EMFT Book

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ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELD THEORY
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Bo Thid
Swedish Institute of Space Physics Uppsala, Sweden and
Department of Physics and Astronomy Uppsala University, Sweden
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Also available
ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELD THEORY EXERCISES

by Tobia Carozzi, Anders Eriksson, Bengt Lundborg, Bo Thid and Mattias Waldenvik
A This book was typeset in L TEX 2" based on TEX 3.141592 and Web2C 7.5.6
Copyright 19972009 by Bo Thid Uppsala, Sweden All rights reserved.
Electromagnetic Field Theory ISBN 978-0-486-4773-2
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The cover graphics illustrates the radiation pattern of a radio beam endowed with orbital angular momentum, generated by an array of tri-axial antennas. This graphics illustration was prepared by J O H A N S J H O L M and K R I S T O F F E R P A L M E R as part of their undergraduate Diploma Thesis work in Engineering Physics at Uppsala University 20062007.
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Freely downloadable from www.plasma.uu.se/CED
To the memory of professor L E V M I K H A I L O V I C H E R U K H I M O V (19361997) dear friend, great physicist, poet and a truly remarkable man.
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CONTENTS
Contents
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Preface to the second edition Preface to the rst edition
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List of Figures
xv xvii xix 1 2 2 3 6 6 7 9 10 10 11 12 15 15 16 17 19 19 20 21 22 23 26
1 Foundations of Classical Electrodynamics
1.1 Electrostatics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.1.1 Coulombs law . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.1.2 The electrostatic eld . . . . . . . . . . 1.2 Magnetostatics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.2.1 Ampres law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.2.2 The magnetostatic eld . . . . . . . . . 1.3 Electrodynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.3.1 The indestructibility of electric charge . 1.3.2 Maxwells displacement current . . . . 1.3.3 Electromotive force . . . . . . . . . . . 1.3.4 Faradays law of induction . . . . . . . 1.3.5 The microscopic Maxwell equations . . 1.3.6 Diracs symmetrised Maxwell equations 1.3.7 Maxwell-Chern-Simons equations . . . 1.4 Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2 Electromagnetic Fields and Waves

2.1 Axiomatic classical electrodynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.2 Complex notation and physical observables . . . . . . . . 2.2.1 Physical observables and averages . . . . . . . . . 2.2.2 Maxwell equations in Majorana representation . . . 2.3 The wave equations for E and B . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.3.1 The time-independent wave equations for E and B
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2.4 Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
28 29 29 30 33 34 35 36 40 41 44 45 47 49 53 56 57 59 59 61 63 63 63 65 68 71 71 76 77 78 78 79 81 81 81 83 87 91
3 Electromagnetic Potentials and Gauges

The electrostatic scalar potential . The magnetostatic vector potential The electrodynamic potentials . . Gauge transformations . . . . . . Gauge conditions . . . . . . . . . 3.5.1 Lorenz-Lorentz gauge . . . 3.5.2 Coulomb gauge . . . . . . 3.5.3 Velocity gauge . . . . . . 3.6 Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4 Fields from Arbitrary Charge and Current Distributions

4.1 The retarded magnetic eld . . . . . . . . . . 4.2 The retarded electric eld . . . . . . . . . . . 4.3 The elds at large distances from the sources . 4.3.1 The far elds . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.4 Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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5 Fundamental Properties of the Electromagnetic Field
6 Radiation and Radiating Systems
6.1 Radiation of linear momentum and energy . . . 6.1.1 Monochromatic signals . . . . . . . . . 6.1.2 Finite bandwidth signals . . . . . . . . 6.2 Radiation of angular momentum . . . . . . . . 6.3 Radiation from a localised source volume at rest 6.3.1 Electric multipole moments . . . . . . . 6.3.2 The Hertz potential . . . . . . . . . . . 6.3.3 Electric dipole radiation . . . . . . . . . 6.3.4 Magnetic dipole radiation . . . . . . . .
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5.1 Charge, space, and time inversion symmetries 5.2 Conservation laws . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.2.1 Conservation of charge . . . . . . . . 5.2.2 Conservation of current . . . . . . . . 5.2.3 Conservation of energy . . . . . . . . 5.2.4 Conservation of linear momentum . . 5.2.5 Conservation of angular momentum . 5.2.6 Electromagnetic virial theorem . . . . 5.3 Electromagnetic duality . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.4 Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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6.3.5 Electric quadrupole radiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.4 Radiation from an extended source volume at rest . . . . . . 6.4.1 Radiation from a one-dimensional current distribution 6.5 Radiation from a localised charge in arbitrary motion . . . . 6.5.1 The Linard-Wiechert potentials . . . . . . . . . . . 6.5.2 Radiation from an accelerated point charge . . . . . 6.5.3 Bremsstrahlung . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.5.4 Cyclotron and synchrotron radiation . . . . . . . . . 6.6 Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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92 93 93 100 100 102 112 118 125 127 127 128 129 134 137 138 138 139 142 145 147 147 147 154 154 162 163 164 164 165 167 168 169 170 174 175 177 185
7 Relativistic Electrodynamics
8 Electromagnetic Fields and Particles
8.1 Charged particles in an electromagnetic eld . . . . . . . . . . . 8.1.1 Covariant equations of motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.2 Covariant eld theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.2.1 Lagrange-Hamilton formalism for elds and interactions 8.3 Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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9 Electromagnetic Fields and Matter
9.1 Maxwells macroscopic theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.1.1 Polarisation and electric displacement . . . . . 9.1.2 Magnetisation and the magnetising eld . . . . 9.1.3 Macroscopic Maxwell equations . . . . . . . . 9.2 Phase velocity, group velocity and dispersion . . . . . 9.3 Radiation from charges in a material medium . . . . . L 9.3.1 Vavilov-Cerenkov radiation . . . . . . . . . . . 9.4 Electromagnetic waves in a medium . . . . . . . . . . 9.4.1 Constitutive relations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.4.2 Electromagnetic waves in a conducting medium 9.5 Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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7.1 The special theory of relativity . . . . . 7.1.1 The Lorentz transformation . . . 7.1.2 Lorentz space . . . . . . . . . . 7.1.3 Minkowski space . . . . . . . . 7.2 Covariant classical mechanics . . . . . . 7.3 Covariant classical electrodynamics . . 7.3.1 The four-potential . . . . . . . . 7.3.2 The Linard-Wiechert potentials 7.3.3 The electromagnetic eld tensor 7.4 Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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Formul
F .1 F .1.1 F .1.2 F .1.3 F .2
187 The microscopic Maxwell equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187 Fields and potentials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188 Force and energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188 Relationship between the eld vectors in a plane wave . . . . . . . . . . 188 The far elds from an extended source distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . 189 The far elds from an electric dipole . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189 The far elds from a magnetic dipole . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189 The far elds from an electric quadrupole . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189 The elds from a point charge in arbitrary motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189 Metric tensor for at 4D space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190 Covariant and contravariant four-vectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190 Lorentz transformation of a four-vector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190 Invariant line element . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190 Four-velocity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191 Four-momentum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191 Four-current density . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191 Four-potential . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
The electromagnetic eld . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
Electromagnetic radiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188

F .2.1 F .2.2 F .2.3 F .2.4 F .2.5 F .2.6
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Special relativity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190

F .3.1 F .3.2 F .3.3 F .3.4 F .3.5 F .3.6 F .3.7
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Mathematical Methods
M .1 M .1.1
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F .3.8 F .3.9 F .4.1 F .4.2 M .1.2 M .1.3 M .1.4 M .2.1 M .2.2
Field tensor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
Vector relations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191 Spherical polar coordinates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192 Vector and tensor formul . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196 197
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Scalars, vectors and tensors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198 Vectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199 Fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200
Vector algebra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208
Vector analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212
Analytical mechanics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218 Lagranges equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218 Hamiltons equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220
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Index
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LIST OF FIGURES
4.1 Radiation in the far zone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.1 6.2 6.3 6.4 6.5 6.6 6.7 6.8 6.9 6.10 6.11 6.12 6.13 Multipole radiation geometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Electric dipole geometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Linear antenna . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Electric dipole antenna geometry . . . . . . . . . . . . Loop antenna . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Radiation from a moving charge in vacuum . . . . . . An accelerated charge in vacuum . . . . . . . . . . . . Angular distribution of radiation during bremsstrahlung Location of radiation during bremsstrahlung . . . . . . Radiation from a charge in circular motion . . . . . . . Synchrotron radiation lobe width . . . . . . . . . . . . The perpendicular electric eld of a moving charge . . Electron-electron scattering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4
Coulomb interaction between two electric charges . . . . Coulomb interaction for a distribution of electric charges Ampre interaction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Moving loop in a varying B eld . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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7.1 Relative motion of two inertial systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128 7.2 Rotation in a 2D Euclidean space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135 7.3 Minkowski diagram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
8.1 Linear one-dimensional mass chain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
L 9.1 Vavilov-Cerenkov cone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171 Tetrahedron-like volume element of matter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204
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PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION
This second edition of the book E L E C T R O M A G N E T I C F I E L D T H E O R Y is a major revision of the rst edition that was published only on the Internet (www.plasma.uu.se/CED/Book). The reason for trying to improve the presentation and to add more material was mainly that this new edition is now being made available in printed form by Dover Publications and is to be used in an extended Classical Electrodynamics course at Uppsala University. Hopefully, this means that the book will nd new uses in Academia and elsewhere. The changes include a slight reordering of the chapters. First, the book describes the properties of electromagnetism when the charges and currents are located in otherwise free space. Only then the we go on to show how elds and charges interact with matter. In the authors opinion, this approach is preferable as it avoids the formal logical inconsistency of discussing, very early in the book, such things as the effect of conductors and dielectrics on the elds and charges (and vice versa), before constitutive relations and physical models for the electromagnetic properties of matter, including conductors and dielectrics, have been derived from rst principles. In addition to the Maxwell-Lorentz equations and Diracs symmetrised version of these equations (which assume the existence of magnetic monopoles), also the Maxwell-Chern-Simons equations are introduced in Chapter 1. In Chapter 2, stronger emphasis is put on the axiomatic foundation of electrodynamics as provided by the microscopic Maxwell-Lorentz equations. Chapter 5 is new and deals with symmetries and conserved quantities in a more rigourous and profound way than in the rst edition. For instance, the presentation of the theory of electromagnetic angular momentum and other observables (constants of motion) has been substantially expanded and put on a more rm physical basis. Chapter 9 is a complete rewrite that combines material that was scattered more or less all over the rst edition. It also contains new material on wave propagation in plasma and other media. When, in Chapter 9, the macroscopic Maxwell equations are introduced, the inherent approximations in the derived eld quantities are clearly pointed out. The collection of formul in Appendix F has been augmented. In Appendix M, the treatment of dyadic products and tensors has been expanded. I want to express my warm gratitude to professor C E S A R E B A R B I E R I and his entire group, particularly F A B R I Z I O T A M B U R I N I , at the Department of Astronomy, University of Padova, for stimulating discussions and the generous hospitality bestowed upon me during several shorter and longer visits in 2008 and 2009 that made it possible to prepare the current major revision of
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P R E F A C E TO THE SECOND EDITION
Padova, Italy October, 2009
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the book. In this breathtakingly beautiful northern Italy, intellectual titan G A L I L E O G A L I L E I worked for eighteen years and gave birth to modern physics, astronomy and science as we know it today, by sweeping away Aristotelian dogmas, misconceptions and mere superstition, thus most profoundly changing our conception of the world and our place in it. In the process, Galileos new ideas transformed society and mankind forever. It is hoped that this book may contribute in some small, humble way to further these, once upon a time, mind-bogglingand even dangerousideas of intellectual freedom and enlightment. Thanks are also due to J O H A N S J H O L M , K R I S T O F F E R P A L M E R , M A R C U S E R I K S S O N , and J O H A N L I N D B E R G who during their work on their Diploma theses suggested improvements and additions. This book is dedicated to my son M A T T I A S , my daughter K A R O L I N A , my four grandsons M A X , A L B I N , F I L I P and O S K A R , my high-school physics teacher, S T A F F A N R S B Y , and my fellow members of the C A P E L L A P E D A G O G I C A U P S A L I E N S I S . BO THID www.physics.irfu.se/ bt
PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION
Of the four known fundamental interactions in naturegravitational, strong, weak, and electromagneticthe latter has a special standing in the physical sciences. Not only does it, together with gravitation, permanently make itself known to all of us in our everyday lives. Electrodynamics is also by far the most accurate physical theory known, tested on scales running from sub-nuclear to galactic, and electromagnetic eld theory is the prototype of all other eld theories. This book, E L E C T R O M A G N E T I C F I E L D T H E O R Y , which tries to give a modern view of classical electrodynamics, is the result of a more than thirty-ve year long love affair. In the autumn of 1972, I took my rst advanced course in electrodynamics at the Department of Theoretical Physics, Uppsala University. Soon I joined the research group there and took on the task of helping the late professor P E R O L O F F R M A N , who was to become my Ph.D. thesis adviser, with the preparation of a new version of his lecture notes on the Theory of Electricity. This opened my eyes to the beauty and intricacy of electrodynamics and I simply became intrigued by it. The teaching of a course in Classical Electrodynamics at Uppsala University, some twenty odd years after I experienced the rst encounter with the subject, provided the incentive and impetus to write this book. Intended primarily as a textbook for physics and engineering students at the advanced undergraduate or beginning graduate level, it is hoped that the present book will be useful for research workers too. It aims at providing a thorough treatment of the theory of electrodynamics, mainly from a classical eld-theoretical point of view. The rst chapter is, by and large, a description of how Classical Electrodynamics was established by J A M E S C L E R K M A X W E L L as a fundamental theory of nature. It does so by introducing electrostatics and magnetostatics and demonstrating how they can be unied into one theory, classical electrodynamics, summarised in Lorentzs microscopic formulation of the Maxwell equations. These equations are used as an axiomatic foundation for the treatment in the remainder of the book, which includes modern formulation of the theory; electromagnetic waves and their propagation; electromagnetic potentials and gauge transformations; analysis of symmetries and conservation laws describing the electromagnetic counterparts of the classical concepts of force, momentum and energy, plus other fundamental properties of the electromagnetic eld; radiation phenomena; and covariant Lagrangian/Hamiltonian eld-theoretical methods for electromagnetic elds, particles and interactions. Emphasis has been put on modern electrodynamics concepts while the mathematical tools used, some of them
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P R E F A CE TO THE FIRST EDITION
presented in an Appendix, are essentially the same kind of vector and tensor analysis methods that are used in intermediate level textbooks on electromagnetics but perhaps a bit more advanced and far-reaching. The aim has been to write a book that can serve both as an advanced text in Classical Electrodynamics and as a preparation for studies in Quantum Electrodynamics and Field Theory, as well as more applied subjects such as Plasma Physics, Astrophysics, Condensed Matter Physics, Optics, Antenna Engineering, and Wireless Communications. The current version of the book is a major revision of an earlier version, which in turn was an outgrowth of the lecture notes that the author prepared for the four-credit course Electrodynamics that was introduced in the Uppsala University curriculum in 1992, to become the ve-credit course Classical Electrodynamics in 1997. To some extent, parts of those notes were based on lecture notes prepared, in Swedish, by my friend and Theoretical Physics colleague B E N G T L U N D B O R G , who created, developed and taught an earlier, two-credit course called Electromagnetic Radiation at our faculty. Thanks are due not only to Bengt Lundborg for providing the inspiration to write this book, but also to professor C H R I S T E R W A H L B E R G , and professor G R A N F L D T , both at the Department of Physics and Astronomy, Uppsala University, for insightful suggestions, to professor J O H N L E A R N E D , Department of Physics and Astronomy, University of Hawaii, for decisive encouragement at the early stage of this book project, and to professor G E R A R D U S T H O O F T , for recommending this book on his web page How to become a good theoretical physicist. I am particularly indebted to the late professor V I T A L I Y L A Z A R E V I C H G I N Z B U R G , for his many fascinating and very elucidating lectures, comments and historical notes on plasma physics, electromagnetic radiation and cosmic electrodynamics while cruising up and down the Volga and Oka rivers in Russia at the ship-borne Russian-Swedish summer schools that were organised jointly by late professor L E V M I K A H I L O V I C H E R U K H I M O V and the author during the 1990s, and for numerous deep discussions over the years. Helpful comments and suggestions for improvement from former PhD students T O B I A C A R O Z Z I , R O G E R K A R L S S O N , and M A T T I A S W A L D E N V I K , as well as A N D E R S E R I K S S O N and S I A V O U S H M O H A M M A D I , all at the Swedish Institute of Space Physics in Uppsala and who have all taught Uppsala students on the material covered in this book, are gratefully acknowledged. Thanks are also due to the late H E L M U T K O P K A , for more than twenty-ve years a close friend and space physics colleague working at the Max-Planck-Institut fr Aeronomie, Lindau, Germany, who not only taught me the practical aspects of the use of high-power electromagnetic radiation A for studying space, but also some of the delicate aspects of typesetting in TEX and LTEX. In an attempt to encourage the involvement of other scientists and students in the making of this book, thereby trying to ensure its quality and scope to make it useful in higher university education anywhere in the world, it was produced as a World-Wide Web (WWW) project. This turned out to be a rather successful move. By making an electronic version of the book freely downloadable on the Internet, comments have been received from fellow physicists around the world. To judge from WWW hit statistics, it seems that the book serves as a frequently used Internet resource. This way it is hoped that it will be particularly useful for students and researchers working under
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xxi
nancial or other circumstances that make it difcult to procure a printed copy of the book. I would like to thank all students and Internet users who have downloaded and commented on the book during its life on the World-Wide Web. Uppsala, Sweden December, 2008 BO THID www.physics.irfu.se/ bt
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FOUNDATIONS OF CLASSICAL ELECTRODYNAMICS
The classical theory of electromagnetism deals with electric and magnetic elds and interactions caused by distributions of electric charges and currents. This presupposes that the concepts of localised electric charges and currents assume the validity of certain mathematical limiting processes in which it is considered possible for the charge and current distributions to be localised in innitesimally small volumes of space. Clearly, this is in contradistinction to electromagnetism on an atomistic scale, where charges and currents have to be described in quantum formalism. However, the limiting processes used in the classical domain, which, crudely speaking, assume that an elementary charge has a continuous distribution of charge density, will yield results that agree with experiments on non-atomistic scales, small or large. It took the genius of J A M E S C L E R K M A X W E L L to consistently unify the two distinct theories electricity and magnetism into a single super-theory, electromagnetism or classical electrodynamics (CED), and to realise that optics is a sub-eld of this super-theory. Early in the 20th century, H E N D R I K A N T O O N L O R E N T Z took the electrodynamics theory further to the microscopic scale and also laid the foundation for the special theory of relativity, formulated in its full extent by A L B E R T E I N S T E I N in 1905. In the 1930s P A U L A D R I E N M A U R I C E D I R A C expanded electrodynamics to a more symmetric form, including magnetic as well as electric charges. With his relativistic quantum mechanics and eld quantisation concepts, he also paved the way for the development of quantum electrodynamics (QED ) for which R I C H A R D P H I L L I P S F E Y N M A N , J U L I A N S E Y M O U R S C H W I N G E R , and S I N - I T I R O T O M O N A G A in 1965 were awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics. Around the same time, physicists
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1 . F O U N D A TIONS OF CLASSICAL ELECTRODYNAMICS
The physicist and philosopher P I E R R E D U H E M (18611916) once wrote: The whole theory of electrostatics constitutes a group of abstract ideas and general propositions, formulated in the clear and concise language of geometry and algebra, and connected with one another by the rules of strict logic. This whole fully satises the reason of a French physicist and his taste for clarity, simplicity and order. . . .
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1.1 Electrostatics
1.1.1 Coulombs law
such as S H E L D O N G L A S H O W , A B D U S S A L A M , and S T E V E N W E I N B E R G were able to unify electrodynamics with the weak interaction theory, creating yet another super-theory, electroweak theory, an achievement which rendered them the Nobel Prize in Physics 1979. The modern theory of strong interactions, quantum chromodynamics (QCD ), is heavily inuenced by QED. In this introductory chapter we start with the force interactions in classical electrostatics and classical magnetostatics and introduce the static electric and magnetic elds to nd two uncoupled systems of equations for them. Then we see how the conservation of electric charge and its relation to electric current leads to the dynamic connection between electricity and magnetism and how the two can be unied into classical electrodynamics. This theory is described by a system of coupled dynamic eld equationsthe microscopic Maxwell equations introduced by Lorentzwhich we take as the axiomatic foundation for the theory of electromagnetic elds. At the end of this chapter we present Diracs symmetrised form of the Maxwell equations by introducing (hypothetical) magnetic charges and magnetic currents into the theory. While not identied unambiguously in experiments yet, magnetic charges and currents make the theory much more appealing, for instance by allowing for duality transformations in a most natural way. Besides, in practical work, such as in antenna engineering, magnetic currents have proved to be a very useful concept. We shall make use of these symmetrised equations throughout the book. At the very end of this chapter, we present the Maxwell-Chern-Simons equations that are of considerable interest in modern physics.
The theory which describes physical phenomena related to the interaction between stationary electric charges or charge distributions in a nite space with stationary boundaries is called electrostatics. For a long time, electrostatics, under the name electricity, was considered an independent physical theory of its own, alongside other physical theories such as Magnetism, Mechanics, Optics, and Thermodynamics.1
It has been found experimentally that in classical electrostatics the interaction between stationary, electrically charged bodies can be described in terms of two-body mechanical forces. In the simple case depicted in Figure 1.1 on the facing page, the force F acting on the electrically charged particle with charge q
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1.1. Electrostatics
j3
q x x
x0
Figure 1.1: Coulombs law describes how a static electric charge q, located at a point x relative to the origin O, experiences an electrostatic force from a static electric charge q 0 located at x0 .
q0 x0
O located at x, due to the presence of the charge q 0 located at x0 in an otherwise empty space, is given by Coulombs law.2 This law postulates that F is directed along the line connecting the two charges, repulsive for charges of equal signs and attractive for charges of opposite signs, and therefore can be formulated mathematically as qq 0 x x0 D 4 "0 jx x0 j3 qq 0 1 1 qq 0 0 r r D 4 "0 4 "0 jx x0 j jx x0 j (1.1)
F .x/ D
where, in the last step, formula (F.115) on page 195 was used. In SI units, which we shall use throughout, the force F is measured in Newton (N), the electric charges q and q 0 in Coulomb (C) or Ampere-seconds (A s), and the length jx x0 j in metres (m). The constant "0 D 107 =.4 c 2 / 8:8542 10 12 Farad per metre (F m 1 ) is the vacuum permittivity and c 2:9979 108 m s 1 is the speed of light in vacuum.3 In CGS units, "0 D 1=.4 / and the force is measured in dyne, electric charge in statcoulomb, and length in centimetres (cm).
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F q!0 q
1.1.2 The electrostatic eld
D
Estat lim
def
Instead of describing the electrostatic interaction in terms of a force action at a distance, it turns out that for many purposes it is useful to introduce the concept of a eld. Therefore we describe the electrostatic interaction in terms of a static vectorial electric eld Estat dened by the limiting process (1.2)
where F is the electrostatic force, as dened in equation (1.1), from a net electric charge q 0 on the test particle with a small electric net electric charge q. Since
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2 3
CHARLES-AUGUSTIN DE C O U L O M B (17361806) was a French physicist who in 1775 published three reports on the forces between electrically charged bodies.
The notation c for speed comes from the Latin word celeritas which means swiftness. This notation seems to have been introduced by W I L H E L M E D U A R D W E B E R (18041891), and R U D O L F K O H L R A U S C H (18091858) and c is therefore sometimes referred to as Webers constant. In all his works from 1907 and onward, A L B E R T E I N S T E I N (18791955) used c to denote the speed of light in vacuum.
4j
In the preface to the rst edition of the rst volume of his book A Treatise on Electricity and Magnetism, rst published in 1873, James Clerk Maxwell describes this in the following almost poetic manner: For instance, Faraday, in his minds eye, saw lines of force traversing all space where the mathematicians saw centres of force attracting at a distance: Faraday saw a medium where they saw nothing but distance: Faraday sought the seat of the phenomena in real actions going on in the medium, they were satised that they had found it in a power of action at a distance impressed on the electric uids. 5 In fact, vacuum exhibits a quantum mechanical non-linearity due to vacuum polarisation effects manifesting themselves in the momentary creation and annihilation of electron-positron pairs, but classically this nonlinearity is negligible.
In the presence of several eld producing discrete electric charges qi0 , located at the points x0 , i D 1; 2; 3; : : : , respectively, in an otherwise empty space, the i assumption of linearity of vacuum5 allows us to superimpose their individual electrostatic elds into a total electrostatic eld 1 X 0 x x0 i qi (1.4) Estat .x/ D 4 "0 x x0 3
i i
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If the discrete electric charges are small and numerous enough, we can, in a continuum limit, assume that the total charge q 0 from an extended volume to be built up by local innitesimal elemental charges dq 0 , each producing an elemental electric eld dq 0 x x0 (1.5) dEstat .x/ D 4 "0 jx x0 j3 By introducing the electric charge density , measured in C m 3 in SI units, at 0 0 0 the point x0 within the volume element d3x 0 D dx1 dx2 dx3 (measured in m3 ), the elemental charge can be expressed as dq 0 D d3x 0 .x0 /, and the elemental electrostatic eld as d3x 0 .x0 / x x0 dEstat .x/ D (1.6) 4 "0 jx x0 j3
Integrating this over the entire source volume V 0 , we obtain Z 1 x x0 Estat .x/ D d3x 0 .x0 / 4 "0 V 0 jx x0 j3 Z 1 1 3 0 0 D d x .x /r 4 "0 V 0 jx x0 j Z 0 .x / 1 D r d3x 0 4 "0 jx x0 j V0
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the purpose of the limiting process is to assure that the test charge q does not distort the eld set up by q 0 , the expression for Estat does not depend explicitly on q but only on the charge q 0 and the relative radius vector x x0 . This means that we can say that any net electric charge produces an electric eld in the space that surrounds it, regardless of the existence of a second charge anywhere in this space.4 However, in order to experimentally detect a charge, a second (test) charge that senses the presence of the rst one, must be introduced. Using (1.1) and equation (1.2) on the previous page, and formula (F.114) on page 195, we nd that the electrostatic eld Estat at the observation point x (also known as the eld point), due to a eld-producing electric charge q 0 at the source point x0 , is given by q 0 x x0 q0 1 q0 1 Estat .x/ D D r r0 D 4 "0 jx x0 j3 4 "0 4 "0 jx x0 j jx x0 j (1.3)
(1.7)
1.1. Electrostatics
j5
q x
x0 i
Figure 1.2: Coulombs law for a dis0 tribution of individual charges qi localised within a volume V 0 of limited extent.
qi0 x0 i
V0
where we used formula (F.114) on page 195 and the fact that .x0 / does not depend on the unprimed (eld point) coordinates on which r operates. We emphasise that under the assumption of linear superposition, equation (1.7) on the facing page is valid for an arbitrary distribution of electric charges, including discrete charges, in which case is expressed in terms of Dirac delta distributions:6 .x0 / D X
i
qi0 .x0
x0 / i
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Z 1 x x0 .x/ D r d3x 0 .x0 / 4 "0 V 0 jx x0 j3 Z 1 1 D d3x 0 .x0 /r r 4 "0 V 0 jx x0 j Z 1 1 D d3x 0 .x0 / r 2 4 "0 V 0 jx x0 j Z 1 .x/ D d3x 0 .x0 / .x x0 / D "0 V 0 "0
as illustrated in Figure 1.2. Inserting this expression into expression (1.7) on the facing page we recover expression (1.4) on the preceding page. According to Helmholtzs theorem a sufciently well-behaved vector eld is completely determined by its divergence and curl. Let us therefore take the divergence of the general Estat expression for an arbitrary electric charge distribution, equation (1.7) on the facing page, and using the representation of the Dirac delta distribution given by formula (F.117) on page 195, one nds that r E
stat
which is the differential form of Gausss law of electrostatics. Since, according to formula (F.103) on page 195, r r .x/ 0 for any
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6
(1.8)
Since, by denition, the integral Z d3x 0 .x0 x0 / i V0 Z 0 d3x 0 .x 0 xi /

