have occurred across the world and in India in the known history may be seen from the Table 2.1 and Table 2.2 respectively.
Table2.1: worlds deadliest disasters S.no 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. Name of the event Earthquake Earthquake Cyclone Yellow River Flood Messina Earthquake Earthquake Great Kanto Earthquake Great Chinese Famine Bhola Cyclone Year 1556 1731 1737 1887 1908 1920 1923 1958-1961 1970 Country and Religion China, Shaanxi China India, Calcutta China Italy China, Gansu Japan China West Bengal, India & East Pakistan (now Bangladesh) China Fatalities 830000 100,000 300,000 900,000-2000,000 123000 235000 142000 15000000-43000000 500000

10.

Tangshan Earthquake

1976

242,419

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Table2.2 Indias Deadliest Disasters

S.no 1. 2. 3. 4.

Name of the event Earthquake Bengal Earthquake Cyclone The Great Famine

Year 1618 1737 1864 1876-1878

Country and Religion Mumbai, Maharashtra Bengal Kolkata, West Bengal Southern India

Fatalities 2000 deaths 300,000 deaths 60,000 deaths 58.5 million people affected 5.5 million deaths due to starvation 100,000 deaths 1.25 million to 10 million deaths 6,000 deaths 500,000 deaths (including Hindu Kush Himalayas and surrounding areas) 200 million people affected 300 million people affected

5. 6. 7. 8.

Cyclone The Indian Famine Earthquake The Bhola Cyclone

1882 1896-1897 1934 1970

Bombay, Maharashtra Whole India Bihar West Bengal

9. 10.

Drought Drought

1972 1987

Large part of the country Haryana

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Figure 2.1 and 2.2 shows the vulnerability scenario across the globe in terms of events and India has faced more than 260 events of disasters and over 3.5 million people affected from 1975 2001. It further analyses that the vulnerability of people and severity of disasters.

Fig2.1 Global Disaster Scenario: Distribution of Natural Disasters

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Fig2.2 Distribution of People Affected

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2.6 Vulnerability Profile of India India has been vulnerable, in varying degrees, to a large number of natural, as well as, human-made disasters on account of its unique geo-climatic and socio-economic conditions. It is highly vulnerable to floods, droughts, cyclones, earthquakes, landslides, avalanches and forest fires. Out of 35 states and union territories in the country, 27 of them are disaster prone. Almost 58.6 per cent of the landmass is prone to earthquakes of moderate to very high intensity; over 40 million hectares (12 per cent of land) are prone to floods and river erosion; of the 7,516 km long coastline, close to 5,700 km is prone to cyclones and tsunamis; 68 per cent of the cultivable area is vulnerable to drought and hilly areas are at risk from landslides and avalanches. A multihazard map of India may be seen in Figure 2.3.

Hazard Profile of India

India is one of the ten worst disaster prone countries of the world. The country is prone to disasters due to number of factors; both natural and human induced, including adverse geo climatic conditions, topographic features, environmental degradation, population growth, urbanisation, industrialization, non scientific development practices etc. The factors either in original or by accelerating the intensity and frequency of disasters are responsible for heavy toll of human lives and disrupting the life supporting system in the country. The basic reason for the high vulnerability of the country to natural disasters is its unique geographical and geological situations. As far as the vulnerability to disaster is concerned, the five distinctive regions of the country i.e. Himalayan region, the alluvial plains, the hilly part of the peninsula, and the coastal zone have their own specific problems. While on one hand the Himalayan region is prone to disasters like earthquakes and landslides, the plain is affected by floods almost every year. The desert part of the country is affected by droughts and famine while the coastal zone susceptible to cyclones and storms.

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fig2.3 Multi Hazard map of India

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2.7 Types of Disasters

Box 2.1 shows the list of various tpes of disasters . Some of them have been discussed below :

2.7.1 DROUGHT

The primary cause of any drought is deficiency of rainfall and in particular, the timing, distribution and intensity of this deficiency in relation to existing reserves. Drought can be devastating as water supplies dry up, crops fail to grow, animals die, and malnutrition and ill health become widespread The environmental effects of drought, including stalinization of soil and groundwater decline, increased pollution of freshwater ecosystems and regional extinction of animal species. FIG 2.4 Drought prone area

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2.7.2 FLOOD

Flood destructions have always brought miseries to numerous people, especially in rural areas. Flood results in the outbreak of serious epidemics, specially malaria and cholera. Simultaneously, scarcity of water also arises. It has a drastic effect on agricultural produce. Sometimes, water remains standing over large areas for long span of time hampering the Rabi crops. The flood hazard map of India may be seen in the Figure 2.5 India is one of the most flood prone countries in the world. The principal reasons for flood lie in the very nature of natural ecological systems in this country, namely, the monsoon, the highly silted river systems and the steep and highly erodible mountains, particularly those of the Himalayan ranges. The average rainfall in India is 1150 mm with significant variation across the country. The annual rainfall along the western coast and Western Ghats, Khasi hills and over most of the Brahmaputra valley amounts to more than 2500 mm. Most of the floods occur during the monsoon period and are usually associated with tropical storms or depressions, active monsoon conditions and break monsoon situations.

Twenty-three of the 35 states and union territories in the country are subject to floods and 40 million hectares of land, roughly one-eighth of the countrys geographical area, is prone to floods. The National Flood Control Program was launched in the country in 1954. Since then sizeable progress has been made in the flood protection measures. By 1976, nearly one third of the flood prone area had been afforded reasonable protection; considerable experience has been gained in planning, implementation and performance of flood warning, protection and control measures (CWC, 2007).

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Fig 2.5Flood hazard map of india

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2.7..3 TROPICAL CYCLONES

The major natural disaster that affects the coastal regions of India is cyclone and as India has a coastline of about 7516 kms, it is exposed to nearly 10 percent of the worlds tropical cyclones. About 71 percent of this area is in ten states (Gujarat, Maharashtra, Goa, Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Puducherry, Andhra Pradesh, Orissa and West Bengal). The islands of Andaman, Nicobar and Lakshadweep are also prone to cyclones. On an average, about five or six tropical cyclones form in the Bay of Bengal and Arabian sea and hit the coast every year. Out of these, two or three are severe. When a cyclone approaches to coast, a risk of serious loss or damage arises from severe winds, heavy rainfall, storm surges and river floods. The effect of a storm surge is most pronounced in wide and shallow bays exposed to cyclones such as in the northern part of Bay of Bengal. On an average, five or six tropical cyclones occur every year, of which two or three could be severe. Most cyclones occur in the Bay of Bengal followed by those in the Arabian Sea and the ratio is approximately 4:1. The incidence of cyclonic storms, with wind speeds between 65 Km/h and 117 Km/h and severe cyclonic storm with wind speeds between 119 Km/h and 164 Km/h, reaching Tamil Nadu and Andhra Pradesh is high during the north east monsoon season ie. October December, where as the highest annual number of storms, severe storms occur in the Orissa - West Bengal coast.
Table 2.3: Major Cyclones of India and Bangladesh

Year 1737 1876 1885 1960 1961 1970 1971 1977 1990 1991 1998 1999

Name of the country Hoogli, West Bengal (India) Bakerganj (Bangladesh) False point (Orissa) Bangladesh Bangladesh Bangladesh Paradeep, Orissa (India) Chirala, Andhra Pradesh Andhra Pradesh Bangladesh Porbander cyclone Paradeep, Orissa

No. of deaths 3,00,000 2,50,000 50,000 5,490 11,468 2,00,000 10000 10000 990 1,38,000 1,173 9,885

Storm surge (height in ft.) 40 10-40 22 19 16 13-17 7-20 16-18 13-17 7-20 30

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2.7.4 THUNDERSTORM, HAILSTORM AND DUST STORM

As winter season transforms into spring, the temperature rises initially in the southern parts of India, giving rise to thunderstorms and squally weather which are hazardous in nature. While the southernmost part of the country is free from dust storms and hailstorms, such hazardous weather affects the central, northeastern, north and northwestern parts of the country. The hailstorm frequencies are highest in the Assam valley, followed by hills of Uttarakhand, Jharkhand and Vidarbha Maharashtra (Philip & Daniel 1976). However, thunderstorms also occur in Kolkatta, Delhi, Jaipur and Ahmedabad. Tornadoes are rare in India but some of them are quite devastating. Some of other tornadoes which caused extensive damage and destruction in the country is given in the Table 2.4
Table 2.4: Past Incidences of Tornadoes

S.no 1.

Events Tornado

Date and Years 19th April 1963

Place

Loss life Cooch Bihar, 139 West Bengal, India Dhaka, Bangladesh 500

of Injured -

Homeless 3760

2.

Tornado

1st April 1977

6000

3.

Tornado

12 April 1983

4.

Tornado

19th 1987

Gaighata, 28 West Bengal, India October Chapra, India 20

500

517

5.

Tornado

9th April 1993

Kanthi in West 50 Bengal,, India

180

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2.7.5 EARTHQUAKES

Globally, earthquakes result in a loss of about 50,000 lives every year. Earthquakes over 5.5 magnitude on the Richter scale are progressively damaging to property and human life.However, there are many other factors that influences the damage pattern. Massive earthquakes generally occur near the junction of two tectonic plates, e.g., along the Himalayan range, where the Indian plate goes below Eurasian plate. The Indian sub- continent situated on the boundaries of two continental plates is very prone to earthquakes. Some of the most intense earthquakes of the world have occurred in India. The entire Himalayan Region is considered to be vulnerable to high intensity earthquakes of a magnitude exceeding 8.0 on the Richter Scale, and in a relatively short span of about 50 years, four such major earthquakes have occurred in the region: Shillong, 1897 (M8.7); Kangra, 1905 (M.8.0); BiharNepal, 1934 (M 8.3); and AssamTibet, 1950 (M 8.6). Scientific publications have warned that very severe earthquakes are likely to occur anytime in the Himalayan Region, which could adversely affect the lives of several million people in India.

Fig2.6 Indonesia Earthquake

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2.7.6 TSUNAMI

Tsunamis and earthquakes happen after centuries of energy build up within the earth. A tsunami (in Japanese tsu means harbor and nami means wave) is a series of water waves caused by the displacement of a large volume of a body of water, usually an ocean. In the Tamil language it is known as Aazhi Peralai. Seismicity generated tsunamis are result of abrupt deformation of sea floor resulting vertical displacement of the overlying water. Earthquakes occurring beneath the sea level, the water above the reformed area is displaced from its equilibrium position. The release of energy produces tsunami waves which have small amplitude but a very long wavelength (often hundreds of kilometer long). It may be caused by non-seismic event also such as a landslide or impact of a meteor. Tsunami in the deep ocean may have very long waves length of hundred of kilometer and travels at about 800 km per hour, but an amplitude of only about 1 km.

Box 2. 2: Historical Tsunamis in India

Tsunami Sources for India For a tsunami to hit Indian coast, it is necessary that earthquake of magnitude > 7 should occur. Two such possible zones are Andaman-Sumatra Makran Not all major earthquakes are tsunamigenic To generate tsunami Earthquakes must occur under or near ocean Depth < 100km Vertical movement of the sea-floor Slow Rupture Velocities are most efficient Tsunami Generators Historical Tsunamis in India 12 Apr, 1762 (BoB EQ) 1.8 M 31 Dec, 1881 (Car Nicobar EQ) 27 Aug, 1883 (Krakatoa) 2 M 26 Jun, 1941 (Andaman EQ) 27 Nov, 1945 (Makran EQ) 12 M 26 Dec, 2004 (Sumatra EQ) 10 M

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2.8 Institutional Framework

2.8.1 Evolution of Disaster Management in India Disaster management in India has

evolved from an activity-based reactive setup to a proactiveinstitutionalized structure; from single faculty domain to a multi-stakeholder setup; and from a relief-based approach to a multidimensional pro-active holistic approach for reducing risk. The beginnings of an institutional structure for disaster management can be traced to the British period following the series of disasters such as famines of 1900, 1905, 1907 & 1943, and the Bihar-Nepal earthquake of 1937. Over the past century, the disaster management in India has undergone substantive changes in its composition, nature and policy.

2.8.2 Emergence of Institutional Arrangement in India - A permanent and

institutionalised setup began in the decade of 1990s with set up of a disaster management cell under the Ministry of Agriculture, following the declaration of the decade of 1990 as the International Decade for Natural Disaster Reduction (IDNDR) by the UN General Assembly. Following series of disasters such as Latur Earthquake (1993), Malpa Landslide (1994), Orissa Super Cyclone (1999) and Bhuj Earthquake (2001), a high powered Committee under the Chairmanship of Mr. J.C. Pant, Secretary, Ministry of Agriculture was constituted for drawing up a systematic, comprehensive and holistic approach towards disasters. There was a shift in policy from an approach of relief through financial aid to a holistic one for addressing disaster management. Consequently, the disaster management division was shifted under the Ministry of Home Affairs in 2002 vide Cabinet Secretariats Notification No. DOC.CD-108/2002 dated 27/02/2002 and a hierarchical structure for disaster management evolved in India.

2.8.3 Organisation and Structure of Disaster Management

The Disaster Management Division is headed by Joint Secretary (DM) in MHA, who is assisted by three Directors, Under Secretaries, Section Officers, Technical Officer, Senior Economic Investigator consultants and other supporting staff. The upper echelon of the structure consists of Secretary (Border Management), Home Secretary, Minister of State in charge and the Home Minister.
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2.8..4 Disaster Management Framework

Shifting from relief and response mode, disaster management in India started to address the issues of early warning systems, forecasting and monitoring setup for various weather related hazards. A structure for flow of information, in the form of warnings, alerts and updates about the oncoming hazard, also emerged within this framework. A multi-stakeholder High powered group was setup by involving representatives from different ministries and departments. Some of these ministries were also designated as the nodal authorities for specific disasters. Following a High Powered Committee Report on Disaster Management for establishment of a separate institutional structure for addressing disasters and enactment of a suitable law for institutionalizing disaster management in the country, a multi-level links between these ministries and the disaster management framework have emerged. Fig2.7 Destruction due to a Disaster

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Chapter 3 Principles Of Disaster Management

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1. Why are principles needed for Disaster Management ?

There would appear to be three reasons why a body of agreed principles are needed for disaster managemnt : First, they allow organizations to create more coherent sets of policies of procedures. These would assist institutions with different values and mandates to better understand and talk to each other. But beyond such discourse, if clearly defined principles are accepted and agreed upon between different organizations then it is possible for genuine cooperation and coordination to occur on the basis of consensus. Second, principles can provide an agreed upon and ethical base for action. It is essential to emphasise the ethical dimension in all aspects of disaster risk management since the lives of people and the viability of communities are at stake. Principles can assist in enabling decision makers to distinguish between relative ethical issues and universal ethical issues (see below for a discussion on the distinction). Ethical principles form the bedrock or platform to assist decision makers as they seek, (or are reluctantly pushed) into becoming more accountable to beneficiaries of their support, as well as becoming transparent in handling their operations and managing their finances. Third, principles are needed to guide the various elements in disaster planning and implementation They can assist in the development of policy, strategy, planning, tactics and actions on the ground as well as post disaster learning and adapting. It is essential to undertake disaster planning in all countries, and without guiding principles disaster/disaster risk management can be little more than a directionless formality. There are an abundance of principles to guide disaster managers and each of these relative, or locally applicable principles can be tailored to suit an organisation and its role. It is important to recognise that while some principles may be consciously followed, others may be subconsciously recognised and applied. As well, some principles are explicit while others implicitly underpin operations. An important part of the essence of any useful principle is in its simplicity, but disasters are always complex events that relate to varied hazards affecting multiple stakeholders, many levels of decision making and diverse sectors managed by a host of line ministries and departments. Thus principles inevitably simplify (or over-simplify) subtle nuances and varied situations or demands.

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2. The complexity of current principles :

An internet search using the phrase disaster management resulted in 168 million hits; principles of disaster management resulted in 18 million hits. Clearly, the words are much in use! In order to get a sense for the variance of stated principles, the authors selected 15 sources in a rather arbitrary fashion, including various government and NGO web sites and books. The stated principles varied greatly in number, perspective, and depth. Some were comprised of a few short statements, sometimes embedded in much longer documents (for example, the Republic of South Africa Disaster Management Bill1), while others went into considerable depth and were multi-tiered (The Wingspread Principles: A Community Vision for Sustainability2 and Gujarat State Disaster Management Policy3) Some statements emphasized values and ethics (South Asia: Livelihood Centered Approach to Disaster Management a Policy Framework4) while others were more management oriented (Erik Auf Der Heide: Disaster Response: Principles of Preparation and Coordination5). These examples support the notion that the field of disaster management lacks a cohesive approach, in terms of principles.

The three examples below (Table 3.1) illustrate some of these points The first, taken from the Government of Canada is managerial in context, reflecting responsibilities at different levels of society. There is nothing in this list that reflects normative values or ethics, or how disasters should be coped with in terms of types of actions. The second, taken from the SPHERE Humanitarian Charter is very different, emphasizing how people should live and act, and the fundamental values that drive organizations. The third example, taken from Auf der Heide (1989) are much more practically oriented, focusing on implementation strategies and error avoidance.

1 2

http://www.info.gov.za/gazette/bills/2001/b58-01.pdf http://www.smartcommunities.ncat.org/wingspread2/wingprin.shtml 3 http://www.gujaratindia.com/Policies/Policy2.pdf 4 http://www.itdg.org/?id=disasters_livelihood_approach 5 http://orgmail2.coe-dmha.org/dr/disasterresponse.nsf/section?openview

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Table 3.1 : Examples of Principles of Disaster Management from Three Sources:

(1) Fact Sheets: Canada's Emergency Management System6

Emergency management in Canada is based on the following principles: 1. It is up to the individual to know what to do in an emergency.

2. If the individual is unable to cope, governments respond progressively, as their capabilities and resources are needed. 3. Most local emergencies are managed by local response organizations, which are normally the first to respond. 4. Every province and territory also has an Emergency Management Organization (EMO), which manages any large scale emergencies (prevention, preparedness, response and recovery) and provides assistance and support to municipal or community response teams as required. 5. Government of Canada departments and agencies support the provincial or territorial EMOs as requested or manage emergencies affecting areas of federal jurisdiction. From policing, nuclear safety, national defence and border security to the protection of our environment and health, many federal departments and agencies also work to prevent emergencies from happening or are involved in some way in a response and recovery effort.

(2) Sphere Humanitarian Charter and Minimum Standards in Disaster Response7

We reaffirm our belief in the humanitarian imperative and its primacy. By this we mean the belief that all possible steps should be taken to prevent or alleviate human suffering arising out of conflict or calamity, and that civilians so affected have a right to protection and assistance.

It is on the basis of this belief, reflected in international humanitarian law and based on the principle of humanity, that we offer our services as humanitarian agencies. We will act in accordance with the principles of humanity and impartiality, and with the other principles set out in the Code of Conduct for the International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement and NonGovernmental Organisations (NGOs) in Disaster Relief (1994).

1.1 The right to life with dignity

http://www.ocipep.gc.ca/info_pro/fact_sheets/general/EM_can_emerg_man_sys_e.asp http://www.sphereproject.org/handbook/index.htm

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This right is reflected in the legal measures concerning the right to life, to an adequate standard of living and to freedom from cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment. We understand an individual's right to life to entail the right to have steps taken to preserve life where it is threatened, and a corresponding duty on others to take such steps. Implicit in this is the duty not to withhold or frustrate the provision of life-saving assistance. In addition, international humanitarian law makes specific provision for assistance to civilian populations during conflict, obliging states and other parties to agree to the provision of humanitarian and impartial assistance when the civilian population lacks essential supplies.

1.2 The distinction between combatants and non-combatants This is the distinction which underpins the 1949 Geneva Conventions and their Additional Protocols of 1977. This fundamental principle has been increasingly eroded, as reflected in the enormously increased proportion of civilian casualties during the second half of the twentieth century. That internal conflict is often referred to as civil war must not blind us to the need to distinguish between those actively engaged in hostilities, and civilians and others (including the sick, wounded and prisoners) who play no direct part. Non-combatants are protected under international humanitarian law and are entitled to immunity from attack.