V0 0 0 .y 0 yi /.z 0 zi / D 1
is dimensionless, and x has the dimension m, the 3D Dirac delta distribution .x0 x0 / must have i the dimension m 3 .
(1.9)
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3D R3 scalar eld .x/, we immediately nd that in electrostatics Z .x0 / 1 r r d3x 0 r Estat .x/ D D0 4 "0 jx x0 j V0
(1.10)
i.e., that Estat is an irrotational eld. To summarise, electrostatics can be described in terms of two vector partial differential equations r Estat .x/ D r Estat .x/ D 0 .x/ "0 (1.11a) (1.11b)
representing four scalar partial differential equations.
1.2 Magnetostatics
While electrostatics deals with static electric charges, magnetostatics deals with stationary electric currents, i.e., electric charges moving with constant speeds, and the interaction between these currents. Here we shall discuss this theory in some detail.
7 ANDR-MARIE AMPRE (17751836) was a French mathematician and physicist who, only a few days after he learned about the ndings by the Danish physicist and chemist H A N S C H R I S T I A N R S T E D regarding the magnetic effects of electric currents, presented a paper to the Acadmie des Sciences in Paris, describing the law that now bears his name.
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1.2.1 Ampres law
"0
0
Experiments on the interaction between two small loops of electric current have shown that they interact via a mechanical force, much the same way that electric charges interact. In Figure 1.3 on the next page, let F denote such a force acting on a small loop C , with tangential line element dl, located at x and carrying a current I in the direction of dl, due to the presence of a small loop C 0 , with tangential line element dl0 , located at x0 and carrying a current I 0 in the direction of dl0 in otherwise empty space. According to Ampres law this force is given by the expression7 I 0 I x x0 0 II F.x/ D dl dl0 4 jx x0 j3 C C0 (1.12) I I 0 1 0 II 0 D dl dl r 4 jx x0 j C C0 In SI units, 0 D 4 10 7 1:2566 10 6 H m 1 is the vacuum permeability. From the denition of "0 and 0 (in SI units) we observe that D 107 (F m 4 c2
1
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4 10
7
(H m
) D
1 2 (s m c2
(1.13)
1.2. Magnetostatics
j7
C dj x C0 x0 x x0 dj 0
Figure 1.3: Ampres law describes how a small loop C , carrying a static electric current density element dj at x, experiences a magnetostatic force from a small loop C 0 , carrying a static electric current density element dj 0 located at x0 . The loops can have arbitrary shapes as long as they are simple and closed.
Since the integrand in the rst integral is an exact differential, this integral vanishes and we can rewrite the force expression, formula (1.12) on the facing page, in the following symmetric way 0 I I x x0 0 II dl dl0 (1.15) F .x/ D 4 x0 j 3 C C 0 jx which clearly exhibits the expected interchange symmetry between loops C and C 0.
D
dBstat .x/
def 0
1.2.2 The magnetostatic eld
In analogy with the electrostatic case, we may attribute the magnetostatic interaction to a static vectorial magnetic eld Bstat . The elemental Bstat from the elemental current element dI 0 D I 0 dl0 is dened as 4 dI 0 x jx x0 x0 j3 D
0I 0
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4 dl0 x jx x0 x0 j3
which is a most useful relation. At rst glance, equation (1.12) on the facing page may appear unsymmetric in terms of the loops and therefore be a force law that does not obey Newtons third law. However, by applying the vector triple product bac-cab formula (F.72) on page 193, we can rewrite (1.12) as I 0 I 1 0 II 0 F .x/ D dl dl r 4 jx x0 j C0 C (1.14) 0 I I 0 x x 0 II dl dl0 4 x0 j 3 C C 0 jx
which expresses the small element dBstat .x/ of the static magnetic eld set up at the eld point x by a small line current element dI 0 D I 0 dl0 of stationary current
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(1.16)
8j
where we used formula (F.114) on page 195, formula (F.94) on page 194, and the fact that j.x0 / does not depend on the unprimed coordinates on which r operates. Comparing equation (1.7) on page 4 with equation (1.17) above, we see that there exists a close analogy between the expressions for Estat and Bstat but that they differ in their vectorial characteristics. With this denition of Bstat , equation (1.12) on page 6 may we written I F.x/ D I dl Bstat .x/ (1.18)
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In order to assess the properties of Bstat , we determine its divergence and curl. Taking the divergence of both sides of equation (1.17) above and utilising formula (F.102) on page 195, we obtain Z j.x0 / 0 D0 (1.19) r Bstat .x/ D r r d3x 0 4 jx x0 j V0 since, according to formula (F.102) on page 195, r .r a/ vanishes for any vector eld a.x/. Applying the operator bac-cab rule, formula (F.99) on page 194, the curl of equation (1.17) above can be written Z 0 0 stat 3 0 j.x / r B .x/ D r r dx 0 4 jx x0 j V Z 1 0 (1.20) D d3x 0 j.x0 / r 2 4 jx x0 j V0 Z 1 0 C d3x 0 j.x0 / r 0 r 0 4 jx x0 j V0 In the rst of the two integrals on the right-hand side, we use the representation of the Dirac delta function given in formula (F.117) on page 195, and integrate
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I 0 directed along the line element dl0 at the source point x0 . The SI unit for the magnetic eld, sometimes called the magnetic ux density or magnetic induction, is Tesla (T). If we generalise expression (1.16) on the previous page to an integrated steady state electric current density j.x/, measured in A m 2 in SI units, we can write I 0 dl D dI 0 D d3x 0 j 0 .x0 /, and we obtain Biot-Savarts law Z x x0 0 Bstat .x/ D d3x 0 j.x0 / 4 jx x0 j3 V0 Z 1 0 3 0 0 (1.17) d x j.x / r D 4 jx x0 j V0 Z j.x0 / 0 D r d3x 0 4 jx x0 j V0
1.3. Electrodynamics
j9
the second integral by parts, by utilising formula (F.91) on page 194 as follows: Z 1 3 0 0 0 0 d x j.x / r r jx x0 j V0 Z 1 @ 3 0 0 0 O D xk dx r j.x / 0 @xk jx x0 j V0 Z 1 d3x 0 r 0 j.x0 / r 0 (1.21) jx x0 j V0 Z 1 @ O O D xk d2x 0 n0 j.x0 / 0 @xk jx x0 j S0 Z 1 3 0 0 0 0 d x r j.x / r jx x0 j V0 We note that the rst integral in the result, obtained by applying Gausss theorem, vanishes when integrated over a large sphere far away from the localised source j.x0 /, and that the second integral vanishes because r j D 0 for stationary currents (no charge accumulation in space). The net result is simply Z stat r B .x/ D 0 d3x 0 j.x0 /.x x0 / D 0 j.x/ (1.22)
V0
As we saw in the previous sections, the laws of electrostatics and magnetostatics can be summarised in two pairs of time-independent, uncoupled vector partial differential equations, namely the equations of classical electrostatics r Estat .x/ D r .x/ "0 (1.23a) (1.23b)
Estat .x/ D 0
and the equations of classical magnetostatics
D
r Bstat .x/ D 0 B
stat
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.x/ D
0 j.x/
1.3 Electrodynamics
Since there is nothing a priori which connects Estat directly with Bstat , we must consider classical electrostatics and classical magnetostatics as two independent theories. However, when we include time-dependence, these theories are unied into a single super-theory, classical electrodynamics. This unication of the theories of electricity and magnetism can be inferred from two empirically established facts:
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(1.24a) (1.24b)
10 j
1. Electric charge is a conserved quantity and electric current is a transport of electric charge. This fact manifests itself in the equation of continuity and, as a consequence, ini, as we shall see, Maxwells displacement current. 2. A change in the magnetic ux through a loop will induce an electromotive force electric eld in the loop. This is the celebrated Faradays law of induction.
1.3.1 The indestructibility of electric charge
A more accurate model is to assume that the individual charge elements obey some distribution function that describes their local variation of velocity in space and time.
@ .t; x/ C r j.t; x/ D 0 @t
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Let j.t; x/ denote the time-dependent electric current density. In the simplest case it can be dened as j D v where v is the velocity of the electric charge density .8 The electric charge conservation law can be formulated in the equation of continuity for electric charge (1.25)
D
Later, we will need to consider this generalisation and formal identication further.
9
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Z r B.t; x/ D
0 V0
which states that the time rate of change of electric charge .t; x/ is balanced by a divergence in the electric current density j.t; x/.
1.3.2 Maxwells displacement current
We recall from the derivation of equation (1.22) on the preceding page that there we used the fact that in magnetostatics r j.x/ D 0. In the case of non-stationary sources and elds, we must, in accordance with the continuity equation (1.25) above, set r j.t; x/ D @ .t; x/=@t. Doing so, and formally repeating the steps in the derivation of equation (1.22) on the preceding page, we would obtain the formal result d3x 0 j.t; x0 /.x x0 / Z 1 0 @ d3x 0 .t; x0 /r 0 C 4 @t V 0 jx x0 j @ D 0 j.t; x/ C 0 "0 E.t; x/ @t
(1.26)
where, in the last step, we have assumed that a generalisation of equation (1.7) on page 4 to time-varying elds allows us to make the identication9
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1 @ 4 "0 @t
Z
V0
.t; x /r jx x0 j Z 1 1 @ d3x 0 .t; x0 /r D @t 4 "0 V 0 jx x0 j Z 0 @ 1 .t; x / @ D r d3x 0 D E.t; x/ 0j @t 4 "0 @t jx x V0
dx
3 0
(1.27)
The result is Maxwells source equation for the B eld @ r B.t; x/ D 0 j.t; x/ C "0 E.t; x/ D 0 j.t; x/ C @t
0 "0
@ E.t; x/ @t (1.28)
1.3.3 Electromotive force
If an electric eld E.t; x/ is applied to a conducting medium, a current density j.t; x/ will be produced in this medium. But also mechanical, hydrodynamical and chemical processes can create electric currents. Under certain physical conditions, and for certain materials, one can sometimes assume that a linear relationship exists between the electric current density j and E. This approximation is called Ohms law:10
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j.t; x/ D E.t; x/
where is the electric conductivity (S m 1 ). In the case of an anisotropic conductor, is a tensor. We can view Ohms law, equation (1.29), as the rst term in a Taylor expansion of the law jE.t; x/. This general law incorporates non-linear effects such as frequency mixing. Examples of media which are highly non-linear are semiconductors and plasma. We draw the attention to the fact that even in cases when the linear relation between E and j is a good approximation, we still have to use Ohms law with care. The conductivity is, in general, time-dependent
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10
where "0 @E.t; x/=@t is the famous displacement current. This, at the time, unobserved term was introduced, in a stroke of genius, by Maxwell in order to make the right hand side of this equation divergence free when j.t; x/ is assumed to represent the density of the total electric current, which can be split up in ordinary conduction currents, polarisation currents and magnetisation currents. The displacement current behaves like a current density owing in free space. As we shall see later, its existence has far-reaching physical consequences as it predicts that such physical observables as electromagnetic energy, linear momentum, and angular momentum can be transmitted over very long distances, even through empty space.
(1.29)
In semiconductors this approximation is in general not applicable at all.
12 j
(temporal dispersive media) but then it is often the case that equation (1.29) on the previous page is valid for each individual Fourier (spectral) component of the eld. If the current is caused by an applied electric eld E.t; x/, this electric eld will exert work on the charges in the medium and, unless the medium is superconducting, there will be some energy loss. The time rate at which this energy is expended is j E per unit volume (W m 3 ). If E is irrotational (conservative), j will decay away with time. Stationary currents therefore require that an electric eld due to an electromotive force (EMF ) is present. In the presence of such a eld EEMF , Ohms law, equation (1.29) on the preceding page, takes the form j D .Estat C EEMF / (1.30)
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The electromotive force is dened as I E D dl .Estat C EEMF /

C
11
(1.31)
The term electromagnetic force is something of a misnomer since E represents a voltage, i.e., its SI dimension is V.
where dl is a tangential line element of the closed loop C .11
1.3.4 Faradays law of induction
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C
In Subsection 1.1.2 we derived the differential equations for the electrostatic eld. Specically, on page 6 we derived equation (1.10) stating that r Estat D 0 and thus that Estat is a conservative eld (it can be expressed as a gradient of a scalar eld). This implies that the closed line integral of Estat in equation (1.31) vanishes and that this equation becomes I E D dl EEMF (1.32)
It has been established experimentally that a non-conservative EMF eld is produced in a closed circuit C at rest if the magnetic ux through this circuit varies with time. This is formulated in Faradays law which, in Maxwells generalised form, reads I d E.t / D dl E.t; x/ D m .t/ dt C Z Z (1.33) d @ O O d2x n B.t; x/ D d2x n B.t; x/ D dt S @t S
where m is the magnetic ux and S is the surface encircled by C which can be interpreted as a generic stationary loop and not necessarily as a conducting circuit. Application of Stokes theorem on this integral equation, transforms it into the differential equation r E.t; x/ D @ B.t; x/ @t (1.34)
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B.x/ O d2x n
B.x/
Figure 1.4: A loop C which moves with velocity v in a spatially varying magnetic eld B.x/ will sense a varying magnetic ux during the motion.
C dl
which is valid for arbitrary variations in the elds and constitutes the Maxwell equation which explicitly connects electricity with magnetism. Any change of the magnetic ux m will induce an EMF. Let us therefore consider the case, illustrated in Figure 1.4, when the loop is moved in such a way that it links a magnetic eld which varies during the movement. The total time derivative is evaluated according to the well-known operator formula
which follows immediately from the multivariate chain rule for the differentiation of an arbitrary differentiable function f .t; x.t//. Here, dx=dt describes a chosen path in space. We shall chose the ow path which means that dx=dt D v and d @ D Cv r dt @t (1.36)
D
r
where, in a continuum picture, v is the uid velocity. For this particular choice, the convective derivative dx=dt is usually referred to as the material derivative and is denoted Dx=Dt . Applying the rule (1.36) to Faradays law, equation (1.33) on the facing page, we obtain Z Z Z d @B 2 2 O O O E.t/ D d xn B D d xn d2x n .v r /B (1.37) dt S @t S S Furthermore, taking the divergence of equation (1.34) on the preceding page, we see that @ @ B.t; x/ D r B.t; x/ D @t @t r r E.t; x/ D 0 (1.38)
R A
@ dx d D C r dt @t dt
FT
(1.35)
14 j
where in the last step formula (F.102) on page 195 was used. Since this is true 8t, we conclude that r B.t; x/ D 0 (1.39)
also for time-varying elds; this is in fact one of the Maxwell equations. Using this result and formula (F.95) on page 194, we nd that r .B v / D .v r /B (1.40)
With Stokes theorem applied to the last integral, we nally get I I Z @B O dl .B v / E.t / D dl EEMF D d2x n @t C C S or, rearranging the terms, I dl .EEMF v B/ D
C
FT
Z O d2x n
S
since, during spatial differentiation, v is to be considered as constant, This allows us to rewrite equation (1.37) on the preceding page in the following way: I Z d EMF O E.t / D dl E D d2x n B dt S C Z Z (1.41) @B 2 2 O O D d xn d x n r .B v / @t S S
(1.42)
R A
r .EEMF v B/ D @B @t E D EEMF v B
@B @t
(1.43)
where EEMF is the eld which is induced in the loop, i.e., in the moving system. The application of Stokes theorem in reverse on equation (1.43) above yields (1.44)
An observer in a xed frame of reference measures the electric eld (1.45)
and a observer in the moving frame of reference measures the following Lorentz force on a charge q F D qEEMF D qE C q.v B/ (1.46)
corresponding to an effective electric eld in the loop (moving observer) EEMF D E C v B (1.47)
Hence, we conclude that for a stationary observer, the Maxwell equation r ED @B @t (1.48)
is indeed valid even if the loop is moving.
j 15
1.3.5 The microscopic Maxwell equations

We are now able to collect the results from the above considerations and formulate the equations of classical electrodynamics valid for arbitrary variations in time and space of the coupled electric and magnetic elds E.t; x/ and B.t; x/. The equations are, in SI units,12 r ED
12
In CGS units the microscopic Maxwell equations are r ED4
"0 @B r ED @t r BD0 r BD
0j
(1.49a)
r ED
1 @B c @t 1 @E 4 jC c c @t
(1.49b) (1.49c)
0
r BD0 r BD
C "0
0j
FT
(1.49d)
r r r r
13
@E D @t
1 @E c 2 @t
in Heaviside-Lorentz units (one of several natural units) r ED ED 1 @B c @t 1 1 @E jC c c @t
R A
In these equations D .t; x/ represents the total, possibly both time and space dependent, electric charge, with contributions from free as well as induced (polarisation) charges. Likewise, j D j.t; x/ represents the total, possibly both time and space dependent, electric current, with contributions from conduction currents (motion of free charges) as well as all atomistic (polarisation and magnetisation) currents. As they stand, the equations therefore incorporate the classical interaction between all electric charges and currents, free or bound, in the system and are called Maxwells microscopic equations. They were rst formulated by Lorentz and therefore another name often used for them is the Maxwell-Lorentz equations. Together with the appropriate constitutive relations, which relate and j to the elds, and the initial and boundary conditions pertinent to the physical situation at hand, they form a system of well-posed partial differential equations which completely determine E and B.
r BD0 BD
and in Planck units (another set of natural units) r ED4 ED @B @t @E @t
r BD0 BD4 jC
1.3.6 Diracs symmetrised Maxwell equations
Nobel Physics Laureate J U L I A N S E Y M O U R S C H W I N G E R (1918 1994) once put it: . . . there are strong theoretical reasons to believe that magnetic charge exists in nature, and may have played an important role in the development of the Universe. Searches for magnetic charge continue at the present time, emphasising that electromagnetism is very far from being a closed object.
If we look more closely at the microscopic Maxwell equations (1.49), we see that they exhibit a certain, albeit not complete, symmetry. Let us follow Dirac and make the ad hoc assumption that there exist magnetic monopoles represented by a magnetic charge density, which we denote by m D m .t; x/, and a magnetic current density, which we denote by j m D j m .t; x/.13 With these new hypothetical physical entities included in the theory, and with the electric charge density denoted e and the electric current density denoted j e , the Maxwell equations will be symmetrised into the following two scalar and two vector, coupled, partial
16 j
differential equations (SI units):

e
"0 @B r ED @t r BD 0 m r BD
0j e
r ED
(1.50a)
0j m
(1.50b) (1.50c)
C "0
@E @t
(1.50d)
We shall call these equations Diracs symmetrised Maxwell equations or the electromagnetodynamic equations. Taking the divergence of (1.50b), we nd that r .r E/ D @ .r B/ @t
FT
0r
jm 0
(1.51)
where we used the fact that, according to formula (F.102) on page 195, the divergence of a curl always vanishes. Using (1.50c) to rewrite this relation, we obtain the equation of continuity for magnetic charge @ m C r jm D 0 @t (1.52)
1.3.7 Maxwell-Chern-Simons equations
R D
r ED r BD
Developments in condensed matter theory have motivated the study of an extension of classical electrodynamics such that the microscopic Maxwell-Lorentz equations (1.49) on the preceding page are replaced by the Maxwell-ChernSimons equations (MCS equations) which, in SI units, read .t; x/ Ca B "0 @B r ED @t r BD0
0 j.t; x/
A
C "0
0
which has the same form as that for the electric charges (electric monopoles) and currents, equation (1.25) on page 10.
(1.53a) (1.53b) (1.53c) @E @t B a E (1.53d)
The MCS equations have been studied in Carroll-Field-Jackiw electrodynamics and are used, e.g., in the theory of axions.
1.4. Bibliography
j 17
1.4 Bibliography
[1] T. W. BARRETT AND D. M. G RIMES, Advanced Electromagnetism. Foundations, Theory and Applications, World Scientic Publishing Co., Singapore, 1995, ISBN 98102-2095-2. R. B ECKER, Electromagnetic Fields and Interactions, Dover Publications, Inc., New York, NY, 1982, ISBN 0-486-64290-9. W. G REINER, Classical Electrodynamics, Springer-Verlag, New York, Berlin, Heidelberg, 1996, ISBN 0-387-94799-X. E. H ALLN, Electromagnetic Theory, Chapman & Hall, Ltd., London, 1962. K. H UANG, Fundamental Forces of Nature. The Story of Gauge Fields, World Scientic Publishing Co. Pte. Ltd, New Jersey, London, Singapore, Beijing, Shanghai, Hong Kong, Taipei, and Chennai, 2007, ISBN 13-978-981-250-654-4 (pbk). J. D. JACKSON, Classical Electrodynamics, third ed., John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, NY . . . , 1999, ISBN 0-471-30932-X. L. D. L ANDAU AND E. M. L IFSHITZ, The Classical Theory of Fields, fourth revised English ed., vol. 2 of Course of Theoretical Physics, Pergamon Press, Ltd., Oxford . . . , 1975, ISBN 0-08-025072-6.
[2]
[3]
[4] [5]
[6]
[7]
[8]
F. E. L OW, Classical Field Theory, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, NY . . . , 1997, ISBN 0-471-59551-9. J. C. M AXWELL, A Treatise on Electricity and Magnetism, third ed., vol. 1, Dover Publications, Inc., New York, NY, 1954, ISBN 0-486-60636-8.
[9]
[10] J. C. M AXWELL, A Treatise on Electricity and Magnetism, third ed., vol. 2, Dover Publications, Inc., New York, NY, 1954, ISBN 0-486-60637-8. [11] D. B. M ELROSE AND R. C. M C P HEDRAN, Electromagnetic Processes in Dispersive Media, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge . . . , 1991, ISBN 0-521-41025-8. [12] W. K. H. PANOFSKY AND M. P HILLIPS, Classical Electricity and Magnetism, second ed., Addison-Wesley Publishing Company, Inc., Reading, MA . . . , 1962, ISBN 0-201-05702-6.
[13] F. ROHRLICH, Classical Charged Particles, third ed., World Scientic Publishing Co. Pte. Ltd., New Jersey, London, Singapore, . . . , 2007, ISBN 0-201-48300-9. [14] J. A. S TRATTON, Electromagnetic Theory, McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., New York, NY and London, 1953, ISBN 07-062150-0.
[15] J. VANDERLINDE, Classical Electromagnetic Theory, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, Chichester, Brisbane, Toronto, and Singapore, 1993, ISBN 0-471-57269-1.
R A
FT
R A
FT
ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELDS AND WAVES
2.1 Axiomatic classical electrodynamics

In Chapter 1 we described the historical route which led to the formulation of the microscopic Maxwell equations. From now on we shall consider these equations as postulates, i.e., as the axiomatic foundation of classical electrodynamics. As such, they describe, in scalar and vector differential equation form, the behaviour in time t 2 R and in space x 2 R3 of the electric and magnetic elds E.t; x/ 2 R3 19
R A
As a rst step in the study of the dynamical properties of the classical electromagnetic eld, we shall in this chapter, as alternatives to the rst-order MaxwellLorentz equations, derive a set of second-order differential equations for the elds E and B. It turns out that these second-order equations are wave equations for E and B, indicating that electromagnetic wave modes are very natural and common manifestations of classical electrodynamics. But before deriving these alternatives to the Maxwell-Lorentz equations, we shall discuss the mathematical techniques of how to make use of complex variables to represent real-valued physical observables in order to simplify the mathematical work involved. We will also describe how to make use of the single spectral component (Fourier component) technique, to enable light-weight algebra, at the same time clarifying the physical content.
FT
20 j
2 . E L E CTROMAGNETIC FIELDS AND WAVES
and B.t; x/ 2 R3 , respectively [cf. equations (1.49) on page 15]: "0 @B r ED @t r BD0 r BD
0j
r ED
(Gausss law) (Faradays law) (No magnetic charges)

0
(2.1a) (2.1b) (2.1c) (2.1d)
C "0
@E @t
(Maxwells law)
A physical observable is something that can, at least in principle, be ultimately reduced to an input to the human sensory system. In other words, physical observables quantify (our perception of) the physical reality and as such they must, of course, be described by real-valued quantities.
This is at variance with quantum physics, where observable D mathematical . I.e., in order that a complex variable in quantum physics is to correctly represent a physical observable, one must make it real-valued by taking its magnitude. Recall that Re f g D 1. C /, i.e., the 2 arithmetic mean of and its complex conjugate , whereas j jD. /1=2 , i.e., the geometric mean of and . Under certain conditions, also the imaginary part corresponds to a physical observable.
R A
2.2 Complex notation and physical observables
In order to simplify the mathematical treatment, we shall frequently allow the mathematical variables representing the elds, the charge and current densities, and other physical quantities to be analytically continued into the complex domain. However, when we use such a complex notation we must be very careful how to interpret the results derived within this notation. This is because every physical observable is, by denition, real-valued.1 Consequently, the mathematical expression for the observable under consideration must also be real-valued to be physically meaningful. If a physical scalar variable, or a component of a physical vector or tensor, is represented mathematically by the complex-valued number 2 C, then in classical electrodynamics (in fact, in classical physics as a whole), one makes the identication observable D Re mathematical . I.e., it is always understood that one should take the real part of a complex mathematical variable in order for it to correctly represent a classical physical observable.2 For mathematical convenience and ease of calculation, we shall in the following regularly useand tacitly assumecomplex notation, stating explicitly when we do not. One convenient property of the complex notation is that differentiations often become trivial to perform. However, care must always be exercised.
FT
We reiterate that in these equations .t; x/ and j.t; x/ are the total charge and current densities, respectively. Hence, they are considered microscopic in the sense that all charges and currents, including the intrinsic ones in matter, such as bound charges in atoms and molecules, as well as magnetisation currents, are included (but macroscopic in the sense that quantisation effects are neglected). These charge and current densities may have prescribed arbitrary time and space dependencies and be considered the sources of the elds, but they may also be generated by the elds. Despite these dual rles, we shall refer to them as the source terms in the microscopic Maxwell equations and the two equations where they appear as the Maxwell-Lorentz source equations.
2.2. Complex notation and physical observables
j 21
A typical situation being when products of two or more quantities are calculated since, for instance, for two complex-valued variables 1 and 2 we know that Re f 1 2 g Re f 1 g Re f 2 g. On the other hand, . 1 2 / D 1 2 .
2.2.1 Physical observables and averages

As just mentioned, it is important to be aware of the limitations of complex representation of real observables when one has to calculate products of physical quantities. Let us, for example, consider two physical vector elds a.t; x/ and b.t; x/ that are represented by their Fourier components, a0 .x/ exp. i!t/ and b0 .x/ exp. i!t /, respectively, i.e., by vectors in (a domain of) 3D complex space C3 . Furthermore, let be a binary operator for these vectors, representing either the scalar product operator ( ), the vector product operator ( ), the dyadic product operator (juxtaposition), or the outer tensor operator (). Then we make the interpretation a.t; x/ b.t; x/ D Re fag Re fbg D Re a0 .x/ e
i!t
Letting denote complex conjugation, we can express the real part of the complex vector a as Re fag D Re a0 .x/ e
R A
i!t
1 a0 .x/ e 2
i!t
and similarly for b. Hence, the physically acceptable interpretation of the scalar product of two complex vectors, representing classical physical observables, is a.t; x/ b.t; x/ D Re a0 .x/ e i!t Re b0 .x/ e i!t 1 1 D a0 .x/ e i!t C a0 .x/ e i!t b0 .x/ e i!t C b0 .x/ e i!t 2 2 1 D a0 b0 C a0 b0 C a0 b0 e 2i!t C a0 b0 e 2i!t 4 1 1 D Re fa0 b0 g C Re a0 b0 e 2i!t 2 2 1 1 D Re a0 e i!t b0 e i!t C Re a0 e i!t b0 e i!t 2 2 1 1 D Re fa.t; x/ b .t; x/g C Re fa.t; x/ b.t; x/g 2 2 (2.4) Often in physics, we measure temporal averages, denoted h i t , of our physical observables. If so, we see that the average of the product of the two physical
FT
Re b0 .x/ e
i!t
(2.2)
C a0 .x/ e i!t
(2.3)
22 j
quantities represented by a and b can be expressed as ha bi t hRe fag Re fbgi t D 1 1 Re fa b g D Re fa bg 2 2
1 1 D Re fa0 b0 g D Re fa0 b0 g 2 2
(2.5)
since the oscillating function exp. 2i!t/ in equation (2.4) on the preceding page vanishes when averaged in time over a complete period 2 =! (or over innitely many periods), and, therefore, ha.t; x/ b.t; x/i t gives no contribution.
2.2.2 Maxwell equations in Majorana representation
G.t; x/ D E.t; x/ C icB.t; x/
FT
C 1 @G c 2 @t
c 2 B 2 C 2icE B
It is sometimes convenient to introduce the complex-eld six-vector, also known as the Riemann-Silberstein vector (2.6)
A
"0 G.t; x/ D ic
0j
It so happens that E T T O R E M A J O R A N A used the denition G D E icB, but this is no essential difference from the denition (2.6). One may say that Majorana used the other branch of p 1 as the imaginary unit.
where G 2 C3 even if E; B 2 R3 . This complex representation of the electromagnetic elds is known as the Majorana representation.3 Inserting the Riemann-Silberstein vector into the Maxwell equations (2.1) on page 20, they transform into r G.t; x/ D (2.7a) (2.7b)
R
E2
E X A M P L E 2.1
The length of the Riemann-Silberstein vector for E; B 2 R3
One fundamental property of C3 , to which G belongs, is that inner (scalar) products in this space are invariant under rotations just as they are in R3 . However, as discussed in Example M.3 on page 208, the inner (scalar) product in C3 can be dened in two different ways. Considering the special case of the scalar product of G with itself, assuming that E 2 R3 and B 2 R3 , we have the following two possibilities of dening (the square of) the length of G: 1. The inner (scalar) product dened as G scalar multiplied with itself G G D .E C icB/ .E C icB/ D E 2 (2.8)
Since length is an scalar quantity which is invariant under rotations, we nd that c 2 B 2 D Const E B D Const (2.9a) (2.9b)
2. The inner (scalar) product dened as G scalar multiplied with the complex conjugate of itself
2.3. The wave equations for E and B
j 23
G G D .E C icB/ .E
icB/ D E 2 C c 2 B 2
(2.10)
which is also an invariant scalar quantity. As we shall see in Chapter 5, this quantity is proportional to the electromagnetic eld energy density. 3. As with any vector, the cross product of G with itself vanishes: G G D .E C icB/ DE E
2
.E C icB/ B C ic.E B/ ic.E B/ C ic.B B/ D 0 E/ (2.11)
c B
D 0 C 0 C ic.E
4. The cross product of G with the complex conjugate of itself does not vanish: G G D .E C icB/ DE
2
.E B B/
icB/ ic.E ic.E B/ C ic.B B/ D E/ B/ (2.12)
ECc B ic.E
D0C0
is proportional to the electromagnetic power ux, to be introduced later.
2.3 The wave equations for E and B
The Maxwell-Lorentz equations (2.1) on page 20 are four rst-order differential equations that are coupled (both E and B appear in the same equations). Two of the equations are scalar [equation (2.1a) and equation (2.1c)], and two are in 3D Euclidean vector form [equation (2.1b) and equation (2.1d)], representing three scalar equations each. Hence, the Maxwell equations represent in fact eight scalar rst-order partial differential equations (1 C 1 C 3 C 3). However, it is well known from the theory of differential equations that a set of rst-order, coupled partial differential equations can be transformed into a smaller set of second order partial differential equations, which can become decoupled in the process. It turns out that in our case we will obtain one second-order differential equation for E and one second-order differential equation for B. These second-order partial differential equations are, as we shall see, wave equations, and we shall discuss the implications of them. For certain media, the B wave eld can be easily obtained from the solution of the E wave equation but in general this is not the case. To bring the rst-order differential equations (2.1) on page 20 into second order one needs, of course, to operate on them with rst-order differential operators. If we apply the curl vector operator (r ) to both sides of the two Maxwell vector equations, equation (2.1b) and equation (2.1d), assuming that our physical quantities vary in such a regular way that temporal and spatial differentiation
R A
FT
2ic.E End of example 2.1
24 j
commute, we obtain the second order differential equations r r .r .r E/ D B/ D @ .r @t