1.3 The principle of non-refoulement This is the principle that no refugee shall be sent (back) to a country in which his or her life or freedom would be threatened on account of race, religion, nationality, membership of a particular social group or political opinion; or where there are substantial grounds for believing that s/he would be in danger of being subjected to torture. (3) Erik Auf Der Heide: Disaster Response: Principles of Preparation and Coordination8 1. Because of the limited resources available, disaster preparedness proposals need to take cost-effectiveness into consideration. 2. Planning should be for disasters of moderate size (about 120 casualties); disasters of this size will present the typical inter-organizational coordination problems also applicable to larger events. 3. Interest in disaster preparedness is proportional to the recency and magnitude of the last disaster. 4. The best time to submit disaster preparedness programs for funding is, right after a disaster (even if it has occurred elsewhere). 5. Disaster planning is an illusion unless: it is based on valid assumptions about human behavior, incorporates an inter-organizational
8

http://orgmail2.coe-dmha.org/dr/disasterresponse.nsf/section?openview

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perspective, is tied to resources, and is known and accepted by the participants. 6. Base disaster plans on what people are "likely" to do, rather than what they "should" do 7. For disaster planning to be effective, it must be inter-organizational.

8. The process of planning is more important than the written document that results. 9. Good disaster management is not merely an extension of good everyday emergency procedures. It is more than just the mobilization of additional personnel, facilities, and supplies. Disasters often pose unique problems rarely faced in daily emergencies. 10. In contrast to most routine emergencies, disasters introduce the need for multi-organizational and multi-disciplinary coordination. 11. In disasters, what are thought to be "communications problems" are often coordination problems in disguise. 12. Those who work together well on a daily basis tend to work together well in disasters. 13. Disasters create the need for coordination among fire departments, law enforcement agencies, hospitals, ambulances, military units, utility crews, and other organizations. This requires inter-agency communication networks utilizing compatible radio frequencies. 14. Procedures for ongoing needs assessment are a prerequisite to efficient resource management in disasters. 15. A basic concept of triage is to do the greatest good for the greatest number of casualties. 16. Triage implies making the most efficient use of available resources.

17. Good casualty distribution is particularly difficult to achieve in "diffuse" disasters, such as earthquakes and tornadoes, that cover large geographic areas. 18. Effective triage requires coordination among medical and nonmedical organizations at the disaster site and between the site and local hospitals 19. Panic is not a common problem in disasters; getting people to evacuate is 20. Inquires about loved ones thought to be in the impact zone are not likely to be discouraged, but can be reduced or channeled in less disruptive ways, if the needed information is provided at a location away from the disaster area.

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21. Many of the questions that will be asked by reporters are predictable, and procedures can be established in advance for collecting the desired information. 22. Newsworthy information will rapidly spread among news organizations and from one type of media to another. 23. The media will often withhold newsworthy disaster stories it feels would be detrimental to the public. 24. Local officials will have to deal with different news media in times of disaster than those with which they interface on a routine basis. 25. Adequate disaster preparedness requires planning with the rather than for the media. 26. The propensity for the media to share information and to assume "command post" perspective facilitates the establishment of a central source of disaster information.

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3.Introducing models
In view of the somewhat chaotic state of existing principles, as noted above, the authors propose that the field of disaster/disaster risk management needs to engage in a discourse of its principles. In order to provide some structure to the discussion, we present a model that we hope will clarify the discussion, and a process that could be used for a person or organization to develop an appropriate set of principles.

3.1 Principles Pyramid We propose a four level hierarchy of principles (Figure 3.1) that can be used to provide structure to this issue. Level 1, the broadest, reflects the fundamental values and ethics that motivate our behaviors. Level 2 is strategic and level 3 tactical. Level 4 deals with implementation. Levels 1 and 2 are broad enough so that they should be generally applicable over a large range of possibilities. However, levels 3 and 4 become increasingly sensitive to local culture and

legislation and are very difficult or impossible to generalize. Level 1. Ethical, Core Value Principles, which relate to the underlying shared beliefs and concerns of organizations and of their mandate as it seeks to undertake community based disaster risk management (CBDRM). Using a food metaphor, Level 1 would relate the ethics of food production (such as a human rights based approach). An example would be the SPHERE principle in Table 3.1 - A right to a life with dignity. Level 2. Strategic Principles that concern the policy direction of CBDRM will be informed and be based upon the ethical principles articulated in Level 1 (such as what actions to consider taking-why, where and with what expected consequences?). Using a food metaphor, Level 2 would be a nutrition guide. An example of this level of principle would be the Canadian principle in Table 3.1 If the individual is unable to cope, governments respond progressively, as their capabilities and resources are needed.

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Level 3. Tactical Principles that concern the practical outworking of the strategic principles. Using a food metaphor, Level 3 would be a cookbook (such as how to adopt the agreed strategy, considering staffing / financial implications etc). An example of this might be a specific mutual

aid agreement between two organizations or the post audit of the response of an organization to a disaster, such as occurred with FEMA after Hurricane Katrina.

Level 4. Implementation Principles that are related to all the preceding levels: core values, strategies and tactics (such as actions taken as well as their monitoring and evaluation). Using a food metaphor, Level 4 would be eating the meal as well as congratulating the cook or writing a letter of complaint to the restaurant. An example might the exchange of vulnerability and victim information between NGOs.

It is important to note that the authors do not consider this to be a linear unidirectional process, but rather one that necessitates continual feedback between ethical principles and how they are implemented. It is not just that theory informs practice - it is also the reverse. As a person or organization develops its strategies, it would have to revisit the more fundamental principles on an ongoing basis, and also consider how changes to values might affect higher levels of the pyramid. It is not just about creating a state function but more about developing a process that incorporates ethics and values in an ongoing way.

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Fig 3.1 Pyramid Of Principles Of Disaster Management

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3.2 Principles Matrix The practice and theory of disaster management depends upon various factors, such as which pillar of disaster management is being considered (mitigation, preparedness, response or recovery), disaster type, capacity, scale and complexity. Though underlying values are likely to be fairly robust, strategies, tactics and implementation increasingly depend upon these factors. For example, the mitigation of drought might include multi levels of government working together to develop strategies to conserve water, develop crop insurance plans and incentives to switch to drought resistant crops, while responding to terrorism might emphasize a command and control first responders approach. At larger scales of mitigation (for natural hazards in particular), environmental stewardship and sustainable development would be important to include, though not for the case of response to smaller scale technological emergencies. The authors therefore suggest a matrix methodology, to help distinguish between these factors (Figure 3.2).

Fig3.2

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Figure 3.2 shows an example of how the pyramid discussed above might be slotted into the matrix model, in order to help focus the development of principles. Similar figures could be constructed using different variables; disaster type is the most obvious one. For example, disasters that are rapid onset, well defined and understood, of natural origin and of short time frame would require a very different set of coping strategies than one that was slow onset, diffuse, ill defined, poorly understood and of technological/human origin.

3.3 Constructing Principles Constructing principles of disaster/disaster risk management is a complex task that should, if it is to be effective, involve an entire organization. A useful process must allow for a discussion should begin at a very fundamental level, one that defines worldview and then moves increasingly towards a more detailed perspective. The authors suggest that a three step process be used as follows: 1. Step one begins with defining a Frame of Reference. This refers to a persons role as it relates to disaster management, their values, moral code and worldview. Examples of roles could be: managing a government agency that provides disaster assistance, a business continuity manager for IBM, a victim without access to resources who cannot recover without help, or a Red Cross volunteer who responds to disasters. Of course, people in different frames of reference might share the same values, but it is not uncommon for them to approach disasters from a very different set of needs and perspectives; hence, the sort of post disaster conflict that can arise between recovering victims and insurance companies9. In cases such as this, the values associated with disaster relief can conflict with other important institutional values, such as profitability.

For example, after the Hurricane Katrina disaster victims launched a class action suit against State Farm Insurance and American International Group regarding denial of claims or lack of response.

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2. The second step in the process is to define a Purpose of Disaster Management. Depending upon philosophy, ethic and job, different purposes seem possible. Three possible ones are listed below more can certainly be constructed. a. Minimize the loss, pain and damage caused by disasters, within the larger social context. b. Minimize the damage caused by disasters, while maintaining the structures of rights, power and wealth within society, as well as the institutions that support them. c. Provide jobs, careers and pensions to people who work in organizations related to disaster management, and ensure that these organizations are well funded10.

This discussion should begin with explicit statements of the nature of the social contract and moral theories that are chosen. Clear distinctions need to be drawn between descriptive ethics (what is) and normative ethics (what ought to be). In cases where rights and duties conflict with each other, it is suggested that they be ranked where possible.

3. The third step is to construct a Set of Principles, linked to the above, using the hierarchical structure and matrix models discussed above. It is clear that different organizations will arrive at different results using the above process. There is no correct answer in fact engaging in the process11 may well be more important than any specific set of results.

10 11

thanks to Dennis Mileti for this suggestion. This perspective was put forth by Dwight D. Eisenhower who said, "The plan is useless; it's the planning that's important."

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4. Applications The multi-layered hierarchy of principles described above in Fig 1.9 was tested by Ian Davis by applying the concept within two projects that he has authored or co-authored. The first, undertaken in 2005/06 for the Asian Disaster Preparedness Centre (ADPC) was entitled: Community- Based Disaster Risk Management. (Davis and Murshed, 2006). The second was Learning from Disaster Recovery- Guidance to Decision Makers published by the International Recovery Programme (IRP) in 2007 (Davis, 2007).

FIRST EXAMPLE: Critical Guidelines - Community-Based Disaster Risk Management This document attempted to develop a set of principles and indicators relating to performance and outcomes to enable various groups involved in disaster risk reduction to measure progress. In this document the four levels described in Figure 1 were adopted; the results were as follows:

LEVEL 1: ETHICAL PRINCIPLES 1.1 Observe basic rights of beneficiaries (Ethical Issue: Respecting human dignity)12 People possess basic rights that are to be observed, respected and followed when undertaking Community Based Disaster Risk Management (CBDRM) These include rights to: o safety, o be listened to, o be consulted over any issue that may affect their well-being or future, o receive appropriate assistance following disaster impact.

12

The issues stated after each principle, (as set in italics), have been added to the original text

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1.2 Share risk information (Ethical Issue: Protecting lives) Any person or organization undertaking local risk assessment and discovering that a given community is at-risk, has an ethical responsibility to share this potentially life preserving information with the individuals, families and communities in question.

1.3 Share assessment data (Ethical Issue: Respecting human dignity) Groups collecting post-disaster damage, needs and capacity assessments will share such information with other NGOs or governments to avoid multiple questioning of affected communities and duplication in responding to needs. This principle grows from a concern to respect the dignity of beneficiaries of assistance.