0r
B/ j C "0
0
(2.13a) @ .r @t E/ (2.13b)
As they stand, these second-order partial differential equations still appear to be coupled. However, by using the Maxwell equations once again we can formally decouple them into r r .r .r E/ D B/ D @j 0 @t
0r
"0 j
Using to the operator triple product bac-cab rule equation (F.99) on page 194, which gives r .r E/ D r .r E/ r 2E (2.15)
when applied to E and similarly to B, Gausss law equation (2.1a) on page 20, and then rearranging the terms, recalling that "0 0 D 1=c 2 where c is the speed of light in vacuum, we obtain the two inhomogeneous vector wave equations
R A
2
1 @2 E c 2 @t 2 1 @2 B 2 BD 2 2 c @t ED
r 2E D
FT
r "0
0
@2 E 0 @t 2 @2 B "0 0 2 @t
(2.14a) (2.14b)
@j @t
(2.16a) (2.16b)
r 2B D
0r
Clearly, if the current density in the RHS of equation (2.16b) is a function of E, as is the case if Ohms law j D E is applicable, the coupling is not removed.
where 2 is the dAlembert operator, dened according to formula (M.97) on page 215. These are the general wave equations for the electromagnetic elds, generated in regions where there exist sources .t; x/ and j.t; x/ of any kind. Simple everyday examples of such regions are electric conductors (e.g., radio and TV antennas) or plasma (e.g., the Sun and its surrounding corona). In principle, the sources and j can still cause the wave equations to be coupled, but in many important situations this is not the case.4 We notice that outside the source region, i.e., in empty space where D 0 and j D 0, the inhomogeneous wave equations (2.16) simplify to the well-known uncoupled, homogeneous wave equations 1 @2 E c 2 @t 2 1 @2 B c 2 @t 2 r 2E D 0 r 2B D 0 (2.17a) (2.17b)
j 25
These equations describe how the elds that were generated in the source region, e.g., a transmitting antenna, propagate as vector waves through empty space. Once these waves impinge upon another region which can sustain charges and/or currents, e.g., a receiving antenna or other electromagnetic sensor, the elds interact with the charges and the currents in this second region in accordance with equations (2.16) on the preceding page.
Wave equations expressed in terms of Riemann-Silberstein vectors Using the Maxwell equations expressed in the Riemann-Silberstein vector G D E C icB, i.e., equations (2.7) on page 22, one can perform similar steps as was used in deriving equations (2.16) on the preceding page and one nds that E X A M P L E 2.2
Taking the real and imaginary parts of this equation, assuming that E; B 2 R3 , we recover the wave equations for E and B, as expected. End of example 2.2
Maxwell-Lorentz equations as a Schrdinger/Pauli/Dirac-like equation Using the Riemann-Silberstein vector G and the momentum operator
the Majorana representation of the Maxwell-Lorentz equations in free space can be written as i @G C iy p c @t y p GD0 GD0 (2.20a) (2.20b)
The rst equation represents the dynamics and the second equation represents the transversality condition p D k ? G where we anticipate the quantal relation between the eld momentum p and the wave vector k. Using the matrix vector O M D M i xi
y pD
i r
D
i @G y C cM pG D 0 @t y y H D cM p i @G y D HG @t
dened by formula (M.23) on page 203, we can rewrite the equation (2.20a) above as (2.22)
By introducing the Hamiltonian-like operator (2.23)
the above Majorana representation of the Maxwell-Lorentz equations can be written as (2.24)
FT
(2.19) (2.21)
GD
1 @2 G c 2 @t 2
r2G D
r "0
@j Ci @t
0 cr
(2.18)
E X A M P L E 2.3
26 j
i.e., as a Schrdinger/Pauli/Dirac-like equation. Comparing with equations (M.22) on page 203], we note that we can relate the three rank-2 tensors Mi ; 1 D 1; 2; 3 that have the matrix representations Mi ; i D 1; 2; 3, respectively, with the fully antisymmetric Levi-Civita rank-3 pseudotensor ij k in the following way O O Mi D i ij k xj xk (2.25) End of example 2.3
2.3.1 The time-independent wave equations for E and B

We assume that the temporal dependency of E and B and of the sources and j is well-behaved enough that it can be represented by the sum of a nite number N of temporal spectral components (temporal Fourier components), or, in other words, in the form of a temporal Fourier series. Then it is sufcient to study the properties of one of these spectral components !n ; n D 0; 1; 2; : : : ; N 1, i.e., E.t; x/ D En .x/ cos.!n t/ En .x/Re e B.t; x/ D Bn .x/ cos.!n t/ Bn .x/Re e
FT
i!n t
D En .x/e
i!n t
(2.26a) (2.26b)
i!n t
D Bn .x/e
i!n t
5 When subtle classical and quantum radiation effects are taken into account, one nds that all emissions suffer an unavoidable, intrinsic line broadening. Also, simply because the Universe has existed for only about 13.5 billion years, which is a nite time, no signals in the Universe can be observed to have a spectral width that is smaller than the inverse of this age.
R A
r 2 En e
i!n t 2 !n En e c2 i!n t
where En ; Bn 2 R3 and !n ; t 2 R is assumed. This is because the general solution is obtained by a weighted linear superposition (summation) of the result for each such spectral component, where the weight of each spectral component is given by its Fourier amplitude, En .x/, and Bn .x/, respectively. In a physical system, a temporal spectral component is identied uniquely by its angular frequency !n . A wave containing only a nite number of temporal spectral components is called a time-harmonic wave. In the limit when only one single frequency is present, we talk about a monochromatic wave. Strictly speaking, purely monochromatic waves do not exist.5 Inserting the temporal spectral component equation (2.26a) above into equation (2.16a) on page 24 one nds that for an arbitrary component C i!n
0 jn e i!n t
r n e "0
i!n t
(2.27)
which, after dividing out the common factor exp. i!n t/, becomes r 2 En
2 !n En C i!n c2 0 jn
r n "0
(2.28)
and similarly for B. Solving this equation, multiplying the solution obtained by exp. i!n t / and summing over all N such Fourier (spectral) components with frequencies !n ; n D 0; 1; 2; : : : ; N 1 present in the the sources, and hence in the elds, the complete solution of the original wave equation is obtained. This is
j 27
a consequence of the superposition principle which is valid as long as nonlinear effects can be neglected. In the limit of very many frequency components, the Fourier sum goes over into a Fourier integral . To illustrate this generic case, let us introduce the Fourier transform F of E.t; x/ Z 1 1 def F E.t; x/ E! .x/ D dt E.t; x/ e i!t (2.29) 2 1 and the corresponding inverse Fourier transform F
1
E! .x/ E.t; x/ D
1
def
d! E! .x/ e
i!t
(2.30)
where the amplitude E! .x/ 2 C3 is a continuous function of (angular) frequency ! 2 R and of x 2 R3 . We see that the Fourier transform of @E.t; x/=@t becomes Z 1 @E.t; x/ i!t @E.t; x/ def 1 F dt e @t 2 @t 1 Z 1 1 1 1 D E.t; x/ e i!t 1 i! dt E.t; x/ e i!t (2.31) 2 2 1
D0 since E!0; t!1
and that, consequently, 2 Z @ E.t; x/ def 1 F @t 2 2
R A
1
i! E! .x/
dt
@2 E.t; x/ i!t e D @t 2
Fourier transforming equation (2.16a) on page 24 and using (2.31) and (2.32), we obtain r 2 E! !2 E! C i! c2
0 j!
r ! "0
which is mathematically identical to equation (2.28) on the facing page. A subsequent inverse Fourier transformation of the solution E! of this equation leads to the same result as is obtained from the solution of equation (2.28) on the preceding page. I.e., by considering just one temporal Fourier component we obtain results which are identical to those that we would have obtained by employing the machinery of Fourier transforms and Fourier integrals. Hence, under the assumption of linearity (superposition principle) there is no need for the formal and time-consuming forward and inverse Fourier transform technique. What was said above in general terms about temporal spectral components is true also for spatial spectral components (spatial Fourier components) only that
FT
! 2 E! .x/ (2.32) (2.33)
28 j
we must use a three-dimensional Fourier representation. Since we always assume that the real part shall be taken (if necessary), we can pick a sample of the spatial amplitudes in in equations (2.26) on page 26, denote them by E0 and B0 , and then represent them as the Fourier modes E0 .x/ D e0 Re e ik0 x D e!;k e ik x (2.34a) ik x ik x B0 .x/ D b0 Re e 0 D b!;k e (2.34b) respectively, where k0 is the wave vector (measured in m 1 ) of mode 0; in the last step we introduced a complex notation and also dropped the mode number since the formul are valid for any mode n. Clearly, for each spectral component in equations (2.34) above, temporal and spatial differential operators turn into algebraic operators according to the following scheme: @ ! i! @t r ! ik r ! ik
FT
E?
(2.35a) (2.35b) (2.35c)
We note that
r E D ik E ik Ek r E D ik E ik
(2.36) (2.37)
R A
2.4 Bibliography
and similarly for B. Hence, with respect to the wave vector k, the r operator projects out the spatially longitudinal component, and the r operator projects out the spatially transverse component of the eld vector in question. As seen from equations (2.35), the Fourier transform of a function in time t is a function in angular frequency !, and the Fourier transform of a function in x is a function in k. One says that ! is a reciprocal space to t and that k spans a space that is reciprocal to x.
[16] J. D. JACKSON, Classical Electrodynamics, third ed., John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, NY . . . , 1999, ISBN 0-471-30932-X. [17] W. K. H. PANOFSKY AND M. P HILLIPS, Classical Electricity and Magnetism, second ed., Addison-Wesley Publishing Company, Inc., Reading, MA . . . , 1962, ISBN 0201-05702-6. [18] C. H. PAPAS, Theory of Electromagnetic Wave Propagation, Dover Publications, Inc., New York, 1988, ISBN 0-486-65678-0.
ELECTROMAGNETIC POTENTIALS AND GAUGES
D
Estat .x/ D r
stat
3.1 The electrostatic scalar potential
As we saw in equation (1.10) on page 6, the electrostatic eld Estat .x/ is irrotational. Hence, it may be expressed in terms of the gradient of a scalar eld. If we stat denote this scalar eld by .x/, we get .x/ 29 (3.1)
R A
As described in Chapter 1, the concepts of electric and magnetic elds were introduced such that they are intimately related to the mechanical forces between charges and currents given by Coulombs law and Ampres law, respectively. Just as in mechanics, it turns out that in electrodynamics it is often more convenient to express the theory in terms of potentials rather then in terms of the electric and magnetic elds (Coulomb and Ampre forces) themselves. This is particularly true for problems related to radiation and relativity. As we shall see in Chapter 7, the potentials pay a central rle in the formulation of relativistically covariant electromagnetism. At the quantum level, electrodynamics is almost exclusively formulated in terms of potentials rather than in terms of electric and magnetic elds themselves. In this chapter we introduce and study the properties of such potentials and shall nd that they exhibit some remarkable properties that elucidate the fundamental aspects of electromagnetism, lead naturally to the special theory of relativity and pave the wave for gauge eld theories.
FT
30 j
3 . E L E C T ROMAGNETIC POTENTIALS AND GAUGES
Taking the divergence of this and using equation (1.9) on page 5, we obtain Poissons equation r2
stat
.x/ D
r Estat .x/ D
.x/ "0
(3.2)
A comparison with the denition of Estat , namely equation (1.7) on page 4, shows that this equation has the solution
stat
.x/ D
1 4 "0
Z
V0
d3x 0
.x0 / C jx x0 j
(3.3)
3.2 The magnetostatic vector potential
Bstat .x/ D r
A
Astat .x/
0
Consider the equations of magnetostatics (1.24) on page 9. From equation (F.102) on page 195 we know that any 3D vector a has the property that r .r a/ 0 and in the derivation of equation (1.19) on page 8 in magnetostatics we found that r Bstat .x/ D 0. We therefore realise that we can always write (3.4)
R
A
stat
where Astat .x/ is called the magnetostatic vector potential . We saw above that the electrostatic potential (as any scalar potential) is not unique: we may, without changing the physics, add to it a quantity whose spatial gradient vanishes. A similar arbitrariness is true also for the magnetostatic vector potential. In the magnetostatic case, we may start from Biot-Savarts law as expressed by equation (1.17) on page 8. Identifying this expression with equation (3.4) allows us to dene the static vector potential as Z
V0
.x/ D
d3x 0
FT
j.x0 / C a.x/ jx x0 j
where the integration is taken over all source points x0 at which the charge density .x0 / is non-zero and is an arbitrary scalar function that is not dependent on x, e.g., a constant. The scalar function stat .x/ in equation (3.3) is called the electrostatic scalar potential .
(3.5)
where a.x/ is an arbitrary vector eld whose curl vanishes. From equation (F.103) on page 195 we know that such a vector can always be written as the gradient of a scalar eld.
3.2. The magnetostatic vector potential
j 31
Multipole expansion of the electrostatic potential The integral in the electrostatic potential formula Z 1 .x0 / stat .x/ D d3x 0 4 "0 V 0 jx x0 j
E X A M P L E 3.1
(3.6)
where is the charge density introduced in equation (1.9) on page 5, is not always possible to evaluate analytically. However, for a charge distribution source .x0 / that is well localised in a small volume V 0 around x0 , a series expansion of the integrand in such a way that the dominant contributions are contained in the rst few terms can be made. E.g., if we Taylor expand the inverse distance 1= x x0 with respect to the point x0 D x0 we obtain 1 jx D x0 j jx D 1 x0 j @n 1 j.x C x0 /
1 X nD1
.x0
3 1 X n
x0 /j
3 X in D1 0 .xin
i1 D1
1 jx x0 j
@xi1 D 1 jx x0 j
@xin C
0 .xi1
x0i /
1
1 X
nD1 n1 Cn2 Cn3 Dn ni 0 0 .x1
. 1/n n1 n2 n3
1 x0 j n n n @x1 1 @x2 2 @x3 3
@n jx
0 x01 /n1 .x2
0 x02 /n2 .x3
A
nD1 n1 Cn2 Cn3 Dn ni 0 0 x02 /n2 .x3 0 x01 /n1 .x2
Inserting this into the integral in formula (3.6) above, we obtain the expansion " Z 1 X X . 1/n 1 1 stat d3x 0 .x0 / C .x/ D 4 "0 jx x0 j V 0 n1 n2 n3
1 x0 j n n n @x1 1 @x2 2 @x3 3
@n jx
Z
V0
Clearly, the rst integral in this expansion is nothing but the static net charge Z d3x 0 .x0 / qD
V0
R
V0 V0
0 d3x 0 .x1
D
@ jx
1 x0 j
If we introduce the electrostatic dipole moment vector Z d.x0 / D d3x 0 .x0 x0 / .x0 /
with components pi , i D 1; 2; 3, and the electrostatic quadrupole moment tensor Z Q.x0 / D d3x 0 .x0 x0 /.x0 x0 / .x0 / with components Qij ; i; j D 1; 2; 3, and use the fact that D xi jx x0i x0 j 3
@xi
FT
x0in / (3.7) x03 /n3 (3.8) # x03 /n3 .x0 / (3.9) (3.10) (3.11) (3.12)
32 j
and that @2 jx
1 x0 j
@xi @xj
3.xi
x0i /.xj jx
x0j / x0 j 5
jx
x0 j2 ij
(3.13)
then we can write the rst three terms of the expansion of equation (3.6) on the preceding page as " 1 q 1 x x0 stat .x/ D C d 2 4 "0 jx x0 j jx x0 j jx x0 j # 1 3 .xi x0i / .xj x0j / 1 ij C : : : C Qij 2 jx x0 j jx x0 j 2 jx x0 j3 (3.14)
V0
1 3.xi ij 2
A
x0i /.xj x0j / jx jx x0 j
5 V0 0 .xi
from which we draw the conclusion that if q 0, it is always possible to choose the moment point x0 such that d D 0, and if q D 0, then d is independent of the choice of moment point x0 . Furthermore, one can show that x0 j2 ij D0 (3.16)
R D
or
Q0 D Q
where is an arbitrary constant. Choosing it to be Z 2 1 D d3x 0 x0 x0 .x0 / 0 3 V
FT
0 x0i /.xj
where Einsteins summation convention over i and j is implied. We see that at large distances from a localised charge distribution, the electrostatic potential can, to the lowest order, be approximated by the (Coulomb) potential from a single point charge q located at the moment point x0 . We also see that Z Z Z d.x0 / D d3x 0 .x0 x0 / .x0 / D d3x 0 x0 .x0 / x0 d3x 0 .x0 / 0 V0 V0 ZV D d3x 0 x0 .x0 / x0 q (3.15)
(3.17)
we can transform Qij into Z 0 d3x 0 Qij D Qij ij D
x0j /
1 0 x 3
2 x0 ij
.x0 / (3.18)
Z
1 D
V0
d3x 0
.x0
x0 /.x0
x0 /
1 0 x 3
2 x0 .x0 /
(3.19)
0 OO where 1 D xxi is the unit tensor. It follows immediately that Qi i D 0 (Einstein summation), 0 is traceless. Rotating the coordinate system, it is possible to diagonalise the i.e., that Q tensors Q and Q0 . For any spherical symmetric distribution of charge, all components of Q0 vanish if the moment point x0 is chosen as the symmetry centre of the distribution.
If the charge distribution .x/ is made up of discrete point charges qn with coordinates xn ,
3.3. The electrodynamic potentials
j 33
the denitions above of q; d; Q and Q0 become X qD qn

n
(3.20a) (3.20b)
dD
QD Q0 D
X
n
qn .xn qn .xn qn .xn
x0 / x0 /.xn x0 /.xn x0 / x0 /
1
X
n
(3.20c) 1 jxn 3 x0 j2 (3.20d)
X
n
End of example 3.1
3.3 The electrodynamic potentials
B.t; x/ D r
R A
A.t; x/ @ r @t A.t; x/ D r @ A.t; x/ @t @ A.t; x/ D @t r .t; x/
Let us now generalise the static analysis above to the electrodynamic case, i.e., the case with temporal and spatial dependent sources .t; x/ and j.t; x/, and corresponding elds E.t; x/ and B.t; x/, as described by Maxwells equations (1.49) on page 15. In other words, let us study the electrodynamic potentials .t; x/ and A.t; x/. According to the Maxwell-Lorentz equation (2.1c) on page 20 r B.t; x/ D 0 also in electrodynamics. Because of this divergence-free nature of the time- and space-dependent magnetic eld, we can express it as the curl of an electromagnetic vector potential : (3.21)
Inserting this expression into the other homogeneous Maxwell equation equation (2.1b) on page 20, we obtain r E.t; x/ D (3.22)
D
E.t; x/ C
or, rearranging the terms, @ r E.t; x/ C A.t; x/ D 0 @t
As before we utilise the vanishing curl of a vector expression to write this vector expression as the gradient of a scalar function. If, in analogy with the electrostatic case, we introduce the electromagnetic scalar potential function .t; x/, equation (3.23) becomes equivalent to (3.24)
FT
(3.23)
34 j
This means that in electrodynamics, E.t; x/ is calculated from the potentials according to the formula E.t; x/ D r .t; x/ @ A.t; x/ @t (3.25)
3.4 Gauge transformations
R A
.t; x/ 7!
0
We saw in Section 3.1 on page 29 and in Section 3.2 on page 30 that in electrostatics and magnetostatics we have a certain mathematical degree of freedom, up to terms of vanishing gradients and curls, to pick suitable forms for the potentials and still get the same physical result. In fact, the way the electromagnetic scalar potential .t; x/ and the vector potential A.t; x/ are related to the physical observables gives leeway for similar manipulation of them also in electrodynamics. If we transform .t; x/ and A.t; x/ simultaneously into new ones 0 .t; x/ and A0 .t; x/ according to the mapping scheme .t; x/ D .t; x/ C @.t; x/ @t r .t; x/ (3.26a) (3.26b)
A.t; x/ 7! A0 .t; x/ D A.t; x/
where .t; x/ is an arbitrary, sufciently differentiable scalar function called the gauge function, and insert the transformed potentials into equation (3.25) for the electric eld and into equation (3.21) on the previous page for the magnetic eld, we obtain the transformed elds E0 D B0 D r r
0
@A0 D @t A
A0 D r
FT
r r @.r / @t @A @.r / C D @t @t A r .r / D r
and B.t; x/ from formula (3.21) on the previous page. Hence, it is a matter of taste whether we want to express the laws of electrodynamics in terms of the potentials .t; x/ and A.t; x/, or in terms of the elds E.t; x/ and B.t; x/. However, there exists an important difference between the two approaches: in classical electrodynamics the only directly observable quantities are the elds themselves (and quantities derived from them) and not the potentials. On the other hand, the treatment becomes signicantly simpler if we use the potentials in our calculations and then, at the nal stage, use equation (3.21) on the preceding page and equation (3.25) above to calculate the elds or physical quantities expressed in the elds. This is the strategy we shall follow.
@A @t (3.27a) (3.27b)
3.5. Gauge conditions
j 35
where, once again equation (F.103) on page 195 was used. We see that the elds are unaffected by the gauge transformation (3.26). A transformation of the potentials and A which leaves the elds, and hence Maxwells equations, invariant is called a gauge transformation. A physical law which does not change under a gauge transformation is said to be gauge invariant. It is only those quantities (expressions) that are gauge invariant that are observable and therefore have experimental signicance. Of course, the electromagnetic elds themselves are gauge invariant and electrodynamics is therefore a gauge theory and as such the prototype for all gauge theories. A very important extension is the Yang-Mills theory, introduced in 1954 and which has had a profound impact on modern physics.
3.5 Gauge conditions
Inserting (3.25) and (3.21) on page 33 into Maxwells equations (1.49) on page 15 we obtain, after some simple algebra and the use of equation (1.13) on page 6 .t; x/ @ r2 D .r A/ (3.28a) "0 @t 1 @ 1 @2 A r .r A/ D (3.28b) r 2A 0 j.t; x/ C 2 r c 2 @t 2 c @t that can be rewritten in the following, more symmetric, form of general inhomogeneous wave equations 1 @2 .t; x/ @ 1 @ 2 r D C r AC 2 (3.29a) c 2 @t 2 "0 @t c @t 1 @2 A 1 @ r 2 A D 0 j.t; x/ r r A C 2 (3.29b) 2 @t 2 c c @t These two second order, coupled, partial differential equations, representing in all four scalar equations (one for and one each for the three components Ai ; i D 1; 2; 3 of A) are completely equivalent to the formulation of electrodynamics in terms of Maxwells equations, which represent eight scalar rst-order, coupled, partial differential equations. As they stand, equations (3.28) above and equations (3.29) look complicated and may seem to be of limited use. However, if we write equation (3.21) on page 33 in the form r A.t; x/ D B.t; x/ we can consider this as a specication of r A. But we know from Helmholtz theorem that in order to determine the (spatial) behaviour of A completely, we must also specify r A. Since this divergence does not enter the derivation above, we are free to choose r A in whatever way we like and still obtain the same physical results. This illustrates the power of the formulation of electrodynamics in terms of potentials.
R A
FT
36 j
3.5.1 Lorenz-Lorentz gauge

1
In fact, the Dutch physicist H E N D R I K A N T O O N L O R E N T Z, who in 1903 demonstrated the covariance of Maxwells equations, was not the original discoverer of the gauge condition (3.30). It had been discovered by the Danish physicist L U D V I G V A L E N T I N L O R E N Z already in 1867. In the literature, this fact has sometimes been overlooked and the condition was earlier referred to as the Lorentz gauge condition.
If we choose r A to full the so called Lorenz-Lorentz gauge condition 1 r AC 1 @ D0 c 2 @t (3.30)
the coupled inhomogeneous wave equations (3.29) on page 35 simplify to the following set of uncoupled inhomogeneous wave equations: 1 @2 1 @2 .t; x/ 2 def (3.31a) r2 D 2 2 r2 D 2 @t 2 c c @t "0 1 @2 1 @2 A def 2 A r2 A D 2 2 r 2 A D 0 j.t; x/ (3.31b) c 2 @t 2 c @t where 2 is the dAlembert operator, discussed in Example M.6 on page 215. Each of these four scalar equations is an inhomogeneous wave equation of the following generic form:
2
.t; x/ D f .t; x/
FT
f! .x/
(3.32)
R A
! D ck r 2 ! .x/ C k 2 ! .x/ D
where is a shorthand for either or one of the components Ai of the vector potential A, and f is the pertinent generic source component, .t; x/="0 or 0 ji .t; x/, respectively. We assume that our sources are well-behaved enough in time t so that the Fourier transform pair for the generic source function f Z 1 def F 1 f! .x/ f .t; x/ D d! f! .x/ e i!t (3.33a) 1 Z 1 1 def Ff .t; x/ f! .x/ D dt f .t; x/ e i!t (3.33b) 2 1 exists, and that the same is true for the generic potential component : Z 1 .t; x/ D d! ! .x/ e i!t (3.34a) 1 Z 1 1 ! .x/ D dt .t; x/ e i!t (3.34b) 2 1 Inserting the Fourier representations (3.33) and (3.34a) into equation (3.32) above, and using the vacuum dispersion relation for electromagnetic waves (3.35)
the generic 3D inhomogeneous wave equation, equation (3.32), turns into (3.36)
j 37
which is a 3D inhomogeneous time-independent wave equation, often called the 3D inhomogeneous Helmholtz equation. As postulated by Huygens principle, each point on a wave front acts as a point source for spherical wavelets of varying amplitude (weight). A new wave front is formed by a linear superposition of the individual wavelets from each of the point sources on the old wave front. The solution of (3.36) can therefore be expressed as a weighted superposition of solutions of an equation where the source term has been replaced by a single point source r 2 G.x; x0 / C k 2 G.x; x0 / D .x x0 / (3.37)
V0
d2 .rG/ C k 2 .rG/ D dr 2 Away from r D jx takes the form
R A
r.r/
0
where f! .x / is the wavelet amplitude at the source point x0 . The function G.x; x0 / is called the Green function or the propagator. Due to translational invariance in space, G.x; x0 / D G.x x0 /. Furthermore, in equation (3.37), the Dirac generalised function .x x0 /, which represents the point source, depends only on x x0 and there is no angular dependence in the equation. Hence, the solution can only be dependent on r D jx x0 j and not on the direction of x x0 . If we interpret r as the radial coordinate in a spherically polar coordinate system, and recall the expression for the Laplace operator in such a coordinate system, equation (3.37) above becomes (3.39)
x0 j D 0, i.e., away from the source point x0 , this equation
d2 .rG/ C k 2 .rG/ D 0 dr 2
with the well-known general solution
D
G D CC G.x x 0 / CC jx
e ikr e ikr e ikjx x j e ikjx x j CC CC CC r r jx x0 j jx x0 j
where C are constants. In order to evaluate the constants C , we insert the general solution, equation (3.41), into equation (3.37) above and integrate over a small volume around r D jx x0 j D 0. Since 1 x0 j CC 1 jx x0 j ; x x0 ! 0 (3.42)
FT
(3.40)
0
and the solution of equation (3.36) on the preceding page which corresponds to the frequency ! is given by the superposition Z ! .x/ D d3x 0 f! .x0 /G.x; x0 / (3.38)
(3.41)
38 j
The volume integrated equation (3.37) on the preceding page can under this assumption be approximated by Z Z 1 1 .CC C C / d3x 0 r 2 C k 2 .CC C C / d3x 0 0 0 jx x0 j jx x0 j V V Z 0 3 0 D d x . x x /
V0
(3.43) In virtue of the fact that the volume element d3x 0 in spherical polar coordinates is proportional to jx x0 j2 , the second integral vanishes when jx x0 j ! 0. Furthermore, from equation (F.117) on page 195, we nd that the integrand in the rst integral can be written as 4 .jx x0 j/ and, hence, that CC C C D 1 4
FT
e ikjx x j CC jx x0 j
0
(3.44)
Insertion of the general solution equation (3.41) on the previous page into equation (3.38) on the preceding page gives Z ! .x/ D CC
V0
d3x 0 f! .x0 /
V0
d3x 0 f! .x0 /
e ikjx x j jx x0 j (3.45)
R A
0 0 tret D tret .t; x x0 / D t 0 0 tadv D tadv .t; x
The inverse Fourier transform of this back to the t domain is obtained by inserting the above expression for ! .x/ into equation (3.34a) on page 36: h i 0 Z Z 1 exp i! t kjx! x j .t; x/ D CC d3x 0 d! f! .x0 / 0 jx x0 j V 1 i h (3.46) 0 Z Z 1 exp i! t C kjx! x j CC d3x 0 d! f! .x0 / 0 jx x0 j V 1
0 0 If we introduce the retarded time tret and the advanced time tadv in the following way [using the fact that k=! D 1=c in empty space, according to equation (3.35) on page 36]:
k jx x0 j jx x0 j Dt ! c k jx x0 j jx x0 j 0 DtC x /DtC ! c
(3.47a) (3.47b)
and use equation (3.33) on page 36, we obtain Z Z 0 0 0 f .tadv ; x0 / 3 0 f .tret ; x / .t; x/ D CC CC dx d3x 0 jx x0 j jx x0 j V0 V0
(3.48)
j 39
D
1 @2 c 2 @t 2 r 2 D 0
We notice that if we require that the gauge function .t; x/ itself be restricted to full the wave equation (3.51)
these transformed Lorenz-Lorentz equations will keep their original form. The set of potentials which have been gauge transformed according to equation (3.26) on page 34 with a gauge function .t; x/ restricted to full equation (3.51), or, in other words, those gauge transformed potentials for which the Lorenz-Lorentz equations (3.31) are invariant, comprise the Lorenz-Lorentz gauge.
R A
Since these retarded potentials were obtained as solutions to the Lorenz-Lorentz equations (3.31) on page 36 they are valid in the Lorenz-Lorentz gauge but may be gauge transformed according to the scheme described in Subsection 3.4 on page 34. As they stand, we shall use them frequently in the sequel. The potentials .t; x/ and A.t; x/ calculated from (3.28a) on page 35, with an arbitrary choice of r A, can be further gauge transformed according to (3.26) on page 34. If, in particular, we choose r A according to the Lorenz-Lorentz condition, equation (3.30) on page 36, and apply the gauge transformation (3.26) on the resulting Lorenz-Lorentz potential equations (3.31) on page 36, these equations will be transformed into @ 1 @2 .t; x/ 1 @2 r2 C r 2 D (3.50a) 2 @t 2 2 @t 2 c @t c "0 1 @2 A 1 @2 r 2A r r 2 D 0 j.t; x/ (3.50b) c 2 @t 2 c 2 @t 2
FT
This is a solution to the generic inhomogeneous wave equation for the potential components equation (3.32) on page 36. We note that the solution at time t at the eld point x is dependent on the behaviour at other times t 0 of the source at x0 and that both retarded and advanced t 0 are mathematically acceptable solutions. However, if we assume that causality requires that the potential at .t; x/ is set up 0 by the source at an earlier time, i.e., at .tret ; x0 /, we must in equation (3.48) on the preceding page set C D 0 and therefore, according to equation (3.44) on the facing page, CC D 1=.4 /.2 From the above discussion on the solution of the inhomogeneous wave equations in the Lorenz-Lorentz gauge we conclude that, under the assumption of causality, the electrodynamic potentials in empty space can be written Z 0 0 1 .tret ; x0 .tret // .t; x/ D d3x 0 (3.49a) 0 4 "0 V 0 jx.t / x0 .tret /j Z 0 0 j.tret ; x0 .tret // 0 A.t; x/ D d3x 0 (3.49b) 0 4 jx.t / x0 .tret /j V0
In fact, inspired by ideas put forward by P A U L A D R I E N M A U R I C E D I R A C, J O H N A R C H I B A L D W H E E L E R and RICHARD PHILLIPS FEYNMAN derived, in 1945, a consistent electrodynamics based on both the retarded and the advanced potentials.
40 j
3.5.2 Coulomb gauge