1.4 Collaborate rather than compete (Ethical Issue: Integrity) Given a common overriding desire to serve the needs of the poor and vulnerable, there is an ethical demand for NGOs undertaking CBDRM to agree to collaborate with other NGOs and local governments, rather than compete with them. This concern is expressed by: o avoiding competition to secure funds or projects, o avoiding poaching staff from the local government or adjacent agencies o using accurate images and data in publicity for fund-raising o sharing information-(as noted above under 1.2 and 1.3) o accepting government coordination of their work o providing mutual support to assisting bodies

LEVEL 2: STRATEGIC PRINCIPLES 2.1 Recognise strategic considerations (Strategic Issue: Integrity through Planning/Design) Before embarking on CBDRM a given NGO or government will build the following into project design:
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o indicators to measure progress, o a clear aim and the objectives to reach it, o baseline data, o ways to ensure transparency and accountability to beneficiaries, o monitoring and evaluation procedures, o an exit strategy.

2.2 Balance of trust vs. control (Strategic Issue: Expert judgment) In measuring the effectiveness of CBDRM it is vital to secure a fine balance between trust and control, since the greater the level of trust the smaller the need for controls. Excessive controls in the form of performance and outcome indicators and a lack of involvement of key stakeholders in the formulation of indicators will significantly erode trust.

2.3 Ensure staff commitment and competence (Strategic Issue: Integrity through quality control) Agency and government officials who implement CBDRM projects and programmes need to be fully convinced that performance and outcome indicators are necessary and that they can significantly improve the efficiency and quality of risk reduction measures. Training will be required to support this process.

LEVEL 3: TACTICAL PRINCIPLES 3.1 Recognise tactical considerations (Tactical Issue: Integrity though measuring effectiveness) To be effective, performance and outcome indicators need to satisfy a range of demands. Effective indicators are: o transparent, o robust,
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o representative, o relevant, o replicable, o nationally comparable, o sustainable, o measurable, o achievable, o time-framed, o easily understood.

3.2 Establish baseline positions (Tactical Issue: Integrity through measuring effectiveness) For each performance indictor a baseline indicator is necessary.

3.3 Measure both quantifiable as well as non-quantifiable indicators (Tactical Issue: (Tactical Issue: Integrity through measuring effectiveness) Given the bias of performance indicators towards tangible, measurable and quantifiable elements it is essential to devise alternate ways to maintain and measure performance standards for non-quantifiable measures.

3.4 Establish minimum requirements (Tactical Issue: Integrity through quality control) Minimum requirements are needed to make risk reduction effective to ensure that the competency of personnel, effectiveness of procedures, quality of measures does not fall below acceptable standards.

3.5 Ensure relevance of indicators (Tactical Issue: Integrity through quality control) Each performance indicator should define the conditions to which it applies since it is not expected that indicators will apply in all situations.

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3.6 Mainstream actions into normal development (Tactical Issue: Integrity through quality control) Actions taken to implement Community Based Disaster Risk Management need to be integrated into normal development policies, planning, programming, and practice.

LEVEL 4: IMPLEMENTATION PRINCIPLES 4.1 Adapt indicators to suit local cultures (Implementation Issue: Respecting human dignity) All performance indicators need to be considered to satisfy local social, cultural, economic and environmental variables.

4.2 Be aware of potential negative side effects (Ethical Issue: Integrity) In any project indicators are needed to indicate whether unexpected side effects are taking place, to enable swift evasive action to be taken.

COMMENTS ON THESE PRINCIPLES Almost two years after writing the above principles, with the benefit of reflection, four issues emerge:

It is much easier to develop principles that apply to the ethical or strategic level than at the tactical or implementation level. This is on account of the more general relevance of issues at ethical or strategic levels and the more specific relevance at tactical and implementation levels.

In developing principles it is important to understand their underlying ethical intentions, as stated in italics after each principle. This is a positive process that provides an important emphasis on the underlying core values of disaster risk management.

Many of the principles proposed for tactical or implementation levels, can be better regarded as issues or recommendations.

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There are far too many principles for this specific task in managing community risks, since officials who have the task of applying them are unlikely to remember all fifteen and thus risk ignoring all of them.

However, the process of systematic thought needed to develop this set of principles, within this hierarchy of categories, was of particular importance for us as the authors of this report, and of even more importance as we debated them with a workshop of experienced officials in Bangkok in January 2005. This is a reminder that a process of enquiry can be more important than a subsequent product.

The second document where principles were included is Learning from Disaster RecoveryGuidance to Decision Makers published by the International Recovery Programme (IRP) in 2007 (Davis, 2007). In writing this book, which contains twelve themes each relating to disaster recovery, the initial intention was to apply the full hierarchy of principles to each theme, to conclude each chapter of the book. However, reviewers of the draft chapters commented that there was a bewildering excess of principles and suggested that they be replaced by a single principle for each chapter.

SECOND EXAMPLE: Learning from Disaster Recovery- Guidance to Decision Makers

This report anticipates the later publication of the full book and includes just two of the chapters on the topics of Reducing Risks in Disaster Recovery and Organising Recovery. The principles selected for each chapter are as follows:

Guiding Principle: Reducing Risks in Disaster Recovery Risk Reduction is a central aim of recovery management. Therefore, it is essential to use the recovery process to reduce future risks to avoid a repetition of the disaster. To achieve such
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protection it is necessary for officials to secure adequate budget and political support as well as the buy-in of the intended beneficiaries of the undertaking. When this support is assured, and only then, devise and implement an integrated risk reduction strategy

Guiding Principle: Organising Recovery Effective recovery requires a single point of overall responsibility in government. This may be best achieved by having a dedicated organization at the apex of political power and decision making. The organisation also needs: a clear mandate supported by appropriate legislation adequate financial, human and material resources to be based on the ethical principles of accountability and transparency direct links to all line ministries knowledge of the dynamics of the disaster recovery process mechanisms that permit continual two-way consultation with surviving communities an effective Disaster Recovery Management Information System (DRMIS)

Three Comments on these Principles: First: It is not an easy process to capture the essence of a complex task and summarise it within a single guiding principle.

Second: The Guiding Principles cited above could also be described as recommendations, or critical issues.

Third: These chapters containing the above principles were submitted to a senior technical editor, employed by one of the sponsoring UN agencies who commissioned this publication : The
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International Strategy for Disaster Reduction (ISDR) In the final version of the paper, following heavy internal editing, both of the principles stated above were excluded. However, the broad spirit of the sentiments that are implicit within them has been retained, but without the force of the designation principle. This omission may illustrate a reluctance on the part of an official international body such as the United Nations to set out principles lest these be regarded as controversial, attracting criticism or because they may have policy or financial implications.

5. Conclusions and where next?

At the outset we stated that principles are essential to guide actions, achieve something, or define the way to act. We hope that the discussion in this paper adds substance to this conviction. The following concerns need to be noted and responded to.

Varied Perspectives Devising a set of universal principles is not an easy task; in fact it may not even be possible, due to cultural relativism and varying frames of reference. A set of principles for an identical disaster recovery operation would tend to differ for survivors, the national government, the private sector and international relief agencies. Disasters occur within diverse cultural settings, so it is highly unlikely that specific tactical or implementation principles of disaster management that could relate to Canada would be relevant to Cambodia.

Nevertheless, the diversity of standpoints can present a useful challenge in searching for a common approach, a shared understanding and common principles that effectively merges different interests. To do this will require (1) a disciplined thought process and (2) a dialogue to
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establish an ethical consensus from all standpoints. It is suggested that any principle for disaster recovery should start from the primary object of concern -namely the needs of the surviving population.

There is an important distinction to be made between process and content. There will be many difficulties, (if not impossibilities) in creating uniform sets of principles that are applicable to different cultures or organizations. But, the process of searching for principles are, in the authors opinion, essential.

The four stage hierarchy of principles introduced in this paper provides a useful template for programme and project managers. The process encourages an ethical basis for planning and decision making. However, we recognize the concern of officials, as noted in a cited example, to reduce principles to a manageable total.

We believe that the process of creating principles seems likely to yield many significant benefits, by helping people and organizations to create policies that are consistent with their values, to explicitly consider how actions and values relate to each other, and by helping to create a shared understanding, not only within individual organizations but between them. Dwight D. Eisenhower said, "The plan is useless; it's the planning that's important"; this same notion has applicability to the issue of disaster management and in the development of principles.

Maintaining Principles While principles of disaster management exist, and in the case of the Red Cross Code of Conduct have been widely endorsed, it is nevertheless clear that this is insufficient to ensure their compliance in the long term. Given the rapid turnover of agency staff and minimal induction training for new staff in most agencies, it would appear to be necessary for organizations to regularly re-launch ethics training.
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International Dialogue The time seems to be ripe for an international conference under UN auspices, (or Red Cross auspices) to specifically address this issue: The quest for working Principles of Disaster Management This could usefully include a discussion concerning the way principles are being followed in the Sphere Guidelines as well as in the Red Cross Code of Conduct The conference and subsequent book could usefully cover both Disaster Management (post-event) and Disaster Risk Management (pre-event).

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Chapter 4
DEVELOPMENT STRATEGY OF DISASTER MANAGEMENT IN INDIA

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The Development strategy of Disaster Management in India undergoes 4 important stages wich are :1. Prevention 2. Mitigation 3. Preparedness 4. Relief

fig 4.1 Development strategy

Prevention

Mitigation

Preparedness

Relief

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4.1Prevention and Mitigation

4.1.1Introduction
The Yokohama message emanating from the International Decade for Natural Disaster Reduction in May 1994 underlined the need for an emphatic shift in the strategy for disaster mitigation. It inter-alia stressed that disaster prevention, mitigation, preparedness and relief were four elements, which contribute to and gain from the implementation of the sustainable development policies. These elements along with environmental protection and sustainable development, are closely inter related. Nations, therefore should incorporate them in their development plans and ensure efficient follow up measures at the community, sub-regional, regional, national and international levels. Disaster prevention, mitigation and preparedness are better than disaster response in achieving the goals and objectives of vulnerability reduction.

It would be evident from the table given in table 4.1 that if we compare the disasters of similar magnitude in USA and Japan with that of India it is found that the loss of lives in USA and Japan are much less as compared to that of India. The factors influencing reduced loss is attributed to the better preparedness in USA and Japan
Table 4.1 Comparison among India, Japan & USA on death in Earthquake of similar magnitude

Country/Place USA Southern California Landers California Oregon Northridge, California Wyoming Central California JAPAN Hokkaido Kobe Kamchatka Fukuoka Honshu

Date

Intensity of earthquake 6.2 M 7.3 M 6.4 M 6.9 M 6.7 M 6.8 M 8.3 M 6.9M 7.3 M 6.5 M 7.2 M
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Human lives lost

28.6.1991 28.6.1992 21.9.1993 17-1-1994 3-2-1995 22-12-2003 25-9-2003 16.1.1995 12-5-2005 20-3-2005 16-8-2005

2 3 2 60 1 2 0 5530 0 0 0

INDIA Uttarkashii Bhuj Jabalpur Chamoli

20.10.1991 26.1.2001 22.5.1997 29.3.1999

6.6 M 6.9 6.0 M 6.8

2000 13805 39 100

The super cyclone in Orissa in October, 1999 and the Bhuj earthquake in Gujarat in January, 2001 underscored the need to adopt a multi dimensional endeavour involving diverse scientific, engineering, financial and social processes; the need to adopt multi disciplinary and multi sectoral approach and incorporation of risk reduction in the developmental plans and strategies.

4.1.2 Mainstreaming of Disaster Risk Reduction in Developmental Strategy

i. Prevention and mitigation contribute to lasting improvement in safety and should be integrated in the disaster management. The Government of India has adopted mitigation and prevention as essential components of their development strategy. Accordingly, the Tenth Five Year Plan document has a detailed chapter on disaster management. The plan emphasises the fact that development cannot be sustainable without mitigation being built into the developmental process.

ii. Mainstreaming DRR involves incorporating disaster risk reduction into development policy and practice. It means radically expanding and enhancing disaster risk reduction so that it becomes normal practice, fully institutionalised within an agencys relief and development agenda. Mainstreaming has three purposes:

(a) To make certain that all the development programmes and projects that originate from or are funded by an agency, are designed with evident consideration for potential disaster risks and to resist hazard impact, (b) To make certain that all the development programmes and projects that originate from or are funded by an agency, do not inadvertently increase vulnerability to disaster in all sectors: social, physical, economic and environment,
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(c) To make certain that all the disaster relief and rehabilitation programmes and projects that originate from or are funded by an agency are designed to contribute to developmental aims and to reduce future disaster risk.

4.1.3 Measures taken for hazard prevention and mitigation

i. Earthquake Risk Mitigation: A comprehensive programme has been taken up for earthquake risk mitigation. Although the BIS has laid down the standards for construction in the seismic zones, these were not being followed. The building construction in urban and suburban areas is regulated by the Town and Country Planning Acts and Building Regulations. In many cases, the Building regulations do not incorporate the BIS codes. Even where they do, the lack of knowledge regarding seismically safe construction among the architects and engineers as well as lack of awareness regarding their vulnerability among the population led to most of the construction in the urban/sub-urban areas being without reference to BIS standards. In the rural areas, the bulk of the housing is non-engineered construction. The mode of construction in the rural areas has also changed from mud and thatch to brick and concrete construction thereby increasing the vulnerability. The increasing population has led to settlements in vulnerable areas close to the river bed areas which are prone to liquefaction. The Government have moved to address these issues. ii. Review of building bye-laws and their adoption: Most casualties during earthquakes are caused by the collapse of structures. Therefore structural mitigation measures are the key to make a significant impact towards earthquake safety in our country. In view of this the States in earthquake prone zones have been requested to review, and if necessary, amend their building bye-laws to incorporate the BIS seismic codes for construction in the concerned zones. Many States have initiated necessary action in this regard. An Expert Committee appointed by the Core Group on Earthquake Risk Mitigation has already submitted its report covering appropriate amendments to the existing Town &
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Country Planning Acts, Land Use Zoning Regulation, Development Control Regulations & Building Bylaws, which could be used by the State Governments & the local bodies there-under to upgrade the existing legal instruments. The Model Building Bylaws also cover the aspect of ensuring technical implementation of the 20 safety aspects in all new constructions & upgrading the strength of existing structurally vulnerable constructions. To facilitate the review of existing building byelaws and adoption of the proposed amendments by the State Governments & UT administrations, discussion workshops at regional level in the country are being organized. It is expected that all planning authorities and local bodies will soon have development control regulations and building byelaws which would include multi-hazard safety provisions iii. Mainstreaming Mitigation in Rural Development Schemes: Rural housing and community assets for vulnerable sections of the population are created on a fairly large scale by the Ministry of Rural Development under the Indira Awas Yojna(IAY) and Sampooran Grameen Rojgar Yojna(SGRY). About 250 thousand small but compact housing units are constructed every year, besides community assets such as community centres, recreation centres, anganwadi centres etc. Technology support is provided by about two hundred rural housing centers spread over the entire country. The Ministry of Home Affairs is working with the Ministry of Rural Development for changing the guidelines so that the houses constructed under IAY or school buildings/community buildings constructed under SGRY are earthquake/cyclone/flood resistant; as also that the schemes addressing mitigation are given priority under SGRY. Ministry of Rural Development is carrying out an exercise for this purpose. This initiative is expected to go a long way in popularization of seismically safe construction at village/block level.

iv. Flood Preparedness and response: Measures for flood mitigation were taken from 1950 onwards. As against the total of 40 million hectares prone to floods, area of about 15 million hectares have been protected by construction of
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embankments. A number of dams and barrages have been constructed. The State Governments have been assisted to take up mitigation programmes like construction of raised platforms etc. Floods continue to be a menace however mainly because of the huge quantum of silt being carried by the rivers emanating from the Himalayas. This silt has raised the bed level in many rivers to above the 18 level of the countryside. Embankments have also given rise to problems of drainage with heavy rainfall leading to water logging in areas outside the embankment. In order to respond effectively to floods, Ministry of Home Affairs have initiated National Disaster Risk Management Programme in all the floodprone States. Assistance is being provided to the States to draw up disaster management plans at the State, District, Block/Taluka and Village levels. Awareness generation campaigns to sensitize all stakeholders on the need for flood preparedness and mitigation measures are being undertaken. Elected representatives and officials are being trained in flood disaster management under the programme. Bihar, Orissa, West Bengal, Assam and Uttar Pradesh are among the 17 multi-hazard prone States where this programme is being implemented with assistance from UNDP, USAID and European Commission. v. National Cyclone Mitigation Project: A project for Cyclone Mitigation (estimated cost Rs.1050 crore) has been drawn up in consultation with the cyclone prone States. This project envisages construction of cyclone shelters, coastal shelter belt plantation in areas which are prone to storm surges, strengthening of warning systems, training and education etc. This project has also been given inprinciple clearance by the Planning Commission and is being taken up with World Bank assistance. vi. Landslide Hazard Mitigation: A National Core Group has been constituted under the Chairmanship of Secretary, Border Management and comprising of Secretary, Department of Science and Technology, Secretary, Road Transport & Highways, and the Heads of Geological Survey of India and National Remote Sensing Agency for drawing up a strategy and plan of action for mitigating the impact of landslides, provide advise and guidance to State Governments on various aspects of landslide mitigation, monitor the activities
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relating to landslide mitigation including landslide hazard zonation and to evolve 26 early warning systems and protocols for landslides/landslide risk reduction. The Government have designated Geological Survey of India (GSI) as the nodal agency responsible for coordinating/undertaking geological studies, landslides hazard zonation, monitoring landslides/avalanches, studying the factors responsible and suggesting precautionary and preventing measures. The States/Union Territories have been requested to share the list of habitations close to landslide prone areas in order to supplement Geological Survey of Indias ongoing assessment of such areas based on the Survey of Indias Toposheet and their existing data base on landslides for the purpose of landslide hazard zonation being carried out by them.

vii. Human Resource Development: Human Resource Development at all levels is critical to institutionalization of disaster mitigation strategy. The National Centre for Disaster Management at the national level has been upgraded and designated as the National Institute of Disaster Management. It is being developed as a Regional Centre of Excellence in Asia. The National Institute of Disaster Management will develop training modules at different levels, undertake training of trainers and organize training programmes for planners, administrators and command functionaries. Besides, the other functions assigned to the National Institute of Disaster Management include development of exhaustive national level information base on disaster management policies, prevention mechanisms, mitigation measures and providing consultancy to various States in strengthening their disaster management systems and capacities as well as preparation of disaster management plans and strategies for hazard mitigation and disaster response. It has been decided to incorporate elements of disaster management in the training curricula of Civil Services. For the three All India Services (IAS, IPS and Indian Forest Service), training curricula have already been drawn up and integrated into the training curricula of these All India Services with effect from 2004-05.

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viii. NDM cells in Administrative Training Institutes: Disaster Management faculties have already been created in 29 State level training institutes located in 28 States. These faculties are being directly supported by the Ministry of Home Affairs. The State Training Institutions take up several focused training programmes for different target groups within the State. The Disaster Management faculties in these Institutes are being further strengthened so as to enable them to 29 develop as Institutes of Excellence for a specific disaster. Assistance to the State level training institutes will be provided by the National Institute of Disaster Management in the development of training capsules/training modules for different functionaries at different levels.

ix. Disaster Awareness in School Curriculum: Disaster management as a subject in Social Sciences has been introduced in the school curriculum for Class VIII & IX. The Central Board of Secondary Education (CBSE) which has introduced the curriculum runs a very large number of schools throughout the country and the course curriculum is invariably followed by the State Boards of Secondary Education. Teachers are being trained to teach disaster management. Syllabus for Class X is being finalized and will be introduced in the course curriculum soon. The State Governments have been advised to take similar steps vis--vis their school boards. Several State Governments have already introduced the same curriculum in Class VIII. Ministry is working with the Council of Board of School Education (COBSE) to facilitate inclusion of disaster management in public education in all 39 School Boards in the country.

4.1.4 Conclusion
Effective planning and focus on prevention and mitigation would greatly help in ensuring that the hazards do not transform itself into disasters and the coping capacities of the vulnerable population is greatly increased. This would again need systematic planning and coordination to ensure that the Disaster Risk Reduction is constantly promoted and mainstreamed in the regular programmes of each department. Recently planning commission has constituted a committee for inclusion of DRR measures in the 12th five year plan.