In Coulomb gauge, often employed in quantum electrodynamics, one chooses r A D 0 so that equations (3.28) or equations (3.29) on page 35 become .t; x/ (3.52a) "0 1 @2 A 1 @ r 2A D (3.52b) 0 j.t; x/ C 2 r c 2 @t 2 c @t The rst of these two is the time-dependent Poissons equation which, in analogy with equation (3.3) on page 30, has the solution Z .t; x0 / 1 .t; x/ D d3x 0 C (3.53) 4 "0 V 0 jx x0 j r2 D where has vanishing gradient. We note that in the scalar potential expression the charge density source is evaluated at time t . The retardation (and advancement) effects therefore occur only in the vector potential A, which is the solution of the inhomogeneous wave equation equation (3.52b) above. In order to solve this equation, one splits up j in a longitudinal (k) and transverse (?) part, j jk C j? where r j? D 0 and r jk D 0, and note that the equation of continuity, equation (1.25) on page 10 becomes @ @ @ 2 C r jk D "0 r C r jk D r "0 r C jk D 0 @t @t @t (3.54) Furthermore, since r r D 0 and r @ r "0 r C jk D 0 @t jk D 0, one nds that (3.55)
R A
"0 r r 2A
According to Helmholtz theorem, this implies that @ D jk (3.56) @t The inhomogeneous wave equation equation (3.52b) above thus becomes
1 @2 A 1 @ D D (3.57) 0j C 2 r 0 j C 0 jk D 0 j? 2 @t 2 c c @t which shows that in Coulomb gauge the source of the vector potential A is the transverse part of the current j? . The longitudinal part of the current jk does not contribute to the vector potential. The retarded solution is [cf. equation (3.49a) on the preceding page]: Z 0 j? .tret ; x0 / 0 A.t; x/ D d3x 0 (3.58) 4 jx x0 j V0 The Coulomb gauge condition is therefore also called the transverse gauge.
FT
j 41
3.5.3 Velocity gauge

If r A fulls the velocity gauge condition, sometimes referred to as the complete -Lorenz gauge, r AC 1 @ D 0; c 2 @t D c2 v2 (3.59)
we obtain the Lorenz-Lorentz gauge condition in the limit v D c, i.e., D 1, and the Coulomb gauge condition in the limit v ! 1, i.e., D 0, respectively. Hence, the velocity gauge is a generalisation of both these gauges. Inserting equation (3.59) above into the coupled inhomogeneous wave equations (3.29) on page 35 they become r2 r 2A 1 @2 D v 2 @t 2 1 @2 A D c 2 @t 2 .t; x/ "0
0 j.t; x/
1 c2
@ @t
or, in a more symmetric form, r2 r 2A 1 @2 D c 2 @t 2 1 @2 A D c 2 @t 2 .t; x/ "0 1
A
x
@ @ @t @t 1 @ r 0 j.t; x/ C c2 @t c2
Other useful gauges are
The Poincar gauge (or radial gauge) where .t; x/ D
R
Z
1
d E.t; x/
A.t; x/ D
d B.t; x/
The temporal gauge, also known as the Hamilton gauge, dened by The axial gauge, dened by A3 D 0.
The process of choosing a particular gauge condition is known as gauge xing.
Electromagnetodynamic potentials In Diracs symmetrised form of electrodynamics (electromagnetodynamics), Maxwells
FT
(3.60a) (3.60b) (3.61a) (3.61b) (3.62a) (3.62b) D 0.
E X A M P L E 3.2
42 j
equations are replaced by [see also equations (1.50) on page 16]:

e
r ED r ED
"0
0j 0 0j m e m
(3.63a) @B @t @E @t (3.63b) (3.63c) C "0

0
r BD r BD
(3.63d)
In this theory, one derives the inhomogeneous wave equations for the usual electric scalar and vector potentials . e ; Ae / and their magnetic counterparts . m ; Am / by assuming that the potentials are related to the elds in the following symmetrised form: ED BD r @ e A .t; x/ r Am @t 1 1 @ m r m .t; x/ A .t; x/ C r c2 c 2 @t
e
.t; x/
(3.64a) Ae (3.64b)
In the absence of magnetic charges, or, equivalently for m 0 and Am 0, these formul reduce to the usual Maxwell theory formula (3.25) on page 34 and formula (3.21) on page 33, respectively, as they should. Inserting the symmetrised expressions (3.64) into equations (3.63) above, one obtains [cf., equations (3.28a) on page 35] @ r Ae @t @ r2 m C r Am @t 1 @2 Ae r 2 Ae C r c 2 @t 2 r2
e
A
e
1 @2 Am c 2 @t 2
"0 m .t; x/ D "0 1 @ e r Ae C 2 D 0 j e .t; x/ c @t 1 @ m r 2 Am C r r Am C 2 D 0 j m .t; x/ c @t
FT
e .t; x/ e
(3.65a) (3.65b) (3.65c) (3.65d)
R D
1 @ c 2 @t 1 @ r Am C 2 c @t r Ae C
m
By choosing the conditions on the divergence of the vector potentials according to the Lorenz-Lorentz condition [cf. equation (3.30) on page 36] D0 D0 (3.66) (3.67)
these coupled wave equations simplify to 1 @2 e r2 e c 2 @t 2 1 @2 Ae r 2 Ae c 2 @t 2 1 @2 m r2 m c 2 @t 2 1 @2 Am r 2 Am c 2 @t 2 D D D D

e .t; x/
"0
0j
(3.68a) (3.68b) (3.68c) (3.68d)
.t; x/
m .t; x/
"0
0j m
.t; x/
j 43
exhibiting, once again, the striking properties of Diracs symmetrised Maxwell theory. End of example 3.2
Gauge transformations and quantum mechanics As discussed in Section 2.2 on page 20, in quantum theory, we need to take the magnitude rather than the real part of our mathematical variables in order to turn them into physical observables. In non-relativistic quantum mechanics, the physical observable probability density is D j j2 , where the wave function 2 C solves the Schrdinger equation i @ y DH @t (3.69)
E X A M P L E 3.3
y and H is the Hamilton operator.
The non-relativistic Hamiltonian for a classical particle with charge q in an electromagnetic eld, described by the scalar potential and vector potential A, is H D 1 .p 2m qA/2 C q (3.70)
where p is the linear momentum. The corresponding quantal Hamilton operator is obtained y by replacing p by the operator p i r . This gives the Schrdinger equation
The idea is to perform a gauge transformation from the potentials .t; x/ and A.t; x/ to new potentials ! 0 .t; x/ D .t; x/ C A !A0 .t; x/ D A.t; x/ @.t; x/ @t r .t; x/ (3.72) (3.73)
and then nd a .t; x/, expressed in the gauge function .t; x/, so that the transformed Schrdinger equation can be written
D
i D i @ 0 1 i r D @t 2m Now, setting
0
@e i @t
R
1 . i r 2m qA/2 e i qA C .qr /2
0
A
C q e i Cq
0
1 @ . i r D @t 2m
qA/2
Cq
Under the gauge transformation, the Schrdinger equation (3.71) transforms into Cq @ @t
0
.t; x/ D e i.t;x/ .t; x/
we see that
FT
(3.71) (3.74) (3.75) (3.76)
44 j
i r
qA C .qr /2
D i r
qA C .qr / i r
qA C .qr / e i qAe i C .qr /e i i (3.77)
D i r qA C .qr / h i e i .r / i e i .r /
D i r qA C .qr / e i i r i .r / qA C .qr / h i D i .r /e i i e i r qAe i C .qr /e i i r De i r

i
i .r / i .r /
qA C .qr / qA C .qr /2 q.r /, or,
Clearly, the gauge transformed Hamilton operator is unchanged iff .r / D equivalently, iff .t; x/ D q.t; x/= . This has as a consequence that i @ 0 @t D i2 q @ @t @ i e @t
0
Di
FT
@ 0 @ 0 @ i @ i C Di .e /C e @t @t @t @t @ @ i @ C i e i C e D e i i @t @t @t
(3.78)
Inserting this into the transformed Schrdinger equation (3.75) we recover the untransformed Schrdinger equation (3.71). We conclude that for a gauge transformation of the potentials and A, the Schrdinger equation is invariant, but that the wave function changes from to e i where the phase angle is real-valued. This means that the non-relativistic quantum physical observable j j2 is unaffected by a gauge transformation of the classical potentials and A that appear in the Hamilton operator. End of example 3.3
R A
3.6 Bibliography
[19] L. D. FADEEV AND A. A. S LAVNOV, Gauge Fields: Introduction to Quantum Theory, No. 50 in Frontiers in Physics: A Lecture Note and Reprint Series. Benjamin/Cummings Publishing Company, Inc., Reading, MA . . . , 1980, ISBN 0-8053-9016-2. [20] M. G UIDRY, Gauge Field Theories: An Introduction with Applications, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, NY . . . , 1991, ISBN 0-471-63117-5. [21] J. D. JACKSON, Classical Electrodynamics, third ed., John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, NY . . . , 1999, ISBN 0-471-30932-X. [22] W. K. H. PANOFSKY AND M. P HILLIPS, Classical Electricity and Magnetism, second ed., Addison-Wesley Publishing Company, Inc., Reading, MA . . . , 1962, ISBN 0201-05702-6. [23] J. A. W HEELER AND R. P. F EYNMAN, Interaction with the absorber as a mechanism for radiation, Reviews of Modern Physics, 17 (1945), pp. 157.
FIELDS FROM ARBITRARY CHARGE AND CURRENT DISTRIBUTIONS
While the electric and magnetic elds from prescribed sources can, in principle, be calculated from the Maxwell-Lorentz equations given at the beginning of Chapter 2, or from the wave equations later in the same chapter, it is often technically easier and physically more lucid to calculate the elds from the electromagnetic potentials derived in Chapter 3. In this chapter we use potentials from prescribed but completely arbitrary charges and currents to derive resulting exact analytic expressions for the retarded electric and magnetic elds. As we shall see, these elds comprise several components, characterized by their direction and their fall-off with distance from the source. This means that different components dominate in amplitude in different regions in free space (the near zone, the intermediate zone, and the far zone, respectively) away from the source region. Those eld components that have the slowest fall-off as a function of distance from the source and therefore dominate in the far zone, are referred to as the far elds. Because of their importance, a special analysis of the far elds is given at the end of the chapter. However, as will be shown in Chapter 6, the contribution to certain physical far-zone observables come from a combination of far elds and near-zone and intermediate zone elds. That is why we include a derivation of approximate expressions for all eld components, dominant as well as sub-dominant, valid at large distances from the source. We recall that in order to nd the solution (3.48) on page 38 for the generic inhomogeneous wave equation (3.32) on page 36, we presupposed the existence
R A
45
FT
46 j
4 . F IE L D S F R O M A R BITRARY CHARGE AND CURRENT DISTRIBUTIONS
of a Fourier transform pair (3.33) on page 36 for the generic source term Z 1 f .t; x/ D d! f! .x/ e i!t (4.1a) 1 Z 1 1 dt f .t; x/ e i!t (4.1b) f! .x/ D 2 1 That such transform pairs exist is true for most physical variables which are neither strictly monotonically increasing nor strictly monotonically decreasing with time. For charge and current densities that vary in time we can therefore, without loss of generality, work with individual Fourier components ! .x/ and j! .x/, respectively. Strictly speaking, the existence of a single Fourier component assumes a monochromatic source (i.e., a source containing only one single frequency component), which in turn requires that the electric and magnetic elds exist for innitely long times. However, by taking the proper limits, we may still use this approach even for sources and elds of nite duration. This is the method we shall utilise in this chapter in order to derive the electric and magnetic elds in vacuum from arbitrary given charge densities .t; x/ and current densities j.t; x/, dened by the temporal Fourier transform pairs Z 1 .t; x/ D d! ! .x/ e i!t (4.2a) 1 Z 1 1 .x/ D dt .t; x/ e i!t (4.2b) ! 2 1 and
R A
j.t; x/ D d! j! .x/ e i!t Z 1 1 j! .x/ D dt j.t; x/ e i!t 2 1
1
FT
i!t
(4.3a) (4.3b)
respectively. The derivation will be completely general except we make the reasonable assumption that only retarded potentials produce physically acceptable solutions and that the source region is at rest relative to the observer. The temporal Fourier transform pair for the retarded scalar potential can then be written Z 1 .t; x/ D d! ! .x/ e i!t (4.4a)
1
1 ! .x/ D 2
dt .t; x/ e
1
1 D 4 "0
e ikjx x j d x ! .x / jx x0 j V0
3 0 0
(4.4b)
where in the last step, we made use of the explicit expression for the temporal Fourier transform of the generic potential component ! .x/, equation (3.45) on
4.1. The retarded magnetic eld
j 47
page 38. Similarly, the following Fourier transform pair for the vector potential must exist: Z 1 A.t; x/ D d! A! .x/ e i!t (4.5a)
1
1 A! .x/ D 2
1 1
dt A.t; x/ e i!t D
Z
V0
d3x 0 j! .x0 /
e ikjx x j jx x0 j
(4.5b)
Similar transform pairs exist for the elds themselves. In the limit that the sources can be considered monochromatic containing only one single frequency !0 , we have the much simpler expressions .t; x/ D .t; x/ D
0 .x/e i!0 t i!0 t i!0 t i!0 t
(4.6a)
0 .x/e
A.t; x/ D A0 .x/e
4.1 The retarded magnetic eld
Let us now compute the magnetic eld from the vector potential, dened by equation (4.5a) and equation (4.5b) above, and formula (3.21) on page 33: B.t; x/ D r A.t; x/ (4.7)
D
r A! i k c
!
The computations will be considerably simplied if we work in ! space and, at the nal stage, inverse Fourier transform back to ordinary t space. We are working in the Lorenz-Lorentz gauge and note that in ! space the Lorenz-Lorentz condition, equation (3.30) on page 36, takes the form D0 (4.8)
which provides a relation between (the Fourier transforms of) the vector and scalar potentials.
R A
where again the real-valuedness of all these quantities is implied. As discussed above, we can safely assume that all formul derived for a general temporal Fourier representation of the source (general distribution of frequencies in the source) are valid for these simple limiting cases. We note that in this context, we can make the formal identication ! D 0 .! !0 /, j! D j0 .! !0 / etc., and that we therefore, without any loss of stringency, let 0 mean the same as the Fourier amplitude ! and so on.
FT
(4.6c) (4.6d)
j.t; x/ D j0 .x/e
(4.6b)
48 j
4 . F IE L D S F R O M A R BITRARY CHARGE AND CURRENT DISTRIBUTIONS
Using the Fourier transformed version of equation (4.7) on the preceding page and equation (4.5b) on the previous page, we obtain Z 0 e ikjx x j 0 B! .x/ D r A! .x/ D r d3x 0 j! .x0 / (4.9) 4 jx x0 j V0 Utilising formula (F.94) on page 194 and recalling that j! .x0 / does not depend on x, we can rewrite this as !# " Z 0 e ikjx x j 0 3 0 0 d x j! .x / r B! .x/ D 4 jx x0 j V0 Z x x0 0 0 3 0 0 D e ikjx x j d x j! .x / 0 j3 4 jx x V0 Z x x0 ikjx x0 j 1 (4.10) C d3x 0 j! .x0 / ik e 0 jx x0 j jx x0 j V Z 0 j! .x0 /e ikjx x j .x x0 / 0 D d3x 0 4 jx x0 j3 V0 Z 0 ikjx x0 j .x x0 / 3 0 . ik/j! .x /e C dx jx x0 j2 V0 From this expression for the magnetic eld in the frequency (!) domain, we nally obtain the total magnetic eld in the temporal (t ) domain by taking the inverse Fourier transform (using the identity ik D i!=c): Z 1 B.t; x/ D d! B! .x/ e i!t 1 hR i 1 0 i.!t kjx x0 j/ Z .x x0 / 1 d! j! .x /e 0 D d3x 0 4 jx x0 j3 V0 hR i 0 1 Z d! . i!/j! .x0 /e i.!t kjx x j/ .x x0 / 1 1 3 0 C dx c V0 jx x0 j2 (4.11) Comparing with equations (3.47) on page 38, we can identify the exponents of the 0 exponentials in the integrands as i!tret and nd that the total retarded magnetic eld can be written as the sum of two terms Z 0 j.tret ; x0 / .x x0 / 0 B.t; x/ D d3x 0 4 jx x0 j3 V0
Retarded induction eld
R A
C
0
FT
dx
3 0
Z
V0
P 0 j.tret ; x0 / jx
Far eld
.x x0 j2
x0 /
(4.12)
4 c
4.2. The retarded electric eld
j 49
where
def P 0 j.tret ; x0 /
@j @t
(4.13)
0 tDtret
0 where tret D t jx x0 j =c.1 This is the dynamic generalisation of the static innitesimal Biot-Savart law, equation (1.16) on page 7 to which it reduces in the static limit.
4.2 The retarded electric eld
In order to calculate the retarded electric eld, we use the temporally Fourier transformed version of formula (3.25) on page 34, inserting equations (4.4b) and (4.5b) as the explicit expressions for the Fourier transforms of and A: E! .x/ D C i!A! .x/ Z 0 1 e ikjx x j D r d3x 0 ! .x0 / 4 "0 jx x0 j V0 Z ikjx x0 j i 0! 3 0 0 e C d x j! .x / 4 jx x0 j V0 Z 0 ikjx x0 j 1 .x x0 / ! .x /e d3x 0 D 4 "0 jx x0 j3 V0 Z 0 ikjx x0 j .x x0 / ! .x /e ik d3x 0 jx x0 j2 V0 Z ikjx x0 j 1 3 0 0 e C ik d x j! .x / c V0 jx x0 j r
! .x/
R A
FT
1
The rst term, the retarded induction eld that dominates near the current source but falls off rapidly with distance from it, is the electrodynamic version of the Biot-Savart law in electrostatics, formula (1.17) on page 8. The second term, the far eld , dominates at large distances. The spatial derivatives (r ) gave rise to a time derivative (P) so this term represents the part of the magnetic eld that is generated by the time rate of change of the current, i.e., accelerated charges, at the retarded time. In innitesimal differential form, formula (4.12) on the preceding page becomes x x0 1 P0 0 x x0 0 0 dB.t; x/ D dI.tret / (4.14) C dI .tret / 4 c jx x0 j3 jx x0 j2
Here we exclude the possibility 0 that advanced time tadv D t C jx x0 j =c may contribute to dB.
(4.15)
50 j
4 . F I E L DS F R O M A R BITRARY CHARGE AND CURRENT DISTRIBUTIONS
Taking the inverse Fourier transform of this expression in an analogous manner to what was done to obtain equation (4.12) on page 48, the following expression for the retarded electric eld is obtained: Z 0 1 .tret ; x/ x x0 E.t; x/ D d3x 0 4 "0 V 0 jx x0 j2 jx x0 j Z 0 1 P.tret ; x0 / x x0 C d3x 0 (4.16) 4 "0 c V 0 jx x0 j jx x0 j Z P 0 1 j.tret ; x0 / d3x 0 4 "0 c 2 V 0 jx x0 j The corresponding innitesimal differential form is x x0 1 0 dq 0 .tret / dE.t; x/ D 4 "0 jx x0 j3 1 x x0 1 1 P0 0 P 0 dI .tret / C dq 0 .tret / c jx x0 j jx x0 j2 c 2
Equation (4.12) and equation (4.16) seem to have been rst introduced by Panofsky and Phillips. Later they were given by Jemenko and they are therefore sometimes called the Jemenko equations.
2
FT
in terms of j! as follows
(4.17)
which in the static limit reduces to the innitesimal Coulomb law, formula (1.5) on page 4.2 We shall now further expand equation (4.16). To this end we rst note that the Fourier transform of the continuity equation (1.25) on page 10 r 0 j! .x0 / i!
! .x 0
R A
can be used to express
0 ! .x / !
/D0
(4.18)
i 0 r j! .x0 / !
(4.19)
Doing so in the last term of equation (4.15) on the preceding page, and also using the fact that k D !=c, we can rewrite this equation as Z 0 ikjx x0 j 1 .x x0 / 3 0 ! .x /e E! .x/ D dx 4 "0 V 0 jx x0 j3 ikjx x0 j 0 Z 1 e r j! .x0 /.x x0 / ikj! .x0 / d3x 0 c V0 jx x0 j jx x0 j I! (4.20) The last vector-valued integral can be further rewritten in the following way: 0 ikjx x0 j Z r j! .x0 /.x x0 / e I! D d3x 0 ikj! .x0 / 0j jx x jx x0 j V0 (4.21) Z 0 0 x xl e ikjx x j 3 0 @j!m l 0 O D dx ikj!l .x / xl 0 @xm jx x0 j jx x0 j V0
4.2. The retarded electric eld
j 51
But, since 0 xl xl ikjx @ j!m e 0 @xm jx x0 j2
x0 j
e ikjx x j jx x0 j2 0 xl xl ikjx @ C j!m 0 e @xm jx x0 j2
@j!m 0 @xm
xl
0 xl
x0 j
(4.22)
we can rewrite I! as # " Z 0 0 xl xl e ikjx x j @ 0j O I! D d3x 0 j!m 0 xl e ikjx x C ikj! @xm jx x0 j2 jx x0 j V0 Z 0 xl xl @ 0 O C d3x 0 0 j!m xl e ikjx x j 0 j2 @xm jx x V0 where, according to Gausss theorem, the last term vanishes if j! is assumed to be limited and tends to zero at large distances. Further evaluation of the derivative in the rst term makes it possible to write Z 0 e ikjx x j I! D d3x 0 j! jx x0 j2 V0 2 0 0 ikjx x0 j C j! .x x / .x x /e jx x0 j4 Z 0 j! .x x0 / .x x0 / ikjx x0 j e ikjx x j ik d3x 0 e C j! jx x0 j jx x0 j3 V0 (4.24)
Using the triple product bac-cab formula (F.72) on page 193 backwards, and inserting the resulting expression for I! into equation (4.20) on the facing page, we arrive at the following nal expression for the Fourier transform of the total E eld: Z Z ikjx x0 j ikjx x0 j 1 i 0! 3 0 0 e 3 0 0 e E! .x/ D r d x ! .x / C d x j! .x / 4 "0 4 jx x0 j jx x0 j V0 V0 Z 0j 0 ikjx x 1 .x x0 / ! .x /e D d3x 0 4 "0 V 0 jx x0 j3 Z 0 1 j! .x0 /e ikjx x j .x x0 /.x x0 / C d3x 0 c V0 jx x0 j4 Z 0 1 j! .x0 /e ikjx x j .x x0 / .x x0 / C d3x 0 c V0 jx x0 j4 Z 0 ik j! .x0 /e ikjx x j .x x0 / .x x0 / d3x 0 c V0 jx x0 j3 (4.25)
R A
FT
(4.23)
52 j
Taking the inverse Fourier transform of equation (4.25) on the previous page, once again using the vacuum relation ! D kc, we nd, at last, the expression in time domain for the total electric eld: Z 1 E.t; x/ D d! E! .x/ e i!t 1 Z 0 1 .tret ; x0 /.x x0 / D d3x 0 4 "0 V 0 jx x0 j3
Retarded Coulomb eld
1 C 4 "0 c C 1 4 "0 c
Z
V0
d3x 0
0 j.tret ; x0 / .x
x0 /.x x0 j 4
x0 / (4.26) x0 /
jx
0 j.tret ; x0 /
Intermediate eld
V0
1 4 "0 c 2
D
E X A M P L E 4.1
R
T .t 0 ; x0 ; x/ D C
Here, the rst term represents the retarded Coulomb eld and the last term represents the far eld which dominates at very large distances. The other two terms represent the intermediate eld which contributes signicantly only to the elds themselves in the near zone and must be properly taken into account there. With this we have achieved our goal of nding closed-form analytic expressions for the electric and magnetic elds when the sources of the elds are completely arbitrary, prescribed distributions of charges and currents. The only assumption made is that the advanced potentials have been discarded; recall the discussion following equation (3.48) on page 38 in Chapter 3.
Alternative expressions for E and B
The formul for the elds E and B expressed directly in integrals of generic source terms, can be rewritten in several ways. For instance, by introducing the vector .t 0 ; x0 / x jx x0 j2 jx 1 jx x0 j2 x0 x0 j 2 x x0 x j.t 0 ; x0 / c jx x0 j jx x0 x0 j j.t 0 ; x0 / (4.27)
where, as before @j def P 0 j.tret ; x0 / 0 @t tDtret
FT
d3x 0 jx x0 j4
Intermediate eld
.x
x0 /
.x
d3x 0
P 0 j.tret ; x0 /
.x
x0 /
.x
x0 /
V0
jx
x0 j3
Far eld
4.3. The elds at large distances from the sources
j 53
where
0 t 0 D tret D t
x c
x0
(4.28)
one can write the electric eld as ( Z 1 x x0 3 0 d x T .t 0 ; x0 ; x/ C E.t; x/ D 4 "0 V 0 c 2 jx x0 j2 and the magnetic eld as Z x 0 B.t; x/ D d3x 0 4 jx V0 Alternatively E.t; x/ D 1 4 "0 Z
x jx
x0 x0 j
) P j.t 0 ; x0 / (4.29)
x0 x0 j
( T .t 0 ; x0 ; x/ C
x c 2 jx
x0 x0 j2
x jx
x0 x0 j
) P j.t 0 ; x0 / (4.30)
V0
d3x 0 T .t 0 ; x0 ; x/ Z x x0 1 @ d3x 0 C 4 "0 @t V 0 c 2 jx x0 j2
and B.t; x/ D
0
Z
V0
4
0
d3x 0
x jx
3 0
x0 x0 j
R A
@ C 4 @t respectively.
x dx 0 jx V
T .t 0 ; x0 ; x/ ( x x0 x0 0j x c 2 jx x0 j2
4.3 The elds at large distances from the sources

For many purposes it is convenient to have access to approximate expressions for the electric and magnetic elds that are valid in the far zone, i.e., very far away from the source region. Let us therefore derive such expressions. As illustrated in Figure 4.1 on page 55 we assume that the sources are located near a point x0 inside a volume V 0 that is not moving relative to the observer and has such a limited spatial extent that max jx0 x0 j jx x0 j, and the integration surface S , centred on x0 , has a large enough radius jx x0 j max jx0 x0 j. Then we make the approximation k x x0 k .x x0 / k .x x0 / k .x0 x0 / (4.33) k jx x0 j k .x0 x0 /
FT
x jx x0 x0 j j.t 0 ; x0 / (4.31) x jx x0 x0 j ) j.t ; x /
0 0
(4.32)
End of example 4.1
54 j
in the phases (exponentials) and the cruder approximation x x0 jx x0 j
(4.34)
in the amplitudes in equation (4.10) on page 48, equation (4.15) on page 49, and equation (4.25) on page 51, and get the following expression valid at far distances from the limited source volume: ikjx x0 j Z 0 0 e O B! .x/ d3x 0 j! .x0 /e ik .x x0 / k (4.35a) 4 jx x0 j2 V 0 ikjx x0 j Z 0 0 e O d3x 0 j! .x0 /e ik .x x0 / k (4.35b) ik 4 jx x0 j V 0
B! .x/
jx
x0 j max x0
and E! .x/
R A
1 e ikjx x0 j C 4 "0 c jx x0 j2 1 e ikjx x0 j C 4 "0 c jx x0 j2 ik e ikjx x0 j 4 "0 c jx x0 j Z Z
V0 V0
1 e ikjx x0 j 4 "0 jx x0 j2
FT
ik Z d3x 0
V0 ! .x 0
i.e.,
Z e ikjx x0 j 0 O d3x 0 j! .x0 /e ik .x x0 / k ; jx x0 j V 0 x x0 ; jx x0 j x0 max x0 x0 (4.36)
/e
ik .x0 x0 / O
(4.37a) (4.37b)
d3x 0 j! .x0 /e d3x 0 j! .x0 /e
ik .x0 x0 /
O O kk O k O k O k O k
ik .x0 x0 /
(4.37c) (4.37d)
V0
d3x 0 j! .x0 /e
ik .x0 x0 /
i.e.,
E! .x/
1 e ikjx x0 j 4 "0 jx x0 j2
d3x 0
V0
! .x
/e
ik .x0 x0 / O
k
x0 /
(4.38a) O O kk (4.38b)
Z 1 e ikjx x0 j 0 d3x 0 j! .x0 /e ik .x 2 4 "0 c jx x0 j V 0 ikjx x0 j 1 1 e C ik 4 "0 c jx x0 j jx x0 j2 Z 0 O O d3x 0 j! .x0 /e ik .x x0 / k k

V0
(4.38c)
At a eld (observation) point x located sufciently far away from the source volume V 0 , such that max jx0 x0 j max jx0 x0 j, jx x0 j,and jx x0 j
4.3. The elds at large distances from the sources
j 55
O n O k
S.x0 /
x x
x0 x0 x0 x0 x0 V0 x0
Figure 4.1: Relation between the surface normal and the k vector for elds generated at source points x0 near the point x0 in the source volume V 0 . At distances much larger than the extent of V 0 , the unit vecO tor n, normal to the surface S which has its centre at x0 , and the unit vecO tor k of the k vector from x0 are nearly coincident.
and when the paraxial approximation x O kD jx x0 x0 j x jx x0 O n x0 j
R A
0
is used, the total retarded E and B elds can be approximated by Z 1 e ikjx x0 j O d3x 0 .t 0 ; x0 /n E.t; x/ 4 "0 jx x0 j2 V 0 Z 1 e ikjx x0 j O O C d3x 0 j.t 0 ; x0 / nn 4 "0 c jx x0 j2 V 0 Z e ikjx x0 j 1 O O d3x 0 j.t 0 ; x0 / n n C 4 "0 c jx x0 j2 V 0 Z e ikjx x0 j 1 P O O C d3x 0 j.t 0 ; x0 / n n 4 "0 c 2 jx x0 j V 0 and B.t; x/ e ikjx
0 x0 j
D
4 jx respectively, where, t 0 .x0 / D t C t
x0 j
d3x 0 j.t 0 ; x0 /
V0
e ikjx x0 j 4 c jx x0 j
Z
V0
P d x j.t ; x /
3 0 0 0
k .x0 x0 / ! k jx x0 j k jx x0 j C Dt ! !
FT
(4.39) (4.40) O n (4.41) O n jx x0 j c jx x0 j (4.42)
56 j
4.3.1 The far elds

When jx x0 j ! 1 and the source region is of small or nite extent, the only surviving components in expression (4.12) on page 48 and expression (4.26) on page 52 are the far elds Z P 0 j.tret ; x0 / .x x0 / 0 far B .t; x/ D d3x 0 (4.43) 4 c V0 jx x0 j2 and Efar .t; x/ D 1 4 "0 c 2 Z
V0
d3x 0
P 0 j.tret ; x0 /
.x jx
x0 / x0 j3
.x
x0 /
(4.44)
and Efar .x/ D ! D 1 2 Z

1 1
dt Efar .t; x/ e i!t Z Z d3x 0 d3x 0
R A
1 ik 4 "0 c 1 4 "0 c
V0
ik
FT
j! .x0 /e ikjx
x0 j
In the frequency (temporal Fourier) domain, these far elds are represented by Z 1 1 far B! .x/ D dt Bfar .t; x/ e i!t 2 1 Z 0 ikjx x0 j .x x0 / 0 3 0 j! .x /e dx D ik (4.45) 4 jx x0 j2 V0 Z 0 ikjx x0 j O k 0 3 0 j! .x /e D ik dx 4 jx x0 j V0
.x x0 j 3
x0 /
.x
x0 /
jx
x0 j
V0
O j! .x0 /e ikjx k jx x0 j
O k (4.46)
respectively. Within the approximation (4.33) on page 53, the expressions (4.45) and (4.46) for the far elds can be simplied to ikjx x0 j Z 0 0 e far O (4.47a) B! .x/ ik d3x 0 j! .x0 /e ik .x x0 / k 4 jx x0 j V 0 Z 1 e ikjx x0 j 0 far O O E! .x/ ik d3x 0 j! .x0 /e ik .x x0 / k k 4 "0 c jx x0 j V 0 (4.47b) Inverse Fourier transforming the above expressions into t domain, we nd that ikjx x0 j Z 0 e P O (4.48a) Bfar .t; x/ d3x 0 j.t 0 .x0 /; x0 / k 4 c jx x0 j V 0 Z 1 e ikjx x0 j far P O O (4.48b) E .t; x/ d3x 0 j.t 0 .x0 /; x0 / k k 4 "0 c 2 jx x0 j V 0
4.4. Bibliography
j 57
where t 0 is given by the approximate equation (4.42) on page 55. In conclusion, if max jx0 x0 j jx x0 j, then the far elds behave as spherical waves multiplied by dimensional and angular factor integrals, where the integrands contain only points in the source region. The magnitudes of the elds are directly proportional to the magnitude of the time derivative of the current.
4.4 Bibliography
[24] M. A. H EALD AND J. B. M ARION, Classical Electromagnetic Radiation, third ed., Saunders College Publishing, Fort Worth, . . . , 1980, ISBN 0-03-097277-9. [25] F. H OYLE , S IR AND J. V. NARLIKAR, Lectures on Cosmology and Action at a Distance Electrodynamics, World Scientic Publishing Co. Pte. Ltd, Singapore, New Jersey, London and Hong Kong, 1996, ISBN 9810-02-2573-3 (pbk).
[26] J. D. JACKSON, Classical Electrodynamics, third ed., John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, NY . . . , 1999, ISBN 0-471-30932-X.
[27] O. D. J EFIMENKO, Electricity and Magnetism. An introduction to the theory of electric and magnetic elds, second ed., Electret Scientic Company, Star City, 1989, ISBN 0917406-08-7.
[29] W. K. H. PANOFSKY AND M. P HILLIPS, Classical Electricity and Magnetism, second ed., Addison-Wesley Publishing Company, Inc., Reading, MA . . . , 1962, ISBN 0201-05702-6. [30] J. A. S TRATTON, Electromagnetic Theory, McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., New York, NY and London, 1953, ISBN 07-062150-0.
R A
[28] L. D. L ANDAU AND E. M. L IFSHITZ, The Classical Theory of Fields, fourth revised English ed., vol. 2 of Course of Theoretical Physics, Pergamon Press, Ltd., Oxford . . . , 1975, ISBN 0-08-025072-6.
FT
R A
FT
FUNDAMENTAL PROPERTIES OF THE ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELD
5.1 Charge, space, and time inversion symmetries

Let us investigate how the charge density , the current density j, and the elds E and B behave under charge conjugation, i.e., a change of sign of charge q ! q 0 D q, called C symmetry; under space inversion, i.e., a change of sign of the space coordinates x ! x0 D x, called parity transformation or P 59
R A
In this chapter we explore a number of fundamental properties of the electromagnetic elds and sources themselves, and of the physical observables constructed from them. Of particular interest are symmetries that have a striking predictive power and are therefore essential ingredients of physics. This includes both geometric symmetries (translation, rotation) and intrinsic symmetries (duality, reciprocity). Intimately related to symmetries are conserved quantities (constants of motion) of which our primary interest will be the electromagnetic energy, linear momentum, and angular momentum. These conserved quantities can carry information over large distances and are all more or less straightforwardly related to their counterparts in classical mechanics (indeed in all eld theories). But we will also consider other conserved quantities, where this relation is perhaps not so straightforward. To derive useful mathematical expressions for the physical observables that we want to study, we once again take the microscopic Maxwell-Lorentz equations (2.1) on page 20 as an axiomatic starting point.
FT
60 j
5 . F U N D A M E N T A L PROPERTIES OF THE ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELD
symmetry; and under time reversal , i.e., a change of sign of the time coordinate t ! t 0 D t, called T symmetry. Recalling that /q and jD vD dx dt (5.1b) (5.1a)
the transformation properties follow directly from the Maxwell equations (2.1) on page 20. Let us study them one by one. C SYMMETRY, CHARGE CONJUGATION q ! q 0 D !
0 0
q: (5.2a) (5.2b) (5.2c) (5.2d)
j!j D
0
r !r Dr @ @ @ ! 0 D @t @t @t implying that E0 .t; x/ D B .t; x/ D

0
E.t; x/ B.t; x/
FT
x: E.t; x/
(5.3a) (5.3b)
R A
!
0 0
which means that the Maxwell equations, and hence electrodynamics, is invariant under charge conjugation.
P SYMMETRY, SPACE INVERSION x ! x0 D D
(5.4a) (5.4b) (5.4c) (5.4d)
j!j D
0
r !r D
@ @ @ ! 0 D @t @t @t
implying that E0 .t; x/ E.t; x/ D

0
(5.5a) (5.5b)
B .t; x/ B.t; x/ D B.t; x/
Since, by assumption, t , and "0 are ordinary scalars and that, consequently, ="0 is an ordinary scalar, and that radius vector x is the prototype of an ordinary (polar) vector, we note that j and E are ordinary vectors, whereas B is a pseudovector (axial vector) as described in Subsection M.1.3.2 on page 210.
5.2. Conservation laws
j 61
T SYMMETRY, TIME REVERSAL t ! t 0 D !

0 0
t: (5.6a)
D j @ @t
0
j!j D @ @ ! 0 D @t @t implying that
(5.6b) (5.6c) (5.6d)
r !r Dr
E0 .t; x/ E. t; x/ D E.t; x/ B .t; x/ B. t; x/ D

0
(5.7a) (5.7b)
B.t; x/
The CPT theorem states that the combined CPT symmetry must hold for all physical phenomena. No violation of this law has been observed so far. However, in 1964 it was experimentally discovered that the combined CP symmetry is violated in certain meson decays.
5.2 Conservation laws
It is well established that an understanding of the development in time of a physical system is enhanced by nding the conserved quantities (constants of motion), of the system, i.e., those observables that do not change with time. In other words, the task is to nd the conservation laws for the physical system under study, which, according to Noethers theorem, is closely related to nding the symmetries of the system. Consider a certain physical property or substance, e.g. electric charge, that ows, in a time-dependent way, in 3D space. Let us denote the volume density of this substance by % and its ow velocity by v . Let us also introduce a closed volume V , xed in space enclosed by a perfectly permeable surface S with a O O innitesimally small directed area element d2x n D dxi dxj n, where dxi and dxj O are two coordinates that span the local tangent plane of the surface and n is a unit vector, orthogonal to the tangent plane and pointing outward. In the special case that the volume V is spherical, it is usually referred to as the control sphere. The property or substance ows into the volume V at the rate %v per unit area. This will increase the amount of substance in V . We also allow for a production
R A
FT
We see that E is even and that B is odd under time reversal. The Universe as a whole is asymmetric under time reversal. On quantum scales this is exhibited by the uncertainty principle and on classical scales by the arrow of time which is related to the increase of thermodynamic entropy in a closed system.
62 j
of the substance inside V represented by the source density s. Recalling that the O normal vector n points outward, the following balance equation must then hold: Z I Z d O d3x % D d2x n %v C d3x s (5.8) dt V S V
Total change within V Flow into V Production inside V
With the help of Gausss theorem, formula (F.122) on page 196, this equation can be rewritten Z @% d3x C r .%v / s D 0 (5.9) @t V
@% C r .%v / D s @t
FT
Since this must be true for an arbitrary volume V , we obtain the continuity equation (5.10)
R A
@% C r .%v C r @t a/ D s @ d D Cv r dt @t
which expresses, in differential form, the balance between the explicit temporal change of the density of the substance, the ow of it across the surface of a closed volume, and the production of the substance in the volume enclosed by the surface. If the source density vanishes, the equation describes the constancy of the amount of substance. In fact, since r .r a/ D 0 for any arbitrary, differentiable vector eld a, we can generalise equation (5.10) above to (5.11)
Furthermore, since the time derivative d=dt operating on a scalar, vector or tensor eld, dependent on t and x.t/, is (5.12)
according to the chain rule [cf. equation (1.36) on page 13], and since r .%v / D %r v C v r % (5.13)
we can rewrite the equation of continuity as d% C %r .v C r dt a/ D s (5.14)
where, again, a is an arbitrary, differentiable pseudovector eld with dimension m 2 s 1 , e.g., the moment of velocity with respect to x0 , i.e., .x x0 / v .
j 63
5.2.1 Conservation of charge

When the substance density % in equation (5.10) on the preceding page is the electric charge density , we exclude any charge-generating mechanisms (s D 0), and interpret v as the electric current density j, we obtain the continuity equation @ .t; x/ C r j.t; x/ D 0 @t (5.15)
which is our rst conservation law derived from the microscopic Maxwell equations (2.1) on page 20. This result is, of course, consistent with the fact that these axiomatic laws were formulated based on the assumption of the validity of the continuity equation (1.25) on page 10, which describes the fact that electric charge is conserved, i.e., indestructible.
5.2.2 Conservation of current
If we introduce the notation j c for the current associated with charge transport and j d for the displacement current @."0 E/=@t, equation (2.1d) on page 20 can be rewritten 1
0
B D jc C jd
which is a rather unusual way of writing the wave equation for the electric eld vector.
5.2.3 Conservation of energy
D
r .E D D B
0
The continuity equation (5.15) above contains the divergence of the rst-order vector quantity j. As one example of the divergence of a second order vector quantity, let us study the divergence of E B and use the Maxwell equations (2.1) on page 20 to nd the balance equation B/ D B .r E/ E .r B/ (5.18)
R A
@B @E "0 0 E 0E j @t @t @ "0 2 E ECc B B Cj E @t 2
Taking the time derivative of this, using the Maxwell equation (2.1b) on page 20 and formula (F.106) on page 195, we nd the following conservation law for the total current @j c @j d 1 C Cr 1 .r E/ D 0 (5.17) @t @t 0
FT
(5.16)
64 j
where formula (F.92) on page 194 was used. We now introduce the electromagnetic eld energy density (Jm ueld D "0 .E E C c 2 B B/ 2
2
) (5.19)
and the electromagnetic energy ux or the Poynting vector (W m SD 1

0
) (5.20)
B D "0 c 2 E
which, with the help of equation (3.21) on page 33 and formula (F.97) on page 194, can be expressed in terms of the vector potential A as SD 1
0
.r
A/ D
1
0
.r A/ E
E .r A/
(5.21)
and can be viewed as the electromagnetic energy current density. Then we can write the balance equation (5.18) on the preceding page as @ueld Cr S D @t j E (5.22)
i.e., as a continuity equation with a source term sD j ED E v
FT
(5.23)
R A
@umech Dj E @t @umech @ueld C Cr S D0 @t @t
From the denition of E, we conclude that E represents force per unit volume (N m 3 ) and that E v therefore represents work per unit volume or, in other words, power density (W m 3 ). It is known as the Lorentz power density and is equivalent to the time rate of change of the mechanical energy density (J m 3 ) of the current carrying particles (5.24)
Equation (5.22) above can therefore be written (5.25)
which is the energy density balance equation in differential form. R Expressing the Lorentz power, V 0 d3x 0 j E, as the time rate of change of the mechanical energy: Z dU mech D d3x 0 j E (5.26) dt V0 and introducing the electromagnetic eld energy U eld D U e C U m , where Z "0 Ue D d3x 0 E E (5.27) 2 V0
j 65
is the electric eld energy and Z 1 m d3x 0 B B U D 2 0 V0
(5.28)
is the magnetic eld energy, we can write the integral version of the balance equation (5.25) on the facing page as I dU mech dU eld O C C d2x 0 n0 S D 0 (5.29) 0 dt dt S This is the energy theorem in Maxwells theory, also known as Poyntings theorem. Allowing for an EMF and assuming that Ohms law
is a valid approximation, or, equivalently, that ED j EEMF
we obtain the relation Z Z j2 d3x 0 j E D d3x 0

V0 V0
Z
V0
d3x 0 j EEMF
Supplied electric power
This shows how the supplied power (left-hand side, LHS) is expelled in the form of a time rate change of electric and magnetic eld energy, radiated electromagnetic power, and Joule heat power, i.e., Ohmic losses in the system (right-hand side, RHS).
5.2.4 Conservation of linear momentum
The derivation of the energy conservation formula (5.22) on the preceding page introduced the Poynting (energy ux) vector S.t; x/. We now seek a balance equation involving the time derivative of S and nd, using the Maxwell equations (2.1) on page 20 repeatedly, that @S @E @B D "0 c 2 BCE @t @t @t (5.34) c2j B D "0 c 2 E .r E/ C c 2 B .r B/
R A
Field power Radiated power
which, when inserted into equation (5.29) above and use is made of equation (5.26) on the facing page, yields Z Z I dU eld j2 3 0 EMF 2 0 0 O D (5.33) dx j E C d3x 0 d x n SC 0 dt S 0 V 0 V
Joule heat
FT
(5.31) (5.32)
j D .E C EEMF /
(5.30)
66 j
A combination of formul (F.97), (F.89), and (F.93) on page 194, and formula (F.106) on page 195, allows us to write E .r E/ D r E E D D E ED 1 r .E E/ 2 E E (5.35)
1 r .EE/ C r .E E/ C .r E/E 2 1 r EE 1.E E/ C .r E/E 2
where f D @ ."0 E @t B/
"0 r
FT
h1 2
1 E E C c2B B
and similarly for B. Dividing out c 2 , using the Maxwell-Lorentz equations (2.1) on page 20 once more, and rearranging terms, we can therefore write equation (5.34) on the preceding page as h1 i 1 @S C "0 r 1 E E C c2B B EE C c 2 BB D 0 (5.36) fC 2 c @t 2
EE C c 2 BB
(5.37a) (5.37b) (5.37c)
D "0 .r E/E C c 2 .r B/B C j D ECj B
R A
gmech D %m v geld D "0 E BD S c2 or, alternatively, S D geld c 2
is the Lorentz force density (N m 3 ). According to classical mechanics, this force density equals the time rate change of the mechanical linear momentum density (5.38)
where %m is the (volumetric) mass density (kg m 3 ). In the same vein, we introduce the electromagnetic linear momentum density geld by making the identication (5.39)
(5.40)
Since the LHS is (energy density) (velocity) and the RHS is (mass density) (velocity) c 2 , we see that this relation forebodes the relativistic relation E D mc 2 , where E is energy and m is mass. We can now write the linear momentum density balance equation (5.34) on the previous page in differential form as @gmech @geld C Cr TD0 @t @t (5.41)
j 67
where
TD
"0 1 E E C c2B B 2
"0 EE C c 2 BB
(5.42)
is the linear momentum ux tensor (the negative of the Maxwell stress tensor), measured in Pa, i.e., N m 2 . T is the linear momentum current density of the electromagnetic eld. In tensor component form, it can be written Tij D ij ueld "0 Ei Ej 1
0
Bi Bj
(5.43)
where p
mech
Z D Z
V0
d3x 0 gmech d3x 0 geld D "0 Z d3x 0 E B
peld D or Z
R A
V0 V0
Force on the matter
d3x 0 f V0
d "0 dt
Field momentum
d3x 0 .E V0
I O B/ C d2x 0 n0 T D 0 S0
Linear momentum ow
D
V0
This is the linear momentum theorem in Maxwells theory which describes how the electromagnetic eld carries linear momentum. If we assume that we have a single localised charge q, i.e., that the charge density is given by equation (1.8) on page 5 where the sum is over one particle only, the evaluation of the rst integral shows that the force on this single charged particle is Z Z 3 0 FD dx f D d3x 0 . E C j B/ D q.E C v B/ (5.47)
V0
which is the Lorentz force; see also equation (1.46) on page 14. Note that equation (5.47) above follows directly from a conservation law, and hence is a consequence of a symmetry of the microscopic Maxwell equations (2.1) on page 20.
FT
(5.45a) (5.45b) (5.46)
and where the electromagnetic energy density ueld is dened in formula (5.19) on page 64. The component Tij is the linear momentum in the ith direction that passes a surface element in the j th direction per unit time, per unit area. Integration over the entire volume V 0 yields the conservation law for linear momentum I dpmech dpeld O C C d2x 0 n0 T D 0 (5.44) 0 dt dt S
68 j
5.2.5 Conservation of angular momentum

From classical mechanics we recall that for a body with mechanical linear momentum pmech , the mechanical moment of momentum, or mechanical angular momentum about a moment point x0 is J mech .x0 / D .x x0 / pmech . For a closed system of orbiting and spinning bodies, e.g., a planetary system consisting of rotating planets orbiting a central star, the angular momentum is a sum of two parts J mech D Lmech .x0 / C mech (5.48)
.x0 / D
dJ mech .x0 / dt
FT
gmech geld x0 / gmech D dx dt gmech @gmech D .x @t x0 / f x0 / geld D @ .E @t dx dt geld C .x x0 / B/
where Lmech is the mechanical spin angular momentum and mech the mechanical orbital angular momentum of the system, is conserved, As is well known from mechanics, to change J mech , one has to apply a mechanical torque (5.49)
Starting from the denition of the mechanical linear momentum density gmech , formula (5.38) on page 66, we dene the mechanical angular momentum density about a xed moment point x0 as hmech .x0 / D .x x0 / (5.50)
R A
held .x0 / D .x x0 /
Analogously, we dene the electromagnetic moment of momentum density or electromagnetic angular momentum density about a moment point x0 as (5.51)
where, according to equation (5.40) on page 66, geld D "0 E B. Now, if f is the Lorentz force density as dened in equation (5.37) on page 66, then @hmech .x0 / @ D .x @t @t C.x
(5.52)
x0 /
is the torque density. Furthermore, @held .x0 / @ D .x @t @t D "0 .x @geld @t
x0 /
(5.53)
j 69
By introducing the angular momentum ux tensor

K.x0 / D .x
x0 /
(5.54)
the differential form of the balance equation for angular momentum density can be written @hmech .x0 / @held .x0 / C C r K.x0 / D 0 (5.55) @t @t where K.x0 / represents the angular momentum current density of the electromagnetic eld around x0 . Integration over the entire volume V 0 yields the conservation law for angular momentum I dJ mech .x0 / dJ eld .x0 / O C C d2x 0 n0 K.x0 / D 0 (5.56) dt dt S0 where J mech .x0 / D J eld .x0 / D Z
V0
d3x 0 hmech .x0 /
Z d3x 0 held .x0 / D d3x 0 .x0 x0 / geld 0 0 V Z V D "0 d3x 0 .x0 x0 / .E B/

V0
Z V
0
d x .x x0 /
3 0
Torque on the matter
R A
0
or
Z d d3x 0 "0 .x0 x0 / fC dt V 0 I C

2 0 0
Field angular momentum
Angular momentum ow
O d x n K.x0 / D 0
D
J eld .x0 / D J eld .0/
This angular momentum theorem is the angular analogue of the linear momentum theorem, equation (5.46) on page 67, and it shows that the electromagnetic eld, like any physical eld, can carry angular momentum. Formula (5.57b) above can be written x0 peld (5.59)
From equation (5.58) we see that the intergral form of J eld .0/ becomes, if we use the formula (5.21) on page 64, and perform partial integration, Z Z eld 3 0 J .0/ D "0 d x x .r A/ E C "0 d3x 0 E .r A/ x 0 0 V V Z Z eld eld 3 0 D L .0/ C C "0 d x r .EA x/ C "0 d3x 0 .x A/.r E/
V0 V0
FT
(5.57a) (5.57b) .E B/ (5.58) (5.60)
70 j
where Leld .0/ D "0 Z

V0
d3x 0 x
.r A/ E
(5.61)
and, using formula (F.107) on page 195, Z eld D "0 d3x 0 E A

V0
(5.62)
Applying Gausss theorem, formula (F.122) on page 196, and using the Maxwell-Lorentz equation (2.1a) on page 20 we can write equation (5.60) on the previous page
FT
Z x/ C "0 d3x 0 .x A/
V0
J eld .0/ D Leld .0/ C eld I O C "0 d2x 0 n0 .EA

S0
(5.63)
D
E X A M P L E 5.1
R A
Examples of other conservation laws
If EA x E.A x/ falls off sufciently fast for large jxj, and if there is no net electric charge density in the source volume, the two integrals in the RHS vanish. In quantum mechanics the orbital angular momentum operator is i x r . Hence it is intriguing to interpret Leld as the electromagnetic orbital O O angular momentum. Likewise, since E A D ij k Ej Ak xi and i ij k xi is the quantal spin angular momentum operator, it is intriguing to interpret eld as electromagnetic spin angular momentum. For a single Fourier component, localised elds, D 0, and in the real-valued representation of formula (2.3) on page 21, we nd that Z "0 eld L .0/ D i d3x 0 Ei .x0 r /Ei (5.64a) 2! V 0 Z "0 eld D i d3x 0 .E E/ (5.64b) 2! V 0
The rst term is the extrinsic electromagnetic orbital angular momentum (OAM) around 0, and the second term is the intrinsic electromagnetic spin angular momentum (SAM) .
In addition to the conservation laws for energy, linear momentum and angular momentum, a large number of other electromagnetic conservation laws can be derived. For instance, in free space (vacuum) the following conservation law holds: @ @E @B E .r E/ C c 2 B .r B/ C r E C c2B D0 (5.65) @t @t @t
which can be easily shown by direct calculation based on the Maxwell-Lorentz equations. End of example 5.1
5.3. Electromagnetic duality
j 71
5.2.6 Electromagnetic virial theorem