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4.2 Preparedness
Mitigation and preparedness measures go hand in hand for vulnerability reduction and rapid professional response to disasters. The Bhuj earthquake in January, 2001 brought out several inadequacies in the system. Professionally trained search and rescue teams were not available; specialized dog squads to look for live bodies under the debris were not available and there was no centralized resource inventory for emergency response. Although army played a pivotal role in search and rescue and also set up their hospital after the collapse of Government hospital at Bhuj, the need for fully equipped mobile hospitals with trained personnel was felt acutely. Despite these constraints, the response was fairly well organized. However, had these constraints been taken care of beforehand, the response would have been even more professional and rapid which may have reduced the loss of lives. Specialist search and rescue teams from other countries did reach Bhuj. However, precious time was lost and even with these specialist teams it was not possible to cover all severely affected areas as quickly as the Government would have desired. It was, therefore, decided that we should remove these inadequacies and be in a state of preparedness at all times.

4.2.1 Measures taken for Preparedness :-

i. Specialist Response Teams: The Central Government is now in the

process of training and equipping eight battalions of CPMFs as specialist response teams. Each team consists of 45 personnel including doctors, paramedics, structural engineers etc and thus there will be 144 Specialist Search and Rescue Teams in the earmarked eight battalions. The process of training and equipping of the 144 specialist search and rescue teams etc has begun. 18 teams have been trained so far. These teams are being trained in collapsed structure search and rescue, medical first response, rescue and evacuation in flood and cyclone, under water rescue etc. In effect they will have the capability to operate in all types of 33 terrain in all contingencies/disasters. It is proposed to group together the eight battalions of CPMFs earmarked for specialized emergency response as National
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Emergency Response Force. These specialist response teams are being provided modern equipments and also dog squads for search and rescue. They will be provided with special uniforms made of fire retardant materials with enhanced visibility in low light and having equipment carrying capacity.

ii Setting up of Search and Rescue Teams in States: The States have been advised to set up their own Specialist Teams for responding to disasters. Ministry of Home Affairs will provide assistance for the training of the State trainers. Many States/Union Territories have initiated action for setting up of specialized SAR units. Ten States have identified the Training Centers for training in Search and Rescue in the States. They have also identified trainers who will be imparted training at CPMF training institutions. Some states e.g. Maharashtra, Orissa, Gujarat and Delhi have trained search and rescue teams. It has been provided that 10% of the annual inflows into the CRF can be used for procurement of search and rescue equipment and communication equipment. States have been advised to include training in search and rescue in the training of State Armed Police.

iii. Health Preparedness: A 200 bedded mobile hospital, fully trained and equipped is being set up and attached to a leading Government hospital in Delhi. Three additional mobile hospitals with all medical and emergency equipments are proposed to be located in different parts of the country. These mobile hospitals will also be attached to the leading Government hospitals in the country. This will enable the mobile hospitals to extend assistance to the hospitals with which they are attached in normal time. They will be airlifted during emergencies with additional doctors/paramedics taken from the hospitals with which the mobile hospitals are attached to the site of disaster.

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iv. Hospital Preparedness and Emergency Health Management in Medical Education: Hospital preparedness is crucial to any disaster response system. Each hospital need to have an emergency preparedness plan to deal with mass casualty incidents and the hospital administration/ doctor trained for this emergency. The curriculum for medical doctors does not at present include Hospital Preparedness for emergencies. Therefore capacity building through in-service training of the current health managers and medical personnel in Hospital Preparedness for emergencies or mass casualty incident management is essential. At the same time 35 in order that the future health managers acquire these skills it is proposed to include health emergency management in the undergraduate and post graduate medical curricula. In consultation with Medical Council of India (MCI), two committees have been constituted for preparation of curriculum for introduction of emergency health management in MBBS curriculum and preparation of in-service training of Hospital Managers and Professionals. Rajiv Gandhi University of Health Sciences Karnataka has been identified as the lead national resource institution for the purpose

v. Emergency Support Function Plans: It is seen that the relevant departments start constituting teams/mobilizing resources only after the crisis/disaster has struck, leading to delays. The relevant departments/agencies have been asked to draw up Emergency Support Function (ESF) Plans and constitute response teams and designate resources in advance so that response is not delayed. Ministries/ Departments have drawn up their ESF Plans and communicated it to MHA. States have also been asked to take similar steps. Similarly States have been advised to finalize pre-contract/agreement for all disaster relief items so as to avoid delays in procuring relief items after disaster situations.

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vi. Strengthening of Civil Defence: India has a large network of Civil Defence and Home Guards volunteers. The existing strength is about 1.2 million. However, this organization has not so far been associated with disaster mitigation, preparedness and response functions. It is proposed to revamp the Civil Defence organization to enable them to discharge a key responsibility in all facets of disaster management including preparedness. A proposal in this regard has been finalized and is under consideration of the Government.

vii. Special Focus to Northeastern States: A special focus is being given to North-Eastern States and the Andaman & Nicobar Islands. The North-Eastern Council has been made the nodal agency for the NE States. The NEC has been provided with a resource person/advisor in disaster management. A detailed presentation on the vulnerabilities of the NE region and the need for comprehensive disaster management plan has been made in the Governing Body of NE Council. An action plan has been drawn up by NEC and a declaration namely Shillong Declaration has been adopted by States in the NE region for integrating disaster management with development planning. 140 officials and non-officials have been trained in disaster management to act as resource persons for the NE region. State and district level sensitization and training programmes are being carried out.

viii. Tsunami warning Indian National Centre for Oceanic Information System (INCOIS) Post tsunami dated 26th December, 2004, Ministry of Earth Sciences has established the Indian National Tsunami Warning System at Indian National Centre for Ocean Information Services (INCOIS), Hyderabad. The Tsunami Early Warning System (TEWS) was made operationalon 15th Oct 2007. This agency has developed a protocol for issue for Tsunami Watch, Alert andWarnings. The Centre gives information to all responders about the origin, time, location ofthe epicenter, magnitude and depth of an earthquake inside the ocean and accordingly issues bulletins.
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The system is capable of detecting all earthquake events of more than 6 Magnitude occurring in the Indian Ocean in less than 20 minutes of occurrence and first report on the occurrence of an earthquake in India and the Indian Ocean region to sent to MHA within 2530 minutes indicating the location and magnitude of the earthquake. Further, if any rise in water level is reported by NIOT, TEWC would issue a Tsunami warning within 60 minutes of the occurrence of the earthquake. The information so generated would be disseminated through various communication channels to the concerned user agencies in a fully automated mode.

ix. Trigger Mechanism: This mechanism has been developed to activate the disaster response system automatically after receiving warning signals of a disaster happening or likely to happen or on receipt of information about the incident. The responders are required to undertake activities as per the SOPs issued in respect of such disasters. There may be scenario where early warning signals could be available and there may happen a disaster without any early warning.

4.2.2 Conclusion
The preparedness and response phase in the Disaster management cycle are critical in reducing the impact of disasters. The involvement of multi-various stakeholders, therefore, need to ensure efficient inter-departmental coordination and need to constantly review and improve the systems in place. It has to be kept in mind to ensure that the focus on these two areas help in bringing a tangible improvement in handling the disasters.

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4.3 Relief
4.3.1 Background The International Strategy for Disaster Reduction (ISDR) defines recovery as the decisions and actions taken after a disaster with a view to restore or improve the pre-disaster living conditions of the stricken community, while encouraging and facilitating necessary adjustments to reduce disaster risk. While emergency response is vital as it is aimed at saving human lives and providing relief, the ultimate objective of any crisis management is restoration of devastated livelihoods. Recovery efforts following rescue and relief in any disaster can be classified into short term and long term. The short term activities for recovery are debris clearance, providing semi-permanent shelter and ensuring sanitation and restoring lifelines, while the long term activities involve building a safer and more sustainable livelihood.

4.3.2 Guiding principles of Post-Recovery

Box 4.1

illustrates the principles applied generally based on international practices.

Box4.1 Guiding Principles for Post- Recovery

Mainstreaming disaster risk reduction in recovery and development process, Improving coordination, Promoting participatory approaches and decentralising planning and programming for recovery, Enhancing safety standards and integrating risk reduction in reconstruction and development, Improving the living conditions of the affected communities and sectors, Building local and national capacities for increased resilience, risk management and sustainable development, Taking advantage of ongoing initiatives, Gender sensibility, Demonstrative effects, Monitoring, evaluation and learning.

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4.3.3 Assessment

The first step after stabilizing the situation by providing sufficient relief is to assess the damage. A meticulously executed assessment exercise would provide an ideal base for the rehabilitation efforts. This exercise is best carried out through multi-disciplinary teams which go into all aspectsof damage (social, economical, psychological) in participation with the local community. Basedon the assessment of the damage and the needs, a recovery strategy has to be formulated. The strategy should include all interventions - economic, social, political and psychological. The resources should be identified and the roles and responsibilities of all concerned should be defined.

4.3.4 Co-ordination Following any major disaster, a number of players arrive on the scene and as already stated, ensuring proper coordination amongst them thus becomes very important. Recovery activities are taken up by government agencies, local bodies, international agencies, voluntary organisations and others, through separate, overlapping and uncoordinated interventions. This leads to imbalances in the scale of operations, duplication of efforts in some areas, gaps in others and leakage and misuse of resources. Therefore establishing a framework for coordination is necessary for effective recovery. The role of voluntary organisations including international ones like the Red Cross is extremely useful for mitigating the impact of disaster.

4.3.5 Shelter Shelter is one of the most visible and immediate needs in post-crisis settings. Relief efforts are often focused on providing shelter quickly, without taking into account the impact of shortterm shelter strategies. Long-term shelter strategies help not only to focus on determination and implementation of realistic and permanent reconstruction plans for the affected communities, but are also concerned with rebuilding community confidence and support structure for civic responsibility and urban governance, through participatory planning of reconstruction. The development of disaster resistant housing is a major factor in reducing vulnerability to disasters. However, shelter issues in mitigation go beyond the structural aspects. Rights to ownership
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and security of tenure make an enormous difference to the maintenance, management and development of shelter, particularly in urban areas. 4.3.6 Sustainability in Recovery Process Normally, it is seen that the recovery efforts have a tendency of tapering off with the passage of time. The Bureau for Crisis Prevention and Recovery of the UNDP has also observed the general experience is that once the initial flurry of activities of providing rescue and relief is over, the attention received by the recovery efforts goes on declining steadily over a period of time and business as usual sets in. The sustainability component in recovery process therefore is important. This could be achieved by capability building of the community and awareness generation and preparing local crisis management plans.

3.3.7Accountability A system of accountability needs to be evolved during the relief and rehabilitation phase. This system should ensure that the relief material reaches the target groups and that the funds are being utilised efficiently and optimally. A grievance redressal mechanism should also be put in place.