If instead of vector multiplying the linear momenta gmech and geld by the radius vector relative to a x point x0 as we did in Subsection 5.2.5 on page 68, we instead scalar multiply, the following differential balance equation is obtained: @ .x x0 / gmech @ .x C @t x0 / geld Cr @t .x x0 / T D ueld (5.66) This is the electromagnetic virial theorem, analogous to the virial theorem of Clausius in mechanics. The quantity .x x0 / geld is the electromagnetic virial density. When integrated over space and time averaged, this theorem is a statement of the partitioning of energy in electrodynamics and nds use in, e.g., plasma physics.
5.3 Electromagnetic duality
We notice that Diracs symmetrised version of the Maxwell equations (1.50) on page 16 exhibit the following symmetry (recall that "0 0 D 1=c 2 ): E ! cB cB ! c
e m e
R A
E c
m e m
! !
cj ! j j !
m
cj
which is a particular case ( D =2) of the general duality transformation, also known as the Heaviside-Larmor-Rainich transformation (indicated by the Hodge star operator ?)
D
c ?B D
? e ? m ? e
E D E cos C cB sin Dc
e
E sin C cB cos cos C

e m
sin
m
sin C
cos
c j D cj cos C j sin
? m
j D
cj e sin C j m cos
which leaves the symmetrised Maxwell equations, and hence the physics they describe (often referred to as electromagnetodynamics), invariant. Since E and
FT
(5.67a) (5.67b) (5.67c) (5.67d) (5.67e) (5.67f) (5.68a) (5.68b) (5.68c) (5.68d) (5.68e) (5.68f)
72 j
E X A M P L E 5.2
Duality of the electromagnetodynamic equations
Show that the symmetric, electromagnetodynamic form of Maxwells equations (Diracs symmetrised Maxwell equations), equations (1.50) on page 16, are invariant under the duality transformation (5.68). Explicit application of the transformation yields r
? e
R
r
?
E D r .E cos C cB sin / D cos C c 0 m sin "0 ? e 1 1 m e D cos C sin D "0 c "0 @?B @ 1 ? EC D r .E cos C cB sin / C E sin C B cos @t @t c @B 1 @E m D cos C c 0 j e sin C sin 0 j cos @t c @t @B 1 @E m e sin C cos D 0 j cos C c 0 j sin c @t @t ? m e m D 0 . cj sin C j cos / D 0 j BDr . D
0 e 1 sin C E sin C B cos / D c c"0 c e sin C m cos D 0 ? m 0 m
FT
cos .
j e are true (polar) vectors, B a pseudovector (axial vector), e a (true) scalar, then m and , which behaves as a mixing angle in a two-dimensional charge space, must be pseudoscalars and j m a pseudovector. The invariance of Diracs symmetrised Maxwell equations under the similarity transformation means that the amount of magnetic monopole density m is irrelevant for the physics as long as the ratio m = e D tan is kept constant. So whether we assume that the particles are only electrically charged or have also a magnetic charge with a given, xed ratio between the two types of charges is a matter of convention, as long as we assume that this fraction is the same for all particles. Such particles are referred to as dyons. By varying the mixing angle we can change the fraction of magnetic monopoles at will without changing the laws of electrodynamics. For D 0 we recover the usual Maxwell electrodynamics as we know it.
(5.69)
A
?
(5.70)
(5.71)
1 @?E Dr c 2 @t 1 D c
1 1 @ .E cos C cB sin / E sin C B cos / c c 2 @t 1 @B 1 @E m cos C 0 j e cos C 2 cos 0 j sin C c @t c @t (5.72) 1 @E 1 @B cos sin 2 c @t c @t 1 m j sin C j e cos D 0 ?j e D 0 c QED End of example 5.2
j 73
Diracs symmetrised Maxwell equations for a xed mixing angle Show that for a xed mixing angle such that
m m
E X A M P L E 5.3
Dc
e e
tan
(5.73a) (5.73b)
j D cj tan the symmetrised Maxwell equations reduce to the usual Maxwell equations.
Explicit application of the xed mixing angle conditions on the duality transformation (5.68) on page 71 yields
? e
? m
1 1 e ? e j D j e cos C j e tan sin D .j e cos2 C j e sin2 / D j cos cos ? m j D cj e sin C cj e tan cos D cj e sin C cj e sin D 0
Hence, a xed mixing angle, or, equivalently, a xed ratio between the electric and magnetic charges or currents, hides the magnetic monopole inuence ( m and j m ) on the dynamic equations. We notice that the inverse of the transformation given by equation (5.68) on page 71 yields E D ?E cos This means that r EDr
?
c ?B sin
A
B sin
e
E cos
cr
Furthermore, from the expressions for the transformed charges and currents above, we nd that r and
? ? e
ED
R
"0 D
e 1 cos "0 0 ? m
D
r
?
BD
D0
so that
r ED
e 1 cos cos "0
0D
"0
and so on for the other equations.
FT
(5.74b) (5.74c) (5.74d) (5.75) (5.76) (5.77) (5.78) (5.79) QED End of example 5.3
1 cos C c e tan sin c 1 1 e D . e cos2 C e sin2 / D cos cos D c e sin C c e tan cos D c e sin C c e sin D 0 D
e
cos C
1 c
sin D
(5.74a)
74 j
E X A M P L E 5.4
Duality expressed in Majorana representation Expressed in the Riemann-Silberstein complex eld vector, introduced in equation (2.6) on page 22, the duality transformation equations (5.68) on page 71 become
?
G D ?E C ic ?B D E cos C cB sin D E.cos i sin / C icB.cos
iE sin C icB cos i sin / D .E C icB/e

i
D Ge
(5.80)
from which it is easy to see that 2 ? G ?G D ?G D Ge i G e i D jGj2 while

?
(5.81)
G D G Ge
2i
(5.82)
Furthermore, assuming that D .t; x/, we see that the spatial and temporal differentiation of ?G leads to @?G D i.@ t /e i G C e i @ t G @t @ ?G r ?G D ie i r G C e i r G @ t ?G @
?
FT
i
(5.83a) (5.83b) (5.83c)
Gr
GD
ie
GCe
which means that @ t ?G transforms as ?G itself only if is time-independent, and that r ?G and r ?G transform as ?G itself only if is space-independent.
E X A M P L E 5.5
Faradays law derived from the conservation of magnetic charge P O S T U L A T E 5.1 (I NDESTRUCTIBILITY OF MAGNETIC CHARGE ) Magnetic charge exists and is indestructible in the same way that electric charge exists and is indestructible. In other words we postulate that there exists an equation of continuity for magnetic charges: @
m .t; x/
R
@t
Use this postulate and Diracs symmetrised form of Maxwells equations to derive Faradays law.
The assumption of the existence of magnetic charges suggests a Coulomb-like law for magnetic elds: Z Z x x0 1 0 0 Bstat .x/ D d3x 0 m .x0 / D d3x 0 m .x0 /r 4 4 jx x0 j jx x0 j3 V0 V0 (5.84) Z m .x0 / 0 D r d3x 0 4 jx x0 j V0 [cf. equation (1.7) on page 4 for Estat ] and, if magnetic currents exist, a Biot-Savart-like law
A
C r j m .t; x/ D 0
End of example 5.4
j 75
for electric elds [cf. equation (1.17) on page 8 for Bstat ]: Estat .x/ D D
0
Z
V0
4
0
d3x 0 j m .x0 / Z
x0
jx x0 j3 j m .x0 / d3x 0 jx x0 j V0
Z
V0
d3x 0 j m .x0 /
r jx
1 x0 j
(5.85) Taking the curl of the latter and using the operator bac-cab rule, formula (F.95) on page 194, we nd that Z m 0 0 stat 3 0 j .x / r E .x/ D r r dx D 4 jx x0 j V0 Z Z 1 1 0 0 D d3x 0 j m .x0 /r 2 d3x 0 j m .x0 / r 0 r 0 4 4 jx x0 j jx x0 j V0 V0 (5.86)
Comparing with equation (1.20) on page 8 for Estat and the evaluation of the integrals there, we obtain Z m r Estat .x/ D d3x 0 j m .x0 / .x x0 / D (5.87) 0 0 j .x/
V0
[cf. equation (1.26) on page 10] which we recognise as equation (1.50b) on page 16. A transformation of this electromagnetodynamic result by rotating into the electric realm of charge space, thereby letting j m tend to zero, yields the electrodynamic equation (1.50b) on page 16, i.e., the Faraday law in the ordinary Maxwell equations. This process would also provide an alternative interpretation of the term @B=@t as a magnetic displacement current, dual to the electric displacement current [cf. equation (1.28) on page 11].
By postulating the indestructibility of a hypothetical magnetic charge, and assuming a direct extension of results from statics to dynamics, we have been able to replace Faradays experimental results on electromotive forces and induction in loops as a foundation for the Maxwell equations by a more fundamental one. At rst sight, this result seems to be in conict with the concept of retardation. Therefore a more detailed analysis of it is required. This analysis is left to the reader. End of example 5.5
It is intriguing to note that if we assume that formula (5.85) is valid also for time-varying magnetic currents, then, with the use of the representation of the Dirac delta function, equation (F.117) on page 195, the equation of continuity for magnetic charge, equation (1.52) on page 16, and the assumption of the generalisation of equation (5.84) on the preceding page to time-dependent magnetic charge distributions, we obtain, at least formally, Z r E.t; x/ D d3x 0 j m .t; x0 /.x x0 / 0 V0 Z 1 0 @ (5.88) d3x 0 m .t; x0 /r 0 4 @t V 0 jx x0 j @ m D B.t; x/ 0 j .t; x/ @t
FT
76 j
5.4 Bibliography
[31] J. D. JACKSON, Classical Electrodynamics, third ed., John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, NY . . . , 1999, ISBN 0-471-30932-X. [32] F. M ELIA, Electrodynamics, Chicago Lectures in Physics. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge and London, 1991, ISBN 0-226-51957-0. [33] W. K. H. PANOFSKY AND M. P HILLIPS, Classical Electricity and Magnetism, second ed., Addison-Wesley Publishing Company, Inc., Reading, MA . . . , 1962, ISBN 0201-05702-6. [34] F. ROHRLICH, Classical Charged Particles, third ed., World Scientic Publishing Co. Pte. Ltd., New Jersey, London, Singapore, . . . , 2007, ISBN 0-201-48300-9.
[36] J. A. S TRATTON, Electromagnetic Theory, McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., New York, NY and London, 1953, ISBN 07-062150-0.
R A
FT
[35] J. S CHWINGER , L. L. D E R AAD , J R ., K. A. M ILTON , AND W. T SAI, Classical Electrodynamics, Perseus Books, Reading, MA, 1998, ISBN 0-7382-0056-5.
RADIATION AND RADIATING SYSTEMS
In Chapter 3 we were able to derive general expressions for the scalar and vector potentials from which we later (in Chapter 4) derived exact analytic expressions for the total electric and magnetic elds generated by completely arbitrary distributions of charge and current sources at that are located in regions which are not moving. The only limitation in the calculation of the elds was that the advanced potentials were discarded onadmittedly weakphysical grounds. In Chapter 5 we showed that the electromagnetic energy, linear momentum, and angular momentum are all conserved quantities and in this chapter we will show that these quantities can be radiated all the way to innity and therefore be used for wireless communications over long distances and for observing very remote objects in Nature, including electromagnetic radiation sources in the Universe. Radiation processes are irreversible in that the radiation does not return to the radiator but is detached from it forever. However, the radiation can, of course, be sensed by other charges and currents that are located in free space, possibly very far away from the sources. This is precisely what makes it possible for our eyes to observe light from extremely distant stars and galaxies. This consequence of Maxwells equations, with the displacement current included, was veried experimentally by H E I N R I C H R U D O L F H E R T Z about twenty years after Maxwell had made his theoretical predictions. Hertzs experimental and theoretical studies paved the way for radio and TV broadcasting, radar, wireless communications, radio astronomy and a host of other applications in modern society. Thus, one can, at least in principle, calculate the radiated elds, ux of energy, linear momentum and angular momentum, as well as other electromagnetic
R A
77
FT
78 j
6 . RA DIATION AND RADIATING SYSTEMS
quantities for an arbitrary charge and current density Fourier component of the source and then add these Fourier components together to construct the complete electromagnetic eld at any time at any point in space. However, in practice, it is often difcult to evaluate the source integrals unless the current has a simple distribution in space. In the general case, one has to resort to approximations. We shall consider both these situations.
6.1 Radiation of linear momentum and energy

We saw in Chapter 4 that at large distances r from the source, the leading order contributions to the E and B elds are purely transverse and fall off as 1=r. Hence, at large distances r, the dominating component of the Poynting vector, Sfar , falls off as 1=r 2 and is purely radial there. Consequently, when Sfar is integrated over a large spherical shell (centred on the source) for which the directed area element O O is d2x n D r 2 d r [cf. formula (F.51) on page 192], the total integrated power, as given by the surface integral in equation (5.29) on page 65, tends to a constant at innity, showing that energy U eld and electromagnetic linear momentum peld is carried all the way to innity and is irreversibly lost there. This means that the peld and U eld can be transmitted over extremely long distances. The force action (time rate of change of peld ) on charges in one region in space can therefore cause a force action on charges in a another region in space. Todays wireless communication technology, be it classical or quantal, is based almost exclusively on the utilisation of this translational degree of freedom of the charges (currents) and the elds. Let us consider the linear momentum and energy that is carried in the far elds Bfar , equation (4.45), and Efar , equation (4.46) on page 56. Signals with limited lifetime and hence nite frequency bandwidth have to be analysed differently from monochromatic signals.
R A
hSi D D 1
0
6.1.1 Monochromatic signals

If the source is strictly monochromatic, we can obtain the temporal average of the radiated power P directly, simply by averaging over one period so that hE Bi D 1 2
0
FT
Re fE
i!t
B gD D 1 2
1 2
0 0
Re E! e
i!t
.B! e
i!t
1 2
0
Re E!
B! e
i!t
Re fE!
B! g (6.1)
6.1. Radiation of linear momentum and energy
j 79
From formula (F.50) on page 192 and formula (F.51) on page 192 we see that d2x D jx x0 j2 d D jx x0 j2 sin d d'
O O We also note from Figure 4.1 on page 55 that k and n are nearly parallel. Hence, we can approximate O O k d2x n jx x0 j
2
d2x jx x0 j2
O O O O k nd k n
(6.2)
for the vacuum resistance R0 , we obtain Z far 1 1 d3x 0 .j! S D R 2 2 0 32 jx x0 j V0
Consequently, the amount of power per unit solid angle d that ows across an innitesimal surface element r 2 d D jx x0 j2 d of a large spherical shell with its origin at x0 and enclosing all sources, is Z 2 dP 1 d3x 0 .j! k/e ik .x0 x0 / D R (6.5) 2 0 d 32 V0
This formula is valid far away from the sources and shows that the radiated power is given by an expression wich is resistance (R0 ) times the square of the supplied current (the integrated current density j! ), as expected. We note that the emitted power is independent of distance and is therefore carried all the way to innity. The possibility to transmit electromagnetic power over large distances, even in vacuum, is the physical foundation for the extermely important wireless communications technology. Besides determining the strength of the radiated power, the integral in formula (6.5) also determines the angular distribution.
D
0
6.1.2 Finite bandwidth signals
A signal with nite pulse width in time (t ) domain has a certain spread in frequency (!) domain. To calculate the total radiated energy we need to integrate over the whole bandwidth. The total energy transmitted through a unit area is the time integral of the Poynting vector: Z 1 Z 1 1 dt S.t / D dt .E B/ 0 1 1 (6.6) Z 1 Z 1 Z 1 1 0 i.!C! 0 /t D d! d! dt .E! B! 0 / e
1 1 1
R A
FT
k/e
ik .x0 x0 /
Using the far-eld approximations (4.47a) and (4.47b) for the elds and the p fact that 1=c D "0 0 , and also introducing the characteristic impedance of vacuum r def 0 376:7 (6.3) R0 "0 2 x jx x0 (6.4) x0 j
80 j
If we carry out the temporal integration rst and use the fact that Z
1
dt e
1
i.!C! 0 /t
D 2 .! C ! 0 /
(6.7)
equation (6.6) on the previous page can be written [cf. Parsevals identity] Z
1
dt S.t / D
1
2
0
d! .E!
1 Z 1
!/
D D D D D
2
0
Z d! .E! B B B
!/
d! .E! B B
!/
C Z
2
0
Z0 1 d! .E! Z0 1 Z
0 1 !/
1 1
d! .E!
!/
2
0
2
0
2
0
Z0 1
0
R A
1 U D 4 r
0
where the last step follows from physical requirement of real-valuedness of E! and B! . We insert the Fourier transforms of the eld components which dominate at large distances, i.e., the far elds (4.45) and (4.46). The result, after integration over the area S of a large sphere which encloses the source volume V 0 , is I O d xn
2
FT
Z d! .E!
!/
(6.8)
d! .E
B! /
d! .E! d! .E!
CE
B! /
B! C E!
B! /
"0
Z j! k ikjx e d! d3x 0 0 jx x0 j V
x0 j
2 O k
(6.9)
Inserting the approximations (4.33) and (6.2) into equation (6.9), introducing the spectral energy density U! via the denition U
def
d!U!
(6.10)
and recalling the denition (6.3) on the previous page, we obtain dU! d! d Z 1 R0 d3x 0 .j! 0 4 V k/e
ik .x0 x0 /
2 d!
(6.11)
which, at large distances, is a good approximation to the energy that is radiated per unit solid angle d in a frequency band d!. It is important to notice that Formula (6.11) includes only source coordinates. This means that the amount of energy that is being radiated is independent on the distance to the source (as long as it is large).
6.2. Radiation of angular momentum
j 81
6.2 Radiation of angular momentum

Not only electromagnetic linear momentum (Poynting vector) can be radiated from a source and transmitted over very long distances, but the same is also true for electromagnetic angular momentum J eld . Then torque action (the time rate of change of J eld ) in one region causes torque action on charges. The use of this rotational degree of freedom of the elds has only recently been put to practical use even if it has been known for more than a century.
6.3 Radiation from a localised source volume at rest

In the general case, and when we are interested in evaluating the radiation far from a source at rest and which is localised in a small volume, we can introduce an approximation which leads to a multipole expansion where individual terms can be evaluated analytically. Here we use Hertzs method , which focuses on the physics rather than the mathematics, to obtain this expansion.
6.3.1 Electric multipole moments
Let us assume that the charge distribution determining the potential in equation (3.49a) on page 39 has such a small extent that all the source points x0 can be assumed to be located very near a point x0 . At a large distance jx x0 j, one can then, to a good approximation, approximate the potential by the Taylor expansion [cf. Example 3.1 on page 31] " 1 1 .x x0 /i q.t / .t; x/ D C d .t; x0 / 2 i 4 "0 jx x0 j jx x0 j jx x0 j # 1 3 .x x0 /i .x x0 /j 1 C Qij .t; x0 / ij C : : : 2 jx x0 j jx x0 j 2 jx x0 j3
D
where Z q.t/ D
V0
R A
0 d3x 0 .tret ; x0 /
is the total charge or electric monopole moment, Z d.t; x0 / D

V0
d3x 0 .x0
0 x0 / .tret ; x0 /
FT
(6.12) (6.13a) (6.13b)
82 j
with components di , i D 1; 2; 3 is the electric dipole moment vector, and Z 0 Q.t; x0 / D d3x 0 .x0 x0 /.x0 x0 / .tret ; x0 / (6.13c)
V0
with components Qij ; i; j D 1; 2; 3 (Einsteins summation convention over i and j is implied), is the electric quadrupole moment tensor. The source volume is so small that internal retardation effects can be neglected, 0 i.e., that we can set tret t jx x0 j =c. Then
0 t D t .tret / 0 tret C Const
(6.14)
where Const D
FT
jx c
x0 j
(6.15)
R A
0 Hence the transformation between t and tret is a trivial. In the subsequent analysis 0 in this Subsection we shall use t 0 to denote this approximate tret . For a normal medium, the major contributions to the electrostatic interactions come from the net charge and the lowest order electric multipole moments induced by the polarisation due to an applied electric eld. Particularly important is the dipole moment. Let P denote the electric dipole moment density (electric dipole moment per unit volume; unit: C m 2 ), also known as the electric polarisation, in some medium. In analogy with the second term in the expansion equation (6.12) on the preceding page, the electric potential from this volume distribution P .t; x0 / of electric dipole moments d at the source point x0 can be written Z 1 x x0 .t; x/ D d3x 0 P .t 0 ; x0 / d 4 "0 V 0 jx x0 j3 Z 1 1 d3x 0 P .t 0 ; x0 / r D (6.16) 4 "0 V 0 jx x0 j Z 1 1 3 0 0 0 0 D d x P .t ; x / r 4 "0 V 0 jx x0 j
Using expression (M.101) on page 216 and applying the divergence theorem, we can rewrite this expression for the potential as follows: Z Z 1 P .t 0 ; x0 / r 0 P .t 0 ; x0 / d3x 0 r 0 d3x 0 .t; x/ D d 0j 4 "0 V 0 jx x jx x0 j V0 I Z 1 P .t 0 ; x0 / r 0 P .t 0 ; x0 / O D d2x 0 n0 d3x 0 4 "0 S 0 jx x0 j jx x0 j V0 (6.17)
where the rst term, which describes the effects of the induced, non-cancelling dipole moment on the surface of the volume, can be neglected, unless there is a
6.3. Radiation from a localised source volume at rest
j 83
O discontinuity in n P at the surface. Doing so, we nd that the contribution from the electric dipole moments to the potential is given by Z 1 r 0 P .t 0 ; x0 / d3x 0 (6.18) d .t; x/ D 4 "0 V 0 jx x0 j Comparing this expression with expression equation (3.49a) on page 39for the potential from a charge distribution .t; x/, we see that r P .t; x/ has the characteristics of a charge density and that, to the lowest order, the effective charge density becomes .t; x/ r P .t; x/, in which the second term is a polarisation term that we call pol .t; x/.
In Section 6.3.1 we introduced the electric polarisation P .t; x/ such that the polarisation charge density
pol
r P
If we adopt the same idea for the true charge density due to free charges and introduce a vector eld .t; x/, analogous to P .t; x/, but such that
true
R A
r @ r @t Cr
true
which means that the associated polarisation current now is the true current: @ D j true @t (6.20b)
As a consequence, the equation of continuity for true charges and currents [cf. expression (1.25) on page 10] is satised: @
true
D
r ED "0 D
.t; x/ C r j true .t; x/ D @t
The vector is called the polarisation vector because, formally, it treats also the true (free) charges as polarisation charges. Since in the microscopic MaxwellLorentz equation (2.1a) on page 20, the charge density must include all charges, we can write this equation C "0
pol
r "0
r P
i.e., in a form where all the charges are considered to be polarisation charges.
FT
(6.19) (6.20a) @ D0 @t (6.21) (6.22)
6.3.2 The Hertz potential
84 j
Figure 6.1: Geometry of a typical multipole radiation problem where the eld point x is located some distance away from the nite source volume V 0 centred around x0 . If k jx0 x0 j 1 k jx x0 j, then the radiation at x is well approximated by a few terms in the multipole expansion.
x x x
x0 x0 x0 x0 V0 x0 x0
r e D 1 @ DA c 2 @t
e
FT
r 2 e D "0
0
We now introduce a further potential e with the following property
(6.23a) (6.23b)
R A
2
where and A are the electromagnetic scalar and vector potentials, respectively. As we see, e acts as a super-potential in the sense that it is a potential from which we can obtain other potentials. It is called the Hertz vector or polarisation potential . Requiring that the scalar and vector potentials and A, respectively, satisfy their inhomogeneous wave equations, equations (3.29) on page 35, one nds, using (6.20) and (6.23), that the Hertz vector must satisfy the inhomogeneous wave equation e D 1 @2 e c 2 @t 2
(6.24)
Assume that the source region is a limited volume around some central point x0 far away from the eld (observation) point x illustrated in Figure 6.1. Under these assumptions, we can expand the Hertz vector, expression (6.29) on the 0 facing page, due to the presence of non-vanishing .tret ; x0 / in the vicinity of x0 , in a formal series. For this purpose we recall from potential theory that e ikjx x j e ikj.x x0 / .x x0 /j jx x0 j j.x x0 / .x0 x0 /j 1 X D ik .2n C 1/Pn .cos /jn .k x0
nD0
0
x0 /h.1/ .k jx n
x0 j/ (6.25)
j 85
where (see Figure 6.1 on the preceding page) e ikjx x j is a Green function or propagator jx x0 j is the angle between x0 x0 and x x0 Pn .cos / is the Legendre polynomial of order n jn .k x0 x0 / is the spherical Bessel function of the rst kind of order n h.1/ .k jx n x0 j/ is the spherical Hankel function of the rst kind of order n
0
According to the addition theorem for Legendre polynomials Pn .cos / D

n X m . 1/m Pn .cos /Pn m .cos 0 /e im.' '0/
(6.26)
mD n
m where Pn is an associated Legendre polynomial of the rst kind , related to the m spherical harmonic Yn as s 2n C 1 .n m/ m m Yn .; '/ D P .cos / e im' 4 .n C m/ n
and, in spherical polar coordinates, x0 x0 D .x0 x0 ; 0 ; ' 0 / x x0 D .jx x0 j ; ; '/
R A
! .x
This equation is of the same type as equation (3.32) on page 36, and has therefore the retarded solution Z 0 1 .tret ; x0 / e .t; x/ D (6.28) d3x 0 4 "0 V 0 jx x0 j with Fourier components Z 1 e .x/ D d3x 0 ! 4 "0 V 0
/e ikjx jx x0 j
x0 j
D
CDr e BD 1 @C c 2 @t C EDr
If we introduce the help vector C such that (6.30)
we see that we can calculate the magnetic and electric elds, respectively, as follows (6.31a) (6.31b)
FT
(6.27a) (6.27b) (6.29)
86 j
Clearly, the last equation is valid only if r E D 0 i.e., if we are outside the source volume. Since we are mainly interested in the elds in the so called far zone, a long distance from the source region, this is no essential limitation. Inserting equation (6.25) on page 84, together with formula (6.26) on the preceding page, into equation (6.29) on the previous page, we can in a formally exact way expand the Fourier component of the Hertz vector as e D !
1 n ik X X m .2n C 1/. 1/m h.1/ .k jx x0 j/ Pn .cos / e im' n 4 "0 nD0 mD n Z 0 d3x 0 ! .x0 / jn .k x0 x0 / Pn m .cos 0 / e im' V0
(6.32) We notice that there is no dependence on x x0 inside the integral; the integrand is only dependent on the relative source vector x0 x0 . We are interested in the case where the eld point is many wavelengths away from the well-localised sources, i.e., when the following inequalities k x0 x0 1 k jx x0 j (6.33) hold. Then we may to a good approximation replace h.1/ with the rst term in its n asymptotic expansion:
R A
h.1/ .k jx n x0 j/ . i/nC1 jn .k x0 x0 / 2n n k x0 .2n C 1/
FT
e ikjx x0 j k jx x0 j x0
n V0
(6.34)
and replace jn with the rst term in its power series expansion: (6.35)
Inserting these expansions into equation (6.32), we obtain the multipole expansion of the Fourier component of the Hertz vector e !
1 X
e .n/ !
(6.36a)
nD0
where e .n/ D . i/n ! 1 e ikjx x0 j 2n n 4 "0 jx x0 j .2n/ Z d3x 0 ! .x0 / .k x0
x0 /n Pn .cos / (6.36b)
This expression is approximately correct only if certain care is exercised; if many e .n/ terms are needed for an accurate result, the expansions of the spherical !
j 87
O k x3 x Efar Bfar
Figure 6.2: If a spherical polar coordinate system .r; ; ') is chosen such that the electric dipole moment d (and thus its Fourier transform d! ) is located at the origin and directed along the polar axis, the calculations are simplied.
d O r x2
' x1
6.3.3 Electric dipole radiation
D
V0
Choosing n D 0 in expression (6.36b) on the preceding page, we obtain Z e ikjx x0 j 1 e ikjx x0 j e .0/ d3x 0 ! .x0 / D ! D d! (6.37) 4 "0 jx x0 j V 0 4 "0 jx x0 j
Since represents a dipole moment density for the true charges (in the same R vein as P does so for the polarised charges), d! D V 0 d3x 0 ! .x0 / is, by denition, the Fourier component of the electric dipole moment Z Z d.t; x0 / D d3x 0 .t 0 ; x0 / D d3x 0 .x0 x0 / .t 0 ; x0 / (6.38)
V0
R A
Hankel and Bessel functions used above may not be consistent and must be replaced by more accurate expressions. Furthermore, asymptotic expansions as the one used in equation (6.34) on page 86 are not unique. Taking the inverse Fourier transform of e will yield the Hertz vector in ! time domain, which inserted into equation (6.30) on page 85 will yield C. The resulting expression can then in turn be inserted into equations (6.31) on page 85 in order to obtain the radiation elds. For a linear source distribution along the polar axis, D in expression (6.36b) on the preceding page, and Pn .cos / gives the angular distribution of the radiation. In the general case, however, the angular distribution must be computed with the help of formula (6.26) on page 85. Let us now study the lowest order contributions to the expansion of the Hertz vector.
FT
88 j
[cf. equation (6.13b) on page 81]. If a spherical coordinate system is chosen with its polar axis along d! as in Figure 6.2 on the previous page, the components of e .0/ are ! O e e .0/ r D r !
def O e e .0/ D ! def
1 e ikjx x0 j d! cos 4 "0 jx x0 j 1 e ikjx x0 j d! sin 4 "0 jx x0 j
(6.39a) (6.39b) (6.39c)
O e e .0/ D 0 ' !
def
C! D
.0/ C!;'
1 O D 4 "0
FT
1 jx x0 j ik e ikjx x0 j O d! sin jx x0 j ik ! 4
0
Evaluating formula (6.30) on page 85 for the help vector C, with the spherically polar components (6.39) of e .0/ inserted, we obtain ! (6.40)
Applying this to equations (6.31) on page 85, we obtain directly the Fourier components of the elds ! i 4
0
R D
far B! D
jx x0 j " 1 1 E! D 2 4 "0 jx x0 j2 1 C jx x0 j2
B! D
e ikjx x0 j O d! sin (6.41a) jx x0 j ik x x0 cos x0 j jx jx x0 j # ikjx x0 j ik 2 O e k sin d! jx x0 j jx x0 j (6.41b)
Keeping only those parts of the elds which dominate at large distances (the radiation elds) and recalling that the wave vector k D k.x x0 /= jx x0 j where k D !=c, we can now write down the Fourier components of the radiation parts of the magnetic and electric elds from the dipole: ! 4
0
e ikjx x0 j O d! k sin D jx x0 j
e ikjx x0 j .d! jx x0 j
k/ k/
(6.42a) k (6.42b)
Efar D !
1 e ikjx x0 j O d! k 2 sin D 4 "0 jx x0 j
1 e ikjx x0 j .d! 4 "0 jx x0 j
These elds constitute the electric dipole radiation, also known as E1 radiation.
j 89
Linear and angular momenta radiated from an electric dipole in vacuum The Fourier amplitudes of the elds generated by an electric dipole, d! , oscillating at the angular frequency !, are given by formul (6.41) on the facing page. Inverse Fourier transforming to the time domain, and using a spherical coordinate system .r; ; '/, the physically observable elds are found to be 1 ! 0 k 0 0 O d! sin cos.kr !t / B.t; x/ D sin.kr !t / (6.43a) 4 r r2 ! 1 k k2 1 0 0 0 O dw sin cos.kr !t / C 2 sin.kr !t / cos.kr !t / E.t; x/ D 4 "0 r r3 r 1 1 k O C dw cos cos.kr !t 0 / C 2 sin.kr !t 0 / r (6.43b) 2 "0 r3 r
E X A M P L E 6.1
Applying formula (5.39) on page 66 for the electromagnetic linear momentum density to the elds from a pure electric dipole, equations (6.43), one obtains geld D "0 E C C BD ! 8
0 2 d 2 !
sin cos cos2 .kr
1 sin.kr r5 !t 0 /
k sin2 .kr r4
0 2 d 2 !
!t 0 /
! 16 C
sin2
1 sin.kr r5 !t 0 /
!t 0 / cos.kr !t 0 /
O !t 0 / r
A
2 !t 0 / 2 k cos2.kr r4 k3 1 C cos2.kr r2
k sin2 .kr r4 k3 C 2 cos2 .kr r
cos2 .kr
R
k2 sin2.kr r3
0 2 d 2 ! 2
Using well-known trigonometric relations, this can be put in the form ! 0 2 k 1 eld g D d sin cos 5 sin2.kr !t 0 / 2 4 cos2.kr 16 2 ! r r O !t 0 /
! C 32
sin
1 sin2.kr r5 !t 0 / C
D
2 held D x geld
k2 sin2.kr r3
which shows that the linear momentum density, and hence the Poynting vector, is strictly radial only at innity. Applying formula (5.51) on page 68 for the electromagnetic angular momentum density with the momentum point chosen as x0 D 0, i.e., (6.46)
and using equation (6.45), we nd that for a pure electric dipole
FT
!t 0 / cos.kr !t 0 / k2 sin.kr r3 !t 0 / !t 0 / cos.kr O !t 0 / k2 sin.kr r3 !t 0 / cos.kr !t 0 / (6.44) !t 0 / !t 0 / (6.45) O !t 0 / r
where t 0 D t
r=c is the retarded time.
90 j
eld
! 8 C
0 2 d 2 !
sin cos
1 sin.kr r4 cos2 .kr
!t 0 / cos.kr !t 0 /
!t 0 / !t 0 / cos.kr O !t 0 / (6.47)
k sin2 .kr r3
!t 0 /
k2 sin.kr r2
or h
eld
! 16 2
0 2 d 2 !
sin cos
1 sin2.kr r4
!t 0 / O !t 0 / (6.48)
k cos2.kr r3
!t 0 /
k2 sin2.kr r2
The total electromagnetic linear momentum is (cf. formula (5.45b) on page 67) peld D Z
V0
d3x 0 geld .t 0 ; x0 /
FT
sin2 cos2 .kr !t 0 /O r O !t 0 / r sin2 1 C cos2.kr O !t 0 /
(6.49)
and the total electromagnetic angular momentum is (cf. formula (5.57b) on page 69) J eld D Z
V0
d3x 0 held .t 0 ; x0 /
(6.50)
R A
geld,far .t; x/ ! 16 ! D 32
3 0 2k d 2 ! r2 3 0 2k d 2 ! r2
In order to get a total net J eld , it is convenient to superimpose several individual dipoles of (possibly) different strengths and relative phases. Perhaps the most common conguration yielding a total net J eld is two orthogonal co-located dipoles with =2 phase shift between them.
We note that in the far zone the linear and angular momentum densities tend to
(6.51)
and
held,far .t; x/
! 0 2 k2 d sin cos sin.kr !t 0 / cos.kr 8 2 ! r2 ! 0 2 k2 O D d sin cos sin2.kr !t 0 / 16 2 ! r 2
(6.52)
respectively. I.e., to leading order, both the linear momentum density geld and the angular momentum density held fall off as 1=r 2 far away from the source region. This means that when they are integrated over a spherical surface / r 2 located at a large distance from the source [cf. the last term in the LHS of formula (5.29) on page 65], there is a net ux so that the integrated momenta do not fall off with distance and can therefore be transported all the way to innity. End of example 6.1
j 91
6.3.4 Magnetic dipole radiation

The next term in the expression (6.36b) on page 86 for the expansion of the Fourier transform of the Hertz vector is for n D 1: Z e ikjx x0 j e .1/ D i d3x 0 k x0 x0 ! .x0 / cos ! 4 "0 jx x0 j V 0 (6.53) Z 1 e ikjx x0 j 3 0 0 0 D ik d x .x x0 / .x x0 / ! .x / 4 "0 jx x0 j2 V 0 Here, the term .x .x x0 / .x0 x0 / .x0 x0 /
! .x 0
x0 / / D .xi
! .x
/ can be rewritten x0;i /

! .x 0
x0;i /.xi0
(6.54)
and introducing i D xi 0 D xi0 i x0;i x0;i
the j th component of the integrand in e .1/ can be broken up into ! f.x x0 / .x0 x0 /
0 ! .x /gj
i.e., as the sum of two parts, the rst being symmetric and the second antisymmetric in the indices i; j . We note that the antisymmetric part can be written as 1 i 2
0 !;j i 0 !;i j
R A
0 !;j i
1 i 2 1 C i 2
0 !;j i
D
.t; x/ D
!e i!t
1 0 !;j .i 0 / j .i !;i / i 2 1 D ! . 0 / 0 . ! /j 2 1 .x x0 / ! .x0 x0 / j D 2
The utilisation of equations (6.20) on page 83, and the fact that we are considering a single Fourier component, (6.58)
allow us to express
!
in j! as (6.59)
Di
j! !
FT
(6.55a) (6.55b) C
0 !;i j
(6.56)
0 !;i j
(6.57)
92 j
Hence, we can write the antisymmetric part of the integral in formula (6.53) on the preceding page as Z 1 .x x0 / d3x 0 ! .x0 / .x0 x0 / 2 V0 Z 1 (6.60) D i .x x0 / d3x 0 j! .x0 / .x0 x0 / 2! V0 1 D i .x x0 / m! ! where we introduced the Fourier transform of the magnetic dipole moment Z 1 m! D d3x 0 .x0 x0 / j! .x0 / (6.61) 2 V0 The nal result is that the antisymmetric, magnetic dipole, part of e .1/ can ! be written e, antisym !
.1/
k e ikjx x0 j .x 4 "0 ! jx x0 j2
FT
x0 / m! k/ k k
(6.62)
R A
far B! .x/ D
In analogy with the electric dipole case, we insert this expression into equation (6.30) on page 85 to evaluate C, with which equations (6.31) on page 85 then gives the B and E elds. Discarding, as before, all terms belonging to the near elds and transition elds and keeping only the terms that dominate at large distances, we obtain e ikjx x0 j .m! 4 jx x0 j
0
(6.63a) (6.63b)
Efar .x/ D !
k e ikjx x0 j m! 4 "0 c jx x0 j
which are the elds of the magnetic dipole radiation (M1 radiation).
6.3.5 Electric quadrupole radiation

e, sym .1/
The symmetric part ! of the n D 1 contribution in the equation (6.36b) on page 86 for the expansion of the Hertz vector can be expressed in terms of the electric quadrupole tensor, which is dened in accordance with equation (6.13c) on page 82: Z 0 Q.t; x0 / D d3x 0 .x0 x0 /.x0 x0 / .tret ; x0 / (6.64)
V0
Again we use this expression in equation (6.30) on page 85 to calculate the elds via equations (6.31) on page 85. Tedious, but fairly straightforward algebra
6.4. Radiation from an extended source volume at rest
j 93
(which we will not present here), yields the resulting elds. The components of the elds that dominate in the far eld zone (wave zone) are given by
far B! .x/ D
i 8
0!
e ikjx x0 j .k Q! / jx x0 j
k k k
(6.65a) (6.65b)
Efar .x/ D !
e ikjx x0 j .k Q! / 8 "0 jx x0 j i
This type of radiation is called electric quadrupole radiation or E2 radiation.
Certain radiating systems have a symmetric geometry or are in any other way simple enough that a direct (semi-)analytic calculation of the radiated elds and energy is possible. This is for instance the case when the radiating current ows in a nite, conducting medium of simple geometry at rest such as in a stationary antenna.
Let us apply equation (6.5) on page 79 to calculate the radiated EM power from a one-dimensional, time-varying current. Such a current can be set up by feeding the EMF of a generator (e.g., a transmitter) onto a stationary, linear, straight, thin, conducting wire across a very short gap at its centre. Due to the applied EMF, the charges in this thin wire of nite length L are set into linear motion to produce a time-varying antenna current which is the source of the EM radiation. Linear antennas of this type are called dipole antennas. For simplicity, we assume that the conductor resistance and the energy loss due to the electromagnetic radiation are negligible. Choosing our coordinate system such that the x3 axis is along the antenna axis, the antenna current can be represented, in complex notation, by j.t 0 ; x0 / D 0 0 0 0 O .x1 /.x2 /J.t 0 ; x3 / x3 (measured in A m 2) where J.t 0 ; x3 / is the current (measured in A) along the antenna wire. Since we can assume that the antenna wire is innitely thin, the antenna current must vanish at the endpoints L=2 and L=2. At the midpoint, where the antenna is fed across a very short gap in the conducting wire, the antenna current is, of course, equal to the supplied current. 0 For each Fourier frequency component !0 , the antenna current J.t 0 ; x3 / can 0 0 be written as I.x3 / exp. i!0 t / so that the antenna current density can be repre-
R A
6.4.1 Radiation from a one-dimensional current distribution
FT
6.4 Radiation from an extended source volume at rest
94 j
Figure 6.3: A linear antenna used for transmission. The current in the feeder and the antenna wire is set up by the EMF of the generator (the transmitter). At the ends of the wire, the current is reected back with a 180 phase shift to produce a antenna current in the form of a standing wave.
sink.L=2
0 x /
3
L 2
j.t 0 ; x0 /
L 2
sented as j.t 0 ; x0 / D j0 .x0 / exp. i!0 t 0 / [cf. equations (4.6) on page 47] where
0 0 0 j0 .x0 / D .x1 /.x2 /I.x3 /
FT
I. L=2/ D I.L=2/ D 0 ; I.0/ D I0
(6.66)
0 and where the spatially varying Fourier amplitude I.x3 / of the antenna current fulls the time-independent wave equation (Helmholtz equation)
d2 I 0 C k 2 I.x3 / D 0 ; 02 dx3
(6.67)
R A D
0 0 0 j0 .x0 / D I0 .x1 /.x2 / cos.kx3 /
This equation has the well-known solution 0 sink.L=2 x3 / 0 I.x3 / D I0 sin.kL=2/
(6.68)
where I0 is the amplitude of the antenna current (measured in A), assumed to be constant and supplied by the generator/transmitter at the antenna feed point (in our case the midpoint of the antenna wire) and 1= sin.kL=2/ is a normalisation factor. The antenna current forms a standing wave as indicated in Figure 6.3. When the antenna is short we can approximate the current distribution formula 0 (6.68) by the rst term in its Taylor expansion, i.e., by I0 .1 2jx3 j=L/. For a half-wave antenna (L D =2 , kL D ) formula (6.68) above simplies to 0 I0 cos.kx3 /. Hence, in the most general case of a straight, innitely thin antenna 0 of nite, arbitrary length L directed along the x3 axis, the Fourier amplitude of the antenna current density is 0 sink.L=2 x3 / 0 0 O j0 .x0 / D I0 .x1 /.x2 / x3 (6.69) sin.kL=2/ For a half-wave dipole antenna (L D =2), the antenna current density is simply (6.70)
j 95
O r x3 D z
L 2
O x O
Figure 6.4: We choose a spherical polar coordinate system .r D jxj ; ; ') and arrange it so that the linear electric dipole antenna axis (and thus the antenna current density j! ) is along the polar axis with the feed point at the origin.
j! .x0 /
O k x2
' x1
L 2
while for a short antenna (L

0 0 j0 .x0 / D I0 .x1 /.x2 /.1
) it can be approximated by 0 2 x3 =L/
In the case of a travelling wave antenna, in which one end of the antenna is connected to ground via a resistance so that the current at this end does not vanish, the Fourier amplitude of the antenna current density is
0 0 0 j0 .x0 / D I0 .x1 /.x2 / exp.kx3 /
R A
L 2
D
V0
In order to evaluate formula (6.5) on page 79 with the explicit monochromatic current (6.69) inserted, we use a spherical polar coordinate system as in Figure 6.4 to evaluate the source integral Z 2 d3x 0 j0 k e ik .x0 x0 / Z D 2 0 sink.L=2 x3 / 0 cos ikx cos 0 e 0 dx3 I0 k sin e ikx3 L sin.kL=2/ 2 2 Z L 2 k 2 sin2 ikx0 cos 2 0 0 2 0 D I0 2 L e dx3 sin.kL=2 kx3 / cos.kx3 cos / 2 0 sin .k 2 / cos.kL=2/ 2 2 cos.kL=2/ cos D 4I0 sin sin.kL=2/ (6.73)
FT
(6.71) (6.72)
96 j
Inserting this expression and d D 2 sin d into formula (6.5) on page 79 and integrating over , we nd that the total radiated power from the antenna is P .L/ D
2 R0 I0
1 4
Z d
0
cos.kL=2/ cos cos.kL=2/ sin sin.kL=2/
2 sin (6.74)
One can show that lim P .L/ D 2 L 12

2 R0 I0
kL!0
(6.75)
where is the vacuum wavelength. The quantity Rrad .L/ D
FT
197 1:22
P .L/ P .L/ D 1 2 D R0 2 6 Ieff I 2 0
2 L
2 L
(6.76)
is called the radiation resistance. For the technologically important case of a half-wave antenna, i.e., for L D =2 or kL D , formula (6.74) above reduces to Z cos2 2 cos 2 1 P . =2/ D R0 I0 d (6.77) 4 sin 0
Z
0
cos2
A
2
The integral in (6.77) can always be evaluated numerically. But, it can in fact also be evaluated analytically as follows: Z 1 cos cos2 2 u d D cos ! u D du D sin u2 1 1 1 C cos. u/ cos2 u D 2 2 Z 1 1 1 C cos. u/ D du 2 1 .1 C u/.1 u/ Z Z 1 1 1 C cos. u/ 1 1 1 C cos. u/ D du C du 4 1 .1 C u/ 4 1 .1 u/ Z h 1 1 1 C cos. u/ vi D du D 1 C u ! 2 1 .1 C u/ Z 1 2 1 cos v 1 D dv D C ln 2 Ci.2 / 2 0 v 2 (6.78)
where in the last step the Euler-Mascheroni constant D 0:5772 : : : and the cosine integral Ci.x/ were introduced. Inserting this into the expression equation (6.77) we obtain the value Rrad . =2/ 73 .
j 97
O r x3 D z D z 0 O x O O k x2 O z0
Figure 6.5: For the loop antenna the spherical coordinate system .r; ; '/ describes the eld point x (the radiation eld) and the cylindrical coordinate system . 0 ; ' 0 ; z 0 / describes the source point x0 (the antenna current).
x1
'0 O 0
O 0
Radiation from a two-dimensional current distribution
According to equation (4.47a) on page 56 the Fourier component of the radiation part of the magnetic eld generated by an extended, monochromatic current source is
far B! D
In our case the generator produces a single frequency ! and we feed the antenna across a small gap where the loop crosses the positive x1 axis. The circumference of the loop is chosen to be exactly one wavelength D 2 c=!. This means that the antenna current oscillates in the form of a sinusoidal standing current wave around the circular loop with a Fourier amplitude
D
j! D I0 cos ' 0 .
0
R
O a/.z 0 /0
i 0 e ikjxj 4 jxj
Z
V0
d3x 0 e
A
ik x0
As an example of a two-dimensional current distribution we consider a circular loop antenna and calculate the radiated elds from such an antenna. We choose the Cartesian coordinate system x1 x2 x3 with its origin at the centre of the loop as in Figure 6.5.
j!
For the spherical coordinate system of the eld point, we recall from Subsection F.4.1 on page 192 that the following relations between the base vectors hold: O O O O r D sin cos ' x1 C sin sin ' x2 C cos x3 O sin x3 O O sin ' x1 C cos ' x2
O O O D cos cos ' x1 C cos sin ' x2 O D and
FT
(6.79) (6.80)
j! .x0 /
x0
'
E X A M P L E 6.2
98 j
O O O x1 D sin cos ' r C cos cos ' O O x3 D cos r O sin
O sin '
O O O O x2 D sin sin ' r C cos sin ' C cos '
With the use of the above transformations and trigonometric identities, we obtain for the cylindrical coordinate system which describes the source: O O O 0 D cos ' 0 x1 C sin ' 0 x2 D sin cos.' 0 O 0 D D sin sin.' 0 '/O C cos cos.' 0 r '/O r O sin cos sin.' 0 O '/ C sin.' 0 O '/ C cos.' 0 O '/ O '/ O O sin ' 0 x1 C cos ' 0 x2 (6.81)
(6.82) (6.83)
O O O z0 D x3 D cos r
O O This choice of coordinate systems means that k D k r and x0 D a0 so that k x0 D ka sin cos.' 0 and O 0 k D kcos.' 0 '/
FT
O '/ Z
2
(6.84)
O '/ C cos sin.' 0
(6.85)
With these expressions inserted, recalling that in cylindrical coordinates d3x 0 D the source integral becomes
0 d 0 d' 0 dz 0 ,
A
j! e kDa
0
Z
V0
d3x 0 e
ik x0 2
d' 0 e
ika sin cos.' 0 '/
O I0 cos ' 0 0
k (6.86)
D I0 ak
ika sin cos.' 0 '/ 2
cos.' 0
O '/ cos ' 0 d' 0 sin.' 0 O '/ cos ' 0 d' 0
C I0 ak cos
ika sin cos.' 0 '/
R
Z
2
Utilising the periodicity of the integrands over the integration interval 0; 2 , introducing the auxiliary integration variable ' 00 D ' 0 ', and utilising standard trigonometric identities, the rst integral in the RHS of (6.86) can be rewritten e
i ka sin cos ' 00
cos ' 00 cos.' 00 C '/ d' 00 cos2 ' 00 d' 00 C a vanishing integral 1 1 C cos 2' 00 2 2 d' 00 cos.2' 00 / d' 00 d' 00 (6.87)
Z D cos ' D cos ' D

0
e Z
0 2
i ka sin cos ' 00
e Z
0 2
i ka sin cos ' 00
1 cos ' 2 C
e Z
0 2
i ka sin cos ' 00
1 cos ' 2
i ka sin cos ' 00
Analogously, the second integral in the RHS of (6.86) can be rewritten
j 99
Z
0
e D
i ka sin cos ' 00
sin ' 00 cos.' 00 C '/ d' 00

i ka sin cos ' 00
1 sin ' 2
Z
0
e Z
0 2
d' 00 cos 2' 00 d' 00
(6.88)
1 sin ' 2
i ka sin cos ' 00
As is well-known from the theory of Bessel functions, Jn . Jn . / D . 1/n Jn . / Z i n e i /D

0
cos '
cos n' d' D
i n 2
Z
0
i cos '
(6.89) cos n' d'
which means that Z

0 2
e Z
0 2
i ka sin cos ' 00
d' 00 D 2 J0 .ka sin / cos 2' d' D

00 00
i ka sin cos ' 00
2 J2 .ka sin /
Putting everything together, we nd that Z

V0
d3x 0 e
ik x0
j!
O O k D I C I'
D I0 ak cos ' J0 .ka sin /
O J2 .ka sin /
O C I0 ak cos sin ' J0 .ka sin / C J2 .ka sin / so that, in spherical coordinates where jxj D r,
far B! .x/ D
R A
i
0e ikr
4 r
O O I C I'
To obtain the desired physical magnetic eld in the radiation (far) zone we must Fourier transform back to t space and take the real part and evaluate it at the retarded time: ( Bfar .t; x/ D Re D i
0e .ikr !t 0 /
4 r
O O I C I'
D
0
4 r I0 ak D 4r
sin.kr
0
O O !t 0 / I C I' sin.kr !t 0 / cos ' J0 .ka sin /
O C cos sin ' J0 .ka sin / C J2 .ka sin /
From this expression for the radiated B eld, we can obtain the radiated E eld with the help of Maxwells equations. End of example 6.2
FT
(6.90) (6.91) (6.92) (6.93) O J2 .ka sin /
100 j
6.5 Radiation from a localised charge in arbitrary motion

The derivation of the radiation elds for the case of the source moving relative to the observer is considerably more complicated than the stationary cases that we have studied so far. In order to handle this non-stationary situation, we start from the retarded potentials (3.49) on page 39 in Chapter 3 .t; x/ D A.t; x/ D 1 4 "0 Z
0 0 0 tret ; x0 .tret / 0 jx.t/ x0 .tret /j V0 0 0 j tret ; x.tret / d3x 0 0 jx.t/ x0 .tret /j V0
d3x 0
(6.94a) (6.94b)
R A
0 dq 0 D .tret ; x0 / dS 0 dr 0 0 .tret ; x0 /
and consider a source region with such a limited spatial extent that the charges and currents are well localised. Specically, we consider a charge q 0 , for instance an electron, which, classically, can be thought of as a localised, unstructured and rigid charge distribution with a small, nite radius. The part of this charge distribution dq 0 which we are considering is located in dV 0 D d3x 0 in the sphere in Figure 6.6 on the next page. Since we assume that the electron (or any other other similar electric charge) moves with a velocity v 0 whose direction is arbitrary and whose magnitude can even be comparable to the speed of light, we cannot R 0 say that the charge and current to be used in (6.94) is V 0 d3x 0 .tret ; x0 / and R 3 0 0 0 V 0 d x v .tret ; x /, respectively, because in the nite time interval during which the observed signal is generated, part of the charge distribution will leak out of the volume element d3x 0 .
6.5.1 The Linard-Wiechert potentials
The charge distribution in Figure 6.6 on page 101 which contributes to the eld at x.t / is located at x0 .t 0 / on a sphere with radius r D jx x0 j D c.t t 0 /. The radius interval of this sphere from which radiation is received at the eld point x during the time interval .t 0 ; t 0 C dt 0 / is .r 0 ; r 0 C dr 0 / and the net amount of charge in this radial interval is .x x0 / v 0 .t 0 / 0 0 dS dt jx x0 j (6.95)
where the last term represents the amount of source leakage due to the fact that the charge distribution moves with velocity v 0 .t 0 / D dx0 =dt 0 . Since dt 0 D dr 0 =c
FT
6.5. Radiation from a localised charge in arbitrary motion
j 101
x.t / x x0
v 0 .t 0 / dS0 x .t /
0 0
dr 0 dV 0
Figure 6.6: Signals that are observed at the eld point x at time t were generated at source points x0 .t 0 / on a sphere, centred on x and expanding, as time increases, with velocity c D c.x x0 /= jx x0 j outward from the centre. The source charge element moves with an arbitrary velocity v 0 and gives rise to a source leakage out of the source volume dV 0 D d3x 0 .
dq 0 c
and dS 0 dr 0 D d3x 0 we can rewrite the expression for the net charge as .x x0 / v 0 3 0 0 0 .tret ; x0 / dq 0 D .tret ; x0 / d3x 0 dx c jx x0 j .x x0 / v 0 0 0 d3x 0 D .tret ; x / 1 c jx x0 j or dq 0
0 .tret ; x0 / d3x 0 D
R A
1
.x x0 / v 0 cjx x0 j
which leads to the expression

0 .tret ; x0 / 3 0 dx D jx x0 j jx
dq 0
x0 j
.x x0 / v 0 c
This is the expression to be used in the formul (6.94) on the facing page for the retarded potentials. The result is (recall that j D v ) Z 1 dq 0 .t; x/ D (6.99a) 0 0 4 "0 jx x0 j .x x / v c Z v 0 dq 0 0 A.t; x/ D (6.99b) 0 0 4 jx x0 j .x x / v
c
For a sufciently small and well localised charge distribution we can, assuming that the integrands do not change sign in the integration volume, use the mean
FT
(6.96) (6.97) (6.98)
102 j
value theorem to evaluate these expressions to become Z 1 q0 1 1 dq 0 D .t; x/ D 0/ v 0 4 "0 jx x0 j .x x 4 "0 s c Z 1 v0 v0 q0 A.t; x/ D dq 0 D 0/ v 0 4 "0 c 2 jx x0 j .x x 4 "0 c 2 s
c
(6.100a)
v0 D 2 c where s D s.t 0 ; x/ D x D x D x x0 .t 0 / v 0 .t 0 / c x x0 .t 0 / v 0 .t 0 / 0 0 x .t / 1 c jx x0 .t 0 /j 0 0 0 0 x x .t / v .t / x0 .t 0 / c jx x0 .t 0 /j x0 .t 0 / x
(6.100b)
(6.101a) (6.101b) (6.101c)
These results were derived independently by A L F R E D M A R I E L I N A R D in 1898 and E M I L J O H A N N W I E C H E R T in 1900.
R A
B.t; x/ D r A.t; x/ E.t; x/ D r .t; x/ @A.t; x/ @t
is the retarded relative distance. The potentials (6.100) are the Linard-Wiechert potentials.1 In Section 7.3.2 on page 139 we shall derive them in a more elegant and general way by using a relativistically covariant formalism. It should be noted that in the complicated derivation presented above, the observer is in a coordinate system which has an absolute meaning and the velocity v 0 is that of the localised charge q 0 , whereas, as we shall see later in the covariant derivation, two reference frames of equal standing are moving relative to each other with v 0 . The Linard-Wiechert potentials are applicable to all problems where a spatially localised charge in arbitrary motion emits electromagnetic radiation, and we shall now study such emission problems. The electric and magnetic elds are calculated from the potentials in the usual way: (6.102a) (6.102b)
6.5.2 Radiation from an accelerated point charge