4.3.7 Evaluation After the recovery phase, it is necessary to conduct a detailed evaluation of all aspects of crisis management. This should bring out the strengths and weaknesses of the disaster management machinery and also provide the basis for future improvements. Such an evaluation should be carried out by an independent professional agency like the NIDM, in all major disasters. This assessment should also include a quick audit of the expenditure incurred.

4.3.8 Some Indian Experiences in Recovery in the Last Two Decades Few experiences of post disaster recovery rehabilitation and reconstruction works are illustrated in the subsequent paragraphs. This shows the experiences which country as a whole has gathered in course of its recovery process after the event of different kind of disasters whether human
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induced or natural. This may guide the responders in the future such endeavors and may also help them to take corrective measures. a. Kutch Earthquake (2001)

The Kutch earthquake of 26th January, 2001 was one of the worst natural disasters to strike in Gujarat. It posed enormous challenges because of its magnitude, intensity and geographical spread for rescue, relief and rehabilitation. The devastation a glimpse: Overall 7633 villages in 21 out of 25 districts of Gujarat were affected to varying degrees. The districts most affected were Kutch, Surendaranagar, Jamnagar,Rajkot, Patan and Ahmedabad. Almost 13, 805 human lives were lost, about 1,67,000 persons were injured and over a million houses were damaged and destroyed. About 10,000 small and medium industrial units went out of production, affecting income and employment. Inspite of the immediate sense of shock, confusion, helplessness and grief, the government and thecommunity rose to the occasion and quickly responded to the event. Soon after, a holistic and comprehensive reconstruction and rehabilitation programme was put in place. A new organization, the Gujarat State Disaster Management Authority was established. The Government of Gujarat also announced the Reconstruction and Rehabilitation Policy (2001).

The Gujarat Earthquake Reconstruction Programme was designed to address the needs of the affected people comprehensively. It adopted a building back better approach, involved the community and encompassed a number of sectors such as housing physical infrastructure, social infrastructure (education and health), urban reconstruction, livelihood restoration, social rehabilitation and long term disaster risk reduction.

The reconstruction programme had the following objectives:

(i) Promoting sustainable recovery in disaster affected areas, and (ii) Laying the foundation for sustainable disaster management capacity in Gujarat.
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Fig 4.2 Gujarat Earthquake 2001

Some of the salient features of the Gujarat Reconstruction Programme are as follows:

(i) Owner Driven Reconstruction: The reconstruction of the houses was done by the owners themselves with technical assistance provided by the government. This involved

minimumrelocation and out of 215,255 houses that were reconstructed only 5720 houses were partially relocated. To provide technical guidance to the community and ensure that the newly built houses were hazard resistant, large number of engineers, architects and masons were trained and technical guidelines were developed. A third party audit mechanism was established to control quality.

(ii) Housing Insurance: The Housing Insurance Programme was incorporated as a compulsory component for all G-5 houses and optional for houses of other categories. The insurance covered 14 types of risks for 10 years and the premium was fixed at ` 349.10 for an insured sum of `1 lakh.

(iii) Urban reconstruction of all the four towns in Kutch ensured planning principles with
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improvement of basic services and urban environment. (iv) A regulatory system for safe construction was strengthened and licensing of engineers and certification of masons were introduced. (v) Mass awareness on disaster preparedness was undertaken to prepare the community to face similar future eventualities.

b. Tsunami (2004) The Dec 26th 2004 Indian ocean tsunami caused extensive damage to the infrastructure including harbours, jetties, roads, bridges, power, telecom, hospitals, schools and other social sector buildings besides human loss of 9395 persons and 3,964 were missing after the disaster. The estimated loss in monetary terms including damage to property was reported at ` 11544.91 crore (Andhra Pradesh- ` 342.67 crore, Kerala- ` 2371.02 crore, Tamil Nadu- `4528.66 crore, Andman & Nicobar Islands ` 3836.56 and Puducherry ` 466.00 crore). In terms of housing, 86,688 houses were damaged, with 53,192 vulnerable to damage. Approximately 12000 hectares of agricultural land was damaged and 3000 hectares of land was rendered unusable due to salinity in the soil. A total 47 Fishing Landing Centres (FLC) got damaged and approximately 28000 boats were damaged. The loss assessed by respective state government may be seen at Table 4.2
Table4.2 Loss in Tsunami 2004, India

Items damaged Financial Loss (rs in crore) Houses (i) Damaged (ii)Vulnerable Agricultural land (ha) Boats (nos.) Roads (km)

TN 4528.66

Kerala 2371.02

AP 342.67

Puducherry 466.00

A&Ni 3836.56

Total 11544.91

64976 40248 88451.72 2727 1548.32

3867 11,000 2151 3989 686

481 No damage 11394 No damage

7567 1145 7892 108

9797 8069 2065 350.05

86688 51248 99816.72 28067 2692.37

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It is not possible to prevent a tsunami. However, in some tsunami-prone countries, earthquake engineering measures have been taken to reduce the damage caused on shore. (i) Physical Measures: The State Governments and District Administration rose to the occasion in its search & rescue operation besides providing relief. The Central Government initiated relief operation by deploying 20,800 personnel of armed forces as well as Central Armed Police Forces in the affected States and UTs. It also send supports to Sri Lanka, Maldives and Indonesia. In all 881 relief camps were set-up and a total of 6,04,335 people were housed in these camps. About 12,735 tents were dispatched to the affected areas mostly to A&N Islands. 64 special flights were operated between 27th Dec 2004 1st Jan 2005 to evacuate 6,318 stranded people including tourists in A&N Islands. In all 28,734 persons were rescued 9950 in Kerala, 9284 in A&N Islands, and 9500 in TN including 1000 persons stranded at Vivekanand Memorial. 6.45 lakhs persons Main Land (6.30 lakhs) and A&N Islands (0.15 lakhs) were moved to safer places.

(ii) Financial Measures: Government of India made immediate release of ` 700 crore for the Tsunami affected States and UTs. An amount of ` 450 crore was released as an immediate assistance from the National Calamity Contingency Fund (NCCF) to the States of Tamil Nadu (` 250 crore), Kerala (` 100 crore) and Andhra Pradesh (` 100 crore). In addition, an amount of ` 50 crore to Puducherry and ` 200 crore for Andaman & Nicobar Islands was also earmarked.

(iii) Rajiv Gandhi Rehabilitation Package: Government of India provided assistance to the Governments of Andhra Pradesh, Kerala, Tamil Nadu, and the Union Territories of Puducherry and Andaman & Nicobar Islands to implement the special package of ` 3644.05 crore named as Rajiv Gandhi Rehabilitation Package for Tsunami affected areas to provide assistance for immediate relief and response, revival of fishery and agriculture sectors, construction of temporary (intermediate) shelters and repair/restoration of infrastructure. The amount of rs 700 crore released immediately from NCCF became a part of this Package.

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c. Mayapuri Radiation Exposure Delhi (2010)

i. The National Radiation Regulatory Authority, Atomic Energy Regulatory Board (AERB) received a message in the afternoon of 7th April, 2010 from Indraprastha Apollo Hospital, New Delhi that one person, aged 32 years, the owner of a scrap shop in Mayapuri Industrial Area, New Delhi had been admitted on 4th April, 2010 with symptoms of radiation exposure.

ii. The Team of Atomic Energy Regulatory Board (AERB) visited the place immediately with radiation detection equipments and monitored the radiation levels at various positions near the scrap shop. They found that the particular shop as well as a couple of nearby shops had very high radiation fields. Next day, teams of Radiation Safety Experts from BARC, AERB & Narora Atomic Power Station were sent to Delhi with a wide range of radiation monitoring, detecting equipments and a lead flask to locate, identify, recover, safely secure and dispose radioactive sources.

iii. The response team identified the radiation source as Cobalt-60, used mainly in industry for radiography and in teletherapy for cancer treatment. During the search operation, the team could locate, recover and secure eight sources of different intensities. These sources were placed in the lead shielded flask brought from Narora and sent for further examination and safe disposal. Subsequently the area was cleared for the public. A radiation survey of scrap metal shops in neighboring areas was carried out following the incident. It indicated elevated radiation levels in one more scrap shop about 500 m away from the ones where radiation sources were found earlier. A joint team consisting of AERB and National Disaster Response Force (NDRF) recovered two more radioactive sources from this shop. Both the sources were safely transferred to a shielding flask and transported back to Narora.

iv. As a follow up to this incident, four joint teams of BARC, AERB and NDRF were formed and the surroundings of all remaining 800 shops in the market were scanned when the shops were closed on 14th April, 2010. The entire area was found to be free of elevated radiation fields except at the entrance of the market where the soil over a small patch was slightly contaminated.
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The contaminated soil showed Cobalt-60 contamination but of very low order. Subsequently, the contaminated soil up to a depth of few centimetres was removed to bring down the radiation field. v. Constitution of a Working Group: In the backdrop of the discovery of radiation sources from the scrap in Mayapuri in New Delhi and also to minimise the possibility of such recurrences in future, NDMA constituted a working group headed by Shri B. Bhattacharjee, Member, NDMA to spell out the roles and responsibilities of various agencies in dealing with Radiological Emergencies. The committee has submitted its report with the title Working Group for Formulating mechanisms to detect, prevent and respond to radiological emergencies in India to the Cabinet Secretariat. Further follow up on the recommendations of the committee is being done by the Cabinet Secretariat and NDMA.

4.3.9 Conclusion

Recovery, early recovery, long-term recovery, lasting recovery, reconstruction and rehabilitation are critical phases of Disaster Management Cycle. They offer an opportunity to reduce risks from future hazards and the Build back better approach followed in the recovery programmes after major recent disasters give us valuable lessons on how to approach this phase. It is anticipated that the experiences mentioned would help the stakeholders in planning effective, efficient and time bound action plan in the event of disasters.

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Chapter 5 INTERNATIONAL COOPERATION

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Overview India has played an important role in global initiatives on disaster management. With multi dimensional initiatives and expertise, India is taking a leading role in strengthening regional cooperation among South Asian countries for reducing disasters. Further, India has hosted the SAARC Disaster Management Centre in New Delhi with a clear mandate for enhancing regional cooperation. India is a signatory to the Hyogo Framework of Action and is committed to achieving the goals set under it through systematic and sustained efforts under the five priority action areas mentioned in the framework. The succeeding paragraphs give a brief account of international and regional organisations working in the disaster management along with Indias participation.