Consider a localised charge q 0 and assume that its trajectory is known experimentally as a function of retarded time x0 D x0 .t 0 / (6.103)
(in the interest of simplifying our notation, we drop the subscript ret on t 0 from now on). This means that we know the trajectory of the charge q 0 , i.e., x0 , for all
FT
j 103
q0 x0 .t 0 / 0
jx x0 j 0 v c
x0 .t / 0
v 0 .t 0 /
Figure 6.7: Signals that are observed at the eld point x at time t were generated at the source point x0 .t 0 /. After time t 0 the particle, which moves with nonuniform velocity, has followed a yet unknown trajectory. Extrapolating tangentially the trajectory from x0 .t 0 /, based on the velocity v 0 .t 0 /, denes the virtual simultaneous coordinate x0 .t /.
x x x
0
x0 x.t /
times up to the time t 0 at which a signal was emitted in order to precisely arrive at the eld point x at time t . Because of the nite speed of propagation of the elds, the trajectory at times later than t 0 cannot be known at time t . The retarded velocity and acceleration at time t 0 are given by v 0 .t 0 / D dx0 dt 0 dv 0 d2 x 0 D 02 dt 0 dt (6.104a)
As for the charge coordinate x0 itself, we have in general no knowledge of the velocity and acceleration at times later than t 0 , and denitely not at the time of observation t ! If we choose the eld point x as xed, the application of (6.104) to the relative vector x x0 yields d x dt 0 d2 x dt 0 2 x0 .t 0 / D x0 .t 0 / D v 0 .t 0 / P v 0 .t 0 / (6.105a) (6.105b)
D
t 0 D t 0 .t; x/ D t
The retarded time t 0 can, at least in principle, be calculated from the implicit relation jx x0 .t 0 /j c (6.106)
and we shall see later how this relation can be taken into account in the calculations. According to formul (6.102) on the facing page, the electric and magnetic elds are determined via differentiation of the retarded potentials at the observation time t and at the observation point x. In these formul the unprimed r ,
R A
P a0 .t 0 / D v 0 .t 0 / D
FT
(6.104b)
104 j
O i.e., the spatial derivative differentiation operator r D xi @=@xi means that we differentiate with respect to the coordinates x D .x1 ; x2 ; x3 / while keeping t xed, and the unprimed time derivative operator @=@t means that we differentiate with respect to t while keeping x xed. But the Linard-Wiechert potentials and A, equations (6.100) on page 102, are expressed in the charge velocity v 0 .t 0 / given by equation (6.104a) on page 103 and the retarded relative distance s.t 0 ; x/ given by equation (6.101) on page 102. This means that the expressions for the potentials and A contain terms that are expressed explicitly in t 0 , which in turn is expressed implicitly in t via equation (6.106) on the previous page. Despite this complication it is possible, as we shall see below, to determine the electric and magnetic elds and associated quantities at the time of observation t. To this end, we need to investigate carefully the action of differentiation on the potentials.
6.5.2.1 The differential operator method
We introduce the convention that a differential operator embraced by parentheses with an index x or t means that the operator in question is applied at constant x and t , respectively. With this convention, we nd that 0 @ @ .x x0 / v 0 .t 0 / x x0 .t 0 / D x x x x0 .t 0 / D @t 0 x @t 0 x jx x0 j jx x0 j (6.107)
R A
Furthermore, by applying the operator .@=@t/x to equation (6.106) on the preceding page we nd that 0 @ @t jx x0 .t 0 .t; x//j D1 @t x @t c x 0 @ @t jx x0 j D1 (6.108) @t 0 x c @t x .x x0 / v 0 .t 0 / @t 0 D1C c jx x0 j @t x
This is an algebraic equation in .@t 0 =@t/x that we can solve to obtain 0 @t jx x0 j jx x0 j D D 0j 0 / v 0 .t 0 /=c @t x .x x s jx x
FT
(6.109)
where s D s.t 0 ; x/ is the retarded relative distance given by equation (6.101) on page 102. Making use of equation (6.109), we obtain the following useful operator identity 0 @ @t @ jx x0 j @ D D (6.110) @t x @t x @t 0 x s @t 0 x
j 105
Likewise, by applying .r / t to equation (6.106) on page 103 we obtain .r / t t 0 D D .r / t x x0 x0 .t 0 .t; x//j D .r / t .x c c jx x0 j x x0 .x x0 / v 0 .t 0 / C .r / t t 0 0j c jx x c jx x0 j jx x0 / (6.111)
This is an algebraic equation in .r / t t 0 with the solution .r / t t 0 D x cs x0 (6.112)
.r / t D .r / t t
@ @t 0
C .r / t 0 D
x
cs
With the help of the rules (6.113) and (6.110) we are now able to replace t by t 0 in the operations that we need to perform. We nd, for instance, that r 1 q0 .r / t D r 4 "0 s 0 q x x0 v 0 .t 0 / x x0 @s D 4 "0 s 2 jx x0 j c cs @t 0 x 0 0 0 @A @A @ 0 q v .t / D @t @t x @t 4 s x 0 0 0 q x x0 s v .t / x x0 v 0 .t 0 / @s P D 4 "0 c 2 s 3 @t 0 x
R A
r .t; x/
Utilising these relations in the calculation of the E eld from the Linard-Wiechert potentials, equations (6.100) on page 102, we obtain
D
E.t; x/ D
@ A.t; x/ @t " q0 x x0 .t 0 / jx x0 .t 0 /j v 0 .t 0 /=c D 2 .t 0 ; x/ 4 "0 s jx x0 .t 0 /j x x0 .t 0 / jx x0 .t 0 /j v 0 .t 0 /=c @s.t 0 ; x/ cs.t 0 ; x/ @t 0 x # P jx x0 .t 0 /j v 0 .t 0 / c2
FT
x0 @ @t 0 C .r / t 0 (6.113)
x
which gives the following operator relation when .r / t is acting on an arbitrary function of t 0 and x:
(6.114a)
(6.114b)
(6.115)
106 j
q0 x x0 .t 0 / C 4 "0 s 3 .t 0 ; x/ c2
FT
Coulomb eld when v ! 0
Starting from expression (6.101a) on page 102 for the retarded relative distance s.t 0 ; x/, we see that we can evaluate .@s=@t 0 /x in the following way 0 0 0 @s @ x x0 .x x / v .t / D @t 0 x @t 0 x c @ D 0 x x0 .t 0 / @t (6.116) 1 @x x0 .t 0 / 0 0 @v 0 .t 0 / 0 0 v .t / C x x .t / c @t 0 @t 0 0 0 0 0 02 0 0 0 P .x x .t // v .t / v .t / .x x .t // v 0 .t 0 / D C 0 .t 0 /j c c jx x where equation (6.107) on page 104 and equations (6.104) on page 103, respectively, were used. Hence, the electric eld generated by an arbitrarily moving charged particle at x0 .t 0 / is given by the expression q0 v 02 .t 0 / jx x0 .t 0 /j v 0 .t 0 / E.t; x/ D x x0 .t 0 / 1 4 "0 s 3 .t 0 ; x/ c c2 x x0 .t 0 / jx x0 .t 0 /j v 0 .t 0 / c P v 0 .t 0 / (6.117)
Radiation (acceleration) eld
The rst part of the eld, the velocity eld , tends to the ordinary Coulomb eld when v 0 ! 0 and does not contribute to the radiation. The second part of the eld, the acceleration eld , is radiated into the far zone and is therefore also called the radiation eld . From Figure 6.7 on page 103 we see that the position the charged particle would have had if at t 0 all external forces would have been switched off so that the trajectory from then on would have been a straight line in the direction of the tangent at x0 .t 0 / is x0 .t/, the virtual simultaneous coordinate. During the arbitrary motion, we interpret x x0 .t/ as the coordinate of the eld point x relative to the virtual simultaneous coordinate x0 .t/. Since the time it takes for a signal to propagate (in the assumed vacuum) from x0 .t 0 / to x is jx x0 j =c, this relative vector is given by jx x0 .t 0 /j v 0 .t 0 / x x0 .t / D x x0 .t 0 / (6.118) c This allows us to rewrite equation (6.117) above in the following way " q0 v 02 .t 0 / E.t; x/ D x x0 .t/ 1 4 "0 s 3 c2 # (6.119) P x x0 .t/ v 0 .t 0 / 0 0 C x x .t / c2
R A
j 107
In a similar manner we can compute the magnetic eld: B.t; x/ D r D A.t; x/ .r / t q0 x 2 s 2 jx 4 "0 c x0 x0 j A D .r / t 0 v0 A x x0 cs @A @t x @ @t 0 A
x
x x0 c jx x0 j
(6.120) where we made use of equation (6.100) on page 102 and formula (6.110) on page 104. But, according to (6.114a), x x0 c jx x0 j so that B.t; x/ D .r / t D q0 x 2 s 2 jx 4 "0 c x0 x0 j v0 (6.121)
The electric far eld is obtained from the acceleration eld in formula (6.117) on the facing page as Efar .t; x/ D D
jx x0 j!1 0
lim
E.t; x/ x0 / .x
R A
x0 .t 0 / fx x0 .t/
q .x 4 "0 c 2 s 3 q0 x D 4 "0 c 2 s 3
where in the last step we again used formula (6.118) on the preceding page. Using this formula and formula (6.122), the radiation part of the magnetic eld can be written x x0 .t 0 / Bfar .t; x/ D Efar .t; x/ (6.124) c jx x0 .t 0 /j
6.5.2.2 The direct method
An alternative to the differential operator transformation technique just described is to try to express all quantities in the potentials directly in t and x. An example of such a quantity is the retarded relative distance s.t 0 ; x/. According to equation (6.101) on page 102, the square of this retarded relative distance can be written 2 x x0 .t 0 / v 0 .t 0 / s 2 .t 0 ; x/ D x x0 .t 0 / 2 x x0 .t 0 / c (6.125) x x0 .t 0 / v 0 .t 0 / 2 C c
FT
(6.122) x0 / jx x0 j v 0 c P v0 P v 0 .t 0 /g (6.123)
x x0 @A .r / t 0j c jx x @t x 0 0 x x .t / E.t; x/ D c jx x0 .t 0 /j
108 j
If we use the following handy identity .x x0 / v 0 2 .x x0 / v 0 2 C c c D D jx jx x0 j2 v 02 jx x0 j2 v 02 2 0 cos2 0 C sin c2 c2 x0 j2 v 02 jx x0 j2 v 02 .cos2 0 C sin2 0 / D c2 c2 x0 j2 v 02 c2 2 (6.127) (6.126)
we nd that .x x0 / v 0 2 jx D c
.x
x0 / c
v0
x0 .t 0 /
v 0 D x
FT
x0 .t/ v0
Furthermore, from equation (6.118) on page 106, we obtain the identity
(6.128)
which, when inserted into equation (6.127) above, yields the relation .x x0 / v 0 2 .x x0 / v 0 2 jx x0 j2 v 02 D c c2 c
(6.129)
R A
Inserting the above into expression (6.125) on the preceding page for s 2 , this expression becomes 2 .x x0 / v 0 .x x0 / v 0 2 jx x0 j2 v 02 C s 2 D x x 0 2 x x0 c c2 c 2 0 0 0 2 .x x0 / v jx x j v D .x x0 / c c 0 2 .x x0 / v D .x x0 /2 c x x0 .t/ v 0 .t 0 / 2 2 jx x0 .t /j c (6.130)
where in the penultimate step we used equation (6.118) on page 106. What we have just demonstrated is that if the particle velocity at time t can be calculated or projected from its value at the retarded time t 0 , the retarded distance s in the Linard-Wiechert potentials (6.100) can be expressed in terms of the virtual simultaneous coordinate x0 .t/, viz., the point at which the particle will have arrived at time t , i.e., when we obtain the rst knowledge of its existence at the source point x0 at the retarded time t 0 , and in the eld coordinate x D x.t/, where we make our observations. We have, in other words, shown that all quantities in the denition of s, and hence s itself, can, when the motion of the
j 109
We shall use this result in Example 6.3 for a uniform, unaccelerated motion of the charge.
If we know what velocity the particle will have at time t , expression (6.131) above for s will not be dependent on t 0 . Using equation (6.131c) and standard vector analytic formulae, we obtain " # v 02 .x x0 / v 0 2 r s 2 D r jx x0 j2 1 C c2 c 0 0 02 vv v (6.132) C 2 .x x0 / D 2 .x x0 / 1 2 c c 0 v0 v D 2 .x x0 / C .x x0 / c c
The elds from a uniformly moving charge
In the special case of uniform motion,2 the localised charge moves in a eld-free, isolated space and we know that it will not be affected by any external forces. It will therefore move uniformly in a straight line with the constant velocity v 0 . This gives us the possibility to extrapolate its position at the observation time, x0 .t/, from its position at the retarded time, P x0 .t 0 /. Since the particle is not accelerated, v 0 0, the virtual simultaneous coordinate x0 will be identical to the actual simultaneous coordinate of the particle at time t , i.e., x0 .t / D x0 .t/. As depicted in Figure 6.7 on page 103, the angle between x x0 and v 0 is 0 while then angle between x x0 and v 0 is 0 . In the case of uniform velocity v 0 , i.e., a velocity that does not change with time, any physical observable f .t; x/ has the same value at time t and position x as it has at time
FT
E X A M P L E 6.3
2
charge is somehow known, be expressed in terms of the time t alone. I.e., in this special case we are able to express the retarded relative distance as s D s.t; x/ and we do not have to involve the retarded time t 0 or any transformed differential operators in our calculations. Taking the square root of both sides of equation (6.130) on the facing page, we obtain the following alternative nal expressions for the retarded relative distance s in terms of the charges virtual simultaneous coordinate x0 .t/ and velocity v 0 .t 0 /: s x x0 .t/ v 0 .t 0 / 2 2 0 s.t ; x/ D jx x0 .t /j (6.131a) c s v 02 .t 0 / 2 D jx x0 .t /j 1 sin 0 .t/ (6.131b) c2 s v 02 .t 0 / x x0 .t/ v 0 .t 0 / 2 C D jx x0 .t /j2 1 c2 c (6.131c)
This problem was rst solved by O L I V E R H E A V I S I D E in 1888.
110 j
t C dt and position x C v 0 dt. Hence, f .t; x/ D f .t C dt; x C v 0 dt/ (6.133)
Taylor expanding f .t C dt; x C v 0 dt), keeping only linear terms in the innitesimally small dt , we obtain f .t C dt; x C v 0 dt/ D f .t; x/ C @f dt C v 0 rf dt C O .dt/2 @t (6.134)
From this we conclude that for uniform motion @f D @t v 0 rf (6.135)
Since f is an arbitrary physical observable, the time and space derivatives must be related in the following way when they operate on any physical observable dependent on x.t/ [cf. equation (1.36) on page 13]: @ D @t v0 r (6.136)
Hence, the E and B elds can be obtained from formul (6.102) on page 102, with the potentials given by equations (6.100) on page 102 as follows: ED @A 1 @v 0 v0 @ D r D r @t c 2 @t c 2 @t v0 v0 v 0v 0 D r C r D 1 r c c c2 0 0 vv D 1 r c2 0 v0 v0 v Dr D r BDr ADr 2 2 c c c2 0 0 0 0 v0 v vv v v0 D 2 1 r r r D 2 c c c c c2 0 v D 2 E c r
FT
.x x0 /
(6.137a)
R D
r D
(6.137b)
O O Here 1 D xi xi is the unit dyad and we used the fact that v 0 v 0 0. What remains is just to express r in quantities evaluated at t and x. From equation (6.100a) on page 102 and equation (6.132) on the previous page we nd that q0 1 q0 r D r s2 4 "0 s 8 "0 s 3 0 q0 v0 v D .x x0 / C c c 4 "0 s 3
(6.138)
When this expression for r
is inserted into equation (6.137a), the following result
j 111
E.t; x/ D
obtains. Of course, the same result also follows from equation (6.119) on page 106 with P v 0 0 inserted. From equation (6.139) we conclude that E is directed along the vector from the simultaneous coordinate x0 .t/ to the eld (observation) coordinate x.t/. In a similar way, the magnetic eld can be calculated and one nds that ! 0 v 02 1 0q B.t; x/ D 1 v 0 .x x0 / D 2 v 0 E (6.140) 4 s3 c2 c From these explicit formulae for the E and B elds and formula (6.131b) on page 109 for s, we can discern the following cases: 1. v 0 ! 0 ) E goes over into the Coulomb eld ECoulomb 2. v 0 ! 0 ) B goes over into the Biot-Savart eld 3. v 0 ! c ) E becomes dependent on 0 4. v 0 ! c; sin 0 5. v 0 ! c; sin 0 0 ) E ! .1 1 ) E ! .1
R A
v 02 =c 2 /ECoulomb v 02 =c 2 /
1=2 ECoulomb
6.5.2.3 Small velocities
D
s D x x0 .x x x0 D .x x0 / Efar .t; x/ D
If the charge moves at such low speeds that v 0 =c page 102 simplies to x0 / v 0 x c and formula (6.118) on page 106 jx x0 ; v0
x0 j v 0 x x0 ; v 0 c (6.142) c so that the radiation eld equation (6.123) on page 107 can be approximated by q0 4 "0 c 2 jx x0 j 3 .x x0 / .x x0 / P v 0 ; v0 c (6.143)
FT
End of example 6.3
0 0 q0 vv 1 r s2 8 "0 s 3 c2 ( 0 0 0 q v v D .x x0 / C .x x0 / c c 4 "0 s 3 0 ) 0 0 v 0v 0 v v0 v v .x x0 / .x x0 / c c c c c2 " 0 v 02 q0 v0 v .x x0 / .x x0 / 2 D .x x0 / C 3 c c 4 "0 s c # 0 v0 v .x x0 / c c ! v 02 q0 .x x0 / 1 D 4 "0 s 3 c2 v 0v 0 c2

1
(6.139)
1, formula (6.101) on
(6.141)
112 j
from which we obtain, with the use of formula (6.122) on page 107, the magnetic eld Bfar .t; x/ D q0 4 "0 c 3 jx x0 j 2 P v 0 .x x0 /; v0 c (6.144)
It is interesting to note the close correspondence that exists between the nonrelativistic elds (6.143) and (6.144) and the electric dipole eld equations (6.42) on page 88 if we introduce the electric dipole moment for a localised charge [cf. formula (6.38) on page 87] d D q 0 x0 .t 0 / (6.145)
R P q0v 0 D d ! x x Dx
0
! 2 d!
x0
The energy ux in the far zone is described by the Poynting vector as a function of Efar and Bfar . We use the close correspondence with the dipole case to nd that it becomes Sfar D
0q 02
P .v 0 /2
FT
sin2 x jx x0 x0 j
and at the same time make the transitions
(6.146a)
(6.146b)
R A
P D
0q
16
2c
jx
x0 j2
(6.147)
P where is the angle between v 0 and x x0 . The total radiated power (integrated over a closed spherical surface) becomes P q 0 2 v 02 P .v 0 /2 D 6 c 6 "0 c 3
02
(6.148)
which is the Larmor formula for radiated power from an accelerated charge. Note that here we are treating a charge with v 0 c but otherwise totally unspecied motion while we compare with formul derived for a stationary oscillating dipole. The electric and magnetic elds, equation (6.143) on the preceding page and equation (6.144) above, respectively, and the expressions for the Poynting ux and power derived from them, are here instantaneous values, dependent on the instantaneous position of the charge at x0 .t 0 /. The angular distribution is that which is frozen to the point from which the energy is radiated.
6.5.3 Bremsstrahlung
An important special case of radiation is when the velocity v 0 and the acceleration P P v 0 are collinear (parallel or anti-parallel) so that v 0 v 0 D 0. This condition (for
j 113
v D 0:5c v D 0:25c v
vD0
Figure 6.8: Polar diagram of the energy loss angular distribution factor sin2 =.1 v cos =c/5 during bremsstrahlung for particle speeds v 0 D 0, v 0 D 0:25c, and v 0 D 0:5c.
an arbitrary magnitude of v 0 ) inserted into expression (6.123) on page 107 for the radiation eld, yields Efar .t; x/ D q0 .x 4 "0 c 2 s 3 x0 / .x x0 / P v 0 ; P v0 k v0 (6.149)
from which we obtain, with the use of formula (6.122) on page 107, the magnetic eld
The difference between this case and the previous case of v 0 c is that the approximate expression (6.141) on page 111 for s is no longer valid; instead we must use the correct expression (6.101) on page 102. The angular distribution of the energy ux (Poynting vector) far away from the source therefore becomes Sfar D
0q 0 2 02
R A
v P sin2
v0 c 2c
Bfar .t; x/ D
q 0 jx x0 j 0 P v 4 "0 c 3 s 3
.x
x0 /;
P v0 k v0
16
jx
x0 j2
cos
x jx
D
dU rad . / d dt
It is interesting to note that the magnitudes of the electric and magnetic elds are P the same whether v 0 and v 0 are parallel or anti-parallel. We must be careful when we compute the energy (S integrated over time). The Poynting vector is related to the time t when it is measured and to a xed surface in space. The radiated power into a solid angle element d , measured relative to the particles retarded position, is given by the formula D S .x x 0 / x x0 d D v P 2c 16
0q 0 2 02
FT
(6.150) x0 x0 j (6.151) sin2 1
v0 c
cos
(6.152)
114 j
Figure 6.9: Location of radiation between two spheres as the charge moves with velocity v 0 from x0 to 1 x0 during the time interval .t 0 ; t 0 C 2 0 /. The observation point (eld dt point) is at the xed location x.
dS dr x d q0 0 x0 vdt x0
2
x0 C c dt 0 2
On the other hand, the radiation loss due to radiation from the charge at retarded time t 0 : dU rad @t dU rad d D d (6.153) dt 0 dt @t 0 x
R A
dU rad d dt 0 D dU rad s d dt jx x0 j dU rad . / d dt 0 D v P 2c 16
0q 0 2 02
Using formula (6.109) on page 104, we obtain D S .x
FT
x0 /s d sin2
v0 c
(6.154)
Inserting equation (6.151) on the previous page for S into (6.154), we obtain the explicit expression for the energy loss due to radiation evaluated at the retarded time
5
(6.155)
cos
The angular factors of this expression, for three different particle speeds, are plotted in Figure 6.8 on the preceding page. Comparing expression (6.152) on the previous page with expression (6.155), we see that they differ by a factor 1 v 0 cos =c that comes from the extra factor s= jx x0 j introduced in (6.154). Let us explain this in geometrical terms. During the interval .t 0 ; t 0 C dt 0 / and within the solid angle element d the particle radiates an energy dU rad ./=dt 0 dt 0 d . As shown in Figure 6.9 this energy is at time t located between two spheres, one outer with its origin at x0 .t 0 / 1 and radius c.t t 0 /, and one inner with its origin at x0 .t 0 C dt 0 / D x0 .t 0 / C v 0 dt 0 2 1 and radius ct .t 0 C dt 0 / D c.t t 0 dt 0 /.
j 115
From Figure 6.9 we see that the volume element subtending the solid angle element d D x d2x 2 x0 2 (6.156)
is d3x D d2x dr D x 2 x0 d dr 2 (6.157)
Here, dr denotes the differential distance between the two spheres and can be evaluated in the following way dr D x x0 C c dt 0 2 x x0 2 x x0 2 v 0 dt 0 x x 0 2 0 v cos cs dt 0 x0 2
D c
x x
x0 2 x0 2
! v0 dt 0 D x
where formula (6.101) on page 102 was used in the last step. Hence, the volume element under consideration is d3x D d2x dr D x s d2x cdt 0 x0 2
A
P 2 q 0 2 v 02 1 3 D 3 4 "0 c 3 v 02
c2
D
Q dU rad D dt 0
0q
R
v P 6 c
0 2 02
We see that the energy that is radiated per unit solid angle during the time interval .t 0 ; t 0 C dt 0 / is located in a volume element whose size is dependent. This explains the difference between expression (6.152) on page 113 and expression (6.155) on the facing page. Q Let the radiated energy, integrated over , be denoted U rad . After tedious, but relatively straightforward integration of formula (6.155) on the preceding page, one obtains 1 v 02 c2
3
If we know v 0 .t 0 /, we can integrate this expression over t 0 and obtain the total energy radiated during the acceleration or deceleration of the particle. This way we obtain a classical picture of bremsstrahlung (braking radiation, free-free radiation). Often, an atomistic treatment is required for obtaining an acceptable result.
FT
(6.158) (6.159) (6.160)
116 j
E X A M P L E 6.4
Bremsstrahlung for low speeds and short acceleration times Calculate the bremsstrahlung when a charged particle, moving at a non-relativistic speed, is accelerated or decelerated during an innitely short time interval. We approximate the velocity change at time t 0 D t0 by a delta function: P v 0 .t 0 / D v 0 .t 0 t0 / (6.161)
which means that Z 1 P v 0 .t0 / D dt 0 v 0

1
(6.162) 1 so that, according to formula (6.101) on page 102, (6.163)
Also, we assume v=c s x x0
x0
x0
FT
B
0 1 1
and, according to formula (6.118) on page 106,
(6.164)
From the general expression (6.122) on page 107 we conclude that E ? B and that it sufces to consider E Efar . According to the bremsstrahlung expression for Efar , equation (6.149) on page 113, q 0 sin 0 v 0 .t 0 t0 / 4 "0 c 2 jx x0 j In this simple case B Bfar is given by ED BD E c (6.165)
A
S0 1
(6.166)
Beacuse of the Dirac behaviour in time, Fourier transforming expression (6.165) for E is trivial, yielding Z 1 v 0 .t 0 t0 / i!t 0 q 0 sin 0 1 dt 0 e E! D 2 2 jx x0 .t 0 /j 4 "0 c 1 (6.167) q 0 sin 0 v 0 .t0 / e i!t0 D 8 2 "0 c 2 jx x0 .t0 /j
We note that the magnitude of this Fourier component is independent of !. This is a consequence of the innitely short impulsive step .t 0 t0 / in the time domain which produces an innite spectrum in the frequency domain. The total radiation energy is given by the expression Z 1 Z 1 I Q dU rad Q O U rad D dt 0 D dt 0 d2x 0 n0 E dt 0 1 1 S0 I Z 1 I Z 1 1 D d2x 0 dt 0 EB D d2x 0 0 S0 0c S 0 1 I Z 1 2 0 0 2 D "0 c dx dt E
dt 0 E 2
(6.168)
According to Parsevals identity [cf. equation (6.8) on page 80] the following equality holds:
j 117
1 1
dt E D 4
Z
0
d! jE! j2
(6.169)
which means that the radiated energy in the frequency interval .!; ! C d!/ is Q rad U! d! D 4 "0 c I
S0 2 0 2
d! (6.170)
d x jE! j
For our innite spectrum, equation (6.167) on the facing page, we obtain q 0 2 .v 0 /2 Q rad U! d! D 16 3 "0 c 3 I
S0
d2x 0
sin2 0 jx Z
0
x0 j 2
d! (6.171)
Q rad We see that the energy spectrum U! is independent of frequency !. This means that if we would integrate it over all frequencies ! 2 0; 1/, a divergent integral would result.
In reality, all spectra have nite widths, with an upper cutoff limit set by the quantum condition !max D
R A
v 0 c 2 d! ! 1 2 137 3 v 0 c 2 d! !
1 m.v 0 C v 0 /2 2
1 02 mv 2
which expresses that the highest possible frequency !max in the spectrum is that for which all kinetic energy difference has gone into one single eld quantum (photon) with energy !max . If we adopt the picture that the total energy is quantised in terms of N! photons radiated during the process, we nd that Q rad U! d! D dN! !
or, for an electron where q 0 D
jej, where e is the elementary charge,
D
e2 2 dN! D 4 "0 c 3
where we used the value of the ne structure constant D e 2 =.4 "0 c/
Even if the number of photons becomes innite when ! ! 0, these photons have negligible energies so that the total radiated energy is still nite. End of example 6.4
FT
(6.172) (6.173) (6.174) 1=137.
Z q 0 2 .v 0 /2 2 d' 0 D 16 3 "0 c 3 0 0 2 q02 v d! D 3 "0 c c 2
d 0 sin 0 sin2 0 d!
118 j
6.5.4 Cyclotron and synchrotron radiation (magnetic bremsstrahlung)

Formula (6.122) and formula (6.123) on page 107 for the magnetic eld and the radiation part of the electric eld are general, valid for any kind of motion of the localised charge. A very important special case is circular motion, i.e., the case P v 0 ? v 0. With the charged particle orbiting in the x1 x2 plane as in Figure 6.10 on the facing page, an orbit radius a, and an angular frequency !0 , we obtain '.t 0 / D !0 t 0 O x .t / D aO 1 cos '.t / C x2 sin '.t / x P O O v .t / D x .t / D a!0 x1 sin '.t / C x2 cos '.t / 0 0 v D v D a!0 P v .t / D v D P
0 0 0 2 R x .t / D a!0 O 1 x 0 v D a! 2 P 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
(6.175a) (6.175b) (6.175c) (6.175e) (6.175f) (6.175d)
R A
SD 1
0
Because of the rotational symmetry we can, without loss of generality, rotate our coordinate system around the x3 axis so the relative vector x x0 from the source point to an arbitrary eld point always lies in the x2 x3 plane, i.e., O x x0 D x x0 .O 2 sin C x3 cos / x (6.176)
where is the angle between x x0 and the normal to the plane of the particle orbit (see Figure 6.10). From the above expressions we obtain .x x0 / v 0 D x x0 v 0 sin cos ' (6.177a) 0 0 x x0 v 0 sin sin ' D x x0 v 0 cos P .x x / v D P P (6.177b) where in the last step we simply used the denition of a scalar product and the P fact that the angle between v 0 and x x0 is . The energy ux is given by the Poynting vector, which, with the help of formula (6.122) on page 107, can be written .E B/ D 1 c
0
FT
O cos '.t / C x2 sin '.t / jEj2 x jx x0 x0 j
(6.178)
Inserting this into equation (6.154) on page 114, we obtain dU rad .; '/ jx x0 j s D jEj2 dt 0 c 0 (6.179)
where the retarded distance s is given by expression (6.101) on page 102. With the radiation part of the electric eld, expression (6.123) on page 107, inserted,
j 119
x2 .t; x/ x v a 0 P v q0 0 0 .t ; x / x x0
Figure 6.10: Coordinate system for the radiation from a charged particle at x0 .t 0 / in circular motion with velocity v 0 .t 0 / along the tangent and P constant acceleration v 0 .t 0 / toward the origin. The x1 x2 axes are chosen so that the relative eld point vector x x0 makes an angle with the x3 axis, which is normal to the plane of the orbital motion. The radius of the orbit is a.
'.t 0 / x1
x3
R A
0q
and using (6.177a) and (6.177b) on the preceding page, one nds, after some algebra, that 2 02 v0 0 2 02 1 rad sin cos ' 1 v 2 sin2 sin2 ' c P dU .; '/ c 0q v D 5 0 2c v0 dt 16 1 sin cos '
c
The angles and ' vary in time during the rotation, so that refers to a moving coordinate system. But we can parametrise the solid angle d in the angle ' and the angle so that d D sin d d'. Integration of equation (6.180) over this d gives, after some cumbersome algebra, the angular integrated expression Q dU rad D dt 0 v P 6 c
0 2 02
v 02 c2
D
1. v 0 =c 2. v 0 =c
In equation (6.180) above, two limits are particularly interesting: 1 which corresponds to cyclotron radiation.
1 which corresponds to synchrotron radiation.
6.5.4.1 Cyclotron radiation

For a non-relativistic speed v 0
0 2 02 dU rad .; '/ P 0q v D .1 dt 0 16 2 c
c, equation (6.180) reduces to sin2 sin2 '/ (6.182)
FT
(6.180) (6.181)
120 j
But, according to equation (6.177b) on page 118 sin2 sin2 ' D cos2 (6.183)
where is dened in Figure 6.10 on the preceding page. This means that we can write
0 2 02 0 2 02 dU rad . / P P 0q v 0q v D .1 cos2 / D sin2 (6.184) dt 0 16 2 c 16 2 c Consequently, a xed observer near the orbit plane ( =2) will observe cyclotron radiation twice per revolution in the form of two equally broad pulses of radiation with alternating polarisation.
6.5.4.2 Synchrotron radiation

When the particle is relativistic, v 0 c, the denominator in equation (6.180) on the previous page becomes very small if sin cos ' 1, which denes the forward direction of the particle motion ( =2; ' 0). The equation (6.180) on the preceding page becomes
0 2 02 P 1 dU rad . =2; 0/ 0q v D 0 0 2c dt 16 1 v c 3
FT
c
(6.185)
R A
which vanishes for angles '0 such that cos '0 D v0 c s
which means that an observer near the orbit plane sees a very strong pulse followed, half an orbit period later, by a much weaker pulse. The two cases represented by equation (6.184) above and equation (6.185) are very important results since they can be used to determine the characteristics of the particle motion both in particle accelerators and in astrophysical objects where a direct measurement of particle velocities are impossible. In the orbit plane ( D =2), equation (6.180) on the previous page gives 2 02 v0 0 2 02 1 rad cos ' 1 v 2 sin2 ' c P dU . =2; '/ c 0q v (6.186) D 5 v0 dt 0 16 2 c cos ' 1
(6.187a) (6.187b)
sin '0 D
v 02 c2
Hence, the angle '0 is a measure of the synchrotron radiation lobe width ; see Figure 6.11 on the facing page. For ultra-relativistic particles, dened by s 1 v 02 Ds 1; 1 1; (6.188) c2 v 02 1 c2
j 121
.t; x/ x x0
x2
Figure 6.11: When the observation point is in the plane of the particle orbit, i.e., D =2 the lobe width is given by .
v a 0 q0 0 0 .t ; x / P v '.t 0 / x1
x3
one can approximate s '0 sin '0 D 1
v 02 1 D 2 c
Hence, synchrotron radiation from ultra-relativistic charges is characterized by a radiation lobe width which is approximately