5.1 Hyogo Framework of Action 5.1.1 Representatives from 168 countries participated in the global conference on Disaster Risk Reduction in January 2005 in Kobe, Japan. The Hyogo Framework of Action (HFA) 2005-2015 was adopted to work globally towards sustainable reduction of disaster losses in lives and in the social, economic and environmental assets of communities and countries. The framework set three strategic goals and five priority action areas given as under:-

5.1.2 Three Strategic Goals: Followings are the goals as agreed to under the HFA(i) The more effective integration of disaster risk reduction into sustainable development policies, planning and programming at all levels, with a special emphasis on disaster prevention, mitigation, preparedness and vulnerability reduction. (ii) The development and strengthening of institutions, mechanisms and capacities at all levels in particular at the community level that can systematically contribute to building resilience to hazards. (iii) The systematic incorporation of risk reduction approaches into the design and implementation of emergency preparedness, response and recovery programmes in the reconstruction of the affected communities. India is one of the participating countries and works closely with the UN-ISDR to implement the Priority Areas of HFA.
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The responsibilities of the concerned ministry, agency and department to implement key activities as resolved in HFA are given in Box. 5.1.

Box 5.1: Ministries designated for HFA initiatives Priority Action - 1 Ensure that disaster risk reduction is a national and a local priority with a strong institutional basis for implementation. Ministry of Panchayati Raj, NIDM for human resources, Planning Commission for financial resources, DM Division of MHA.

Priority Action 2: Identify, assess and monitor National Remote Sensing Agency, Central Water disaster risks and enhance early warning Commission, India Meteorological Department, Geological Survey of India, DM Division of MHA. Priority Action 3: Knowledge, innovation and education to build a culture of safety and resilience at all levels NIDM,DM Division of MHA, CBSE, NCERT, other research organizations, NDMA, Ministry of Health, HRD, and Ministry of Environment and Forest, Rural Development, Science and Technology, Health and Family Welfare, Urban Development, Planning Commission, DM Division of MHA, NIDM and NDMA DM Division of MHA

Priority Action 4:Reduce the underlying risk factors

Priority Action 5: Strengthen disaster preparedness for effective response at all levels.

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5.2 United Nations International Strategy for Disaster Reduction (UNISDR)

5.2.1 Mission: In order to build the resilience of nations and communities to disasters through the implementation of the HFA , the UNISDR strives to catalyze, facilitate and mobilise the commitment and resources of national, regional and international stakeholders of the ISDR system.

The mission of UNISDR is to be an effective coordinator and guide all its ISDR partners, globally and regionally, to: Mobilise political and financial commitments to disaster risk reduction and Hyogo Framework for Action 2005-2015: Building the Resilience of Nations and Communities to Disasters (HFA); Develop and sustain a robust, multi stake-holder system; Provide relevant knowledge and guidance.

5.2.2 Functions and Responsibilities: The International Strategy for Disaster Reduction (ISDR) was adopted by United Nations Member States in 2000 and is owned by local, national, regional and international organisations. UNISDR is led by an Assistant Secretary-General for Disaster Risk Reduction and overseen by the Under-Secretary-General for Humanitarian Affairs, who also serves as the Chair for the wider ISDR system of partnerships. The mandate of UNISDR is to act as the focal point in the United Nations system for the coordination of disaster reduction and to ensure that disaster risk reduction becomes integral part to sound and equitable development, environmental protection and humanitarian action.

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5.3 Global Facility for Disaster Risk Reduction (GFDRR)

5.3..1 GFDRR was set up in September 2006 jointly by the World Bank, donor partners (21 countries and four international organisations), and key stakeholders of the International Strategy for Disaster Reduction (UN-ISDR). It is a long-term global partnership under the ISDR system established to develop and implement the HFA through a coordinated programme for reversing the trend in disaster losses by 2015. Its mission is to mainstream disaster reduction and climate change adaptation in a countrys development strategies to reduce vulnerability to natural hazards. At the national and local levels, it also includes other sectoral development strategies that the countries most vulnerable to natural disasters may undertake to alleviate poverty and address sustainable growth.

5.3.2 GFDRR has three main business lines (Box 5.2) to achieve its development objectives at the global, regional and country levels. Box5.2 Development Objective at Global, Regional and National Level Track-I Global and Regional Partnerships (to strengthen and re-organise ISDR processes to increase its outreach Mainstreaming Disaster Risk Reduction (DRR) in Development (benefits low to medium income countries; supports sectoral projects like health, education and research etc.) Track-III Standby Recovery Financing Facility (SRFF) for Accelerated Disaster Recovery (focuses in low income countries).

Track-II

As and when required, India has been participating in the status of observer in the GFDRR programme.

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5.4 Asian Disaster Preparedness Center (ADPC) 5.4.1 ADPC is established in 1986 at Bangkok,Thailand. It is a non-profit, non-political, autonomous, regional organisation serving as a regional centre in Asia-Pacific for promoting disaster preparedness, disaster mitigation, awareness generation, exchange of information, community participation etc. Prof. Dr Krasae Chanawongse, Minister to the Prime Ministers Office, Thailand is the current Chairman of the Board of Trustees (BoT) of ADPC.

5.4.2 India is a member of the Board of Trustees (BoT), since August 2000. Union Home Secretary is one of the Members of the BoT of ADPC, since the transfer of subject of Disaster Management to Ministry of Home Affairs from the Ministry of Agriculture in June, 2002. Secretary (BM) is member of the Advisory Council & Regional Consultative Committee of ADPC. In 2004, the ADPC became an international body (inter governmental organization). Officials of the Ministry of Home Affairs have been attending the meetings of the Regional Consultative Committee (RCC) of the ADPC and meetings of the Board of Trustees.

5.5. Indias engagement with external agencies on Disaster Risk Reduction India is engaged with UNDP and US Aid for building the capacity of its response mechanism, mapping the vulnerabilities to different kind of disasters, besides strengthening the various institutions engaged in disaster management. It has entered in to MOU with the few countries in the field of disaster management and has been working closely with the several countries in the exchange of ideas and expertise developed to meet the challenges of several natural disasters.

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5.6 United States Agency for International Development (USAID) Assisted Disaster Management (DMS) Support Project

5.6.1 USAID with its headquarters in Washington, D.C is a governmental agency of USA providing economic, development and humanitarian assistance around the world in support of the foreign policy goals of the United States of America. A bilateral agreement was signed between USAID and the Government of India in September 2003 with the objectives to reduce vulnerability to disasters and build capacity of key Indian institutions. However a final agreement (in the nature of second amendatory agreement) was signed on 4th April 2007. The period of theoriginal Agreement ended on 31st March, 2010. The scope of this bilateral agreement broadly includes three activities viz., Incident Response System (IRS), procurement of equipment and capacity building. The main activities during the extended period of the agreement i.e. up to 31st March 2015 are to be implemented in the broad areas of integration of disaster risk reduction and climate change.

5.6.2 The activities identified for technical assistance of USAID are as follows: Down scaling climate modelling for local areas Analysing risk of sea level rise in coastal cities Hydro meteorological risks of selected capital cities Screening of land use and investment plans in selected capital cities Training and capacity building.x

Conclusion
This chapter has attempted to capture the various international cooperation initiatives. While India does not seek assistance during the relief and response phases, it welcomes sharing of expertise and also technical assistance based on various international developments. As a signatory to the Hyogo Framework of Action, India is also committed to achieve the priorities and the objectives through systematic and institutional efforts.

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Chapter 6 CONCLUSION AND LIMITATION

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CONCLUSION

Disaster Management requires multi-disciplinary and pro-active approach.

Besides various measures for putting in place institutional and policy framework, disaster prevention, mitigation and preparedness enunciated in this PROJECT and initiatives being taken by the Central and State Governments, the community, civil society organizations and media also have a key role to play in achieving our goal of moving together, towards a safer India. The message being put across is that, in order to move towards safer and sustainable national development, development projects should be sensitive towards disaster mitigation.

Our mission is vulnerability reduction to all types of hazards, be it natural

or manmade. This is not an easy task to achieve, keeping in view the vast population, and the multiple natural hazards to which this country is exposed. However, if we are firm in our conviction and resolve that the Government and the people of this country are not prepared to pay the price in terms of massive casualties and economic losses, the task, though difficult, is achievable and we shall achieve it.

We have taken the first few but significant steps towards vulnerability

reduction, putting in place prevention and mitigation measures and preparedness for a rapid and professional response. With a massive awareness generation campaign and building up of capabilities as well as institutionalization of the entire mechanism through a techno legal and techno financial framework, we are gradually moving in the direction of sustainable development.

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The various prevention, mitigation measures outlined above are aimed at

building up the capabilities of the communities, voluntary organisations and Government functionaries at all levels. Particular stress is being laid on ensuring that these measures are institutionalized considering the vast population and the geographical area of the country. This is a major task being undertaken by the Government to put in place mitigation measures for vulnerability reduction. This is just a beginning. The ultimate goal is to make prevention and mitigation a part of normal day-to-day life.. We have a firm conviction that with these measures in place, we could say with confidence that disasters like Orissa cyclone and Bhuj earthquake will not be allowed to recur in this country; at least not at the cost, which the country has paid in these two disasters in terms of human lives, livestock, loss of property and means of livelihood.

Our vision 2020 is to build a safer and secure India through sustained

collective effort, synergy of national capacities and peoples participation. What looks a dream today will be transformed into reality in the next two decades. This is our goal and we shall strive to achieve this goal with a missionary zeal. The path ahead, which looks difficult today, will become a lot easier as we move along together.

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LIMITATION

The data has been gathered from secondary source thus any error in the information would have also got replicated in this report.

As the data was gathered from secondary source, the validity of the data could not be tested.

Another problem was knowledge constraint and this report was only an attempt to gather as much of relevant data as possible

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BIBLIOGRAPHY
All the data for the project report has been collected from various journals, websites and some articles of the newspapers. Following are the various sources from where the data has been collected:

1. Carter, Nick W. (1991) Disaster Management: A Disaster Managers Handbook,

ADB Manila

2. Hindustan Times

3. en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Disaster_management

4. http://www.ndmindia.nic.in/GoIUNDP/GoI-UNDP.html
5. www.osdma.org/Download/DM%20Policy.pdf

6. www.smartindicators.org/docs/evaluation_relief_programs.pdf

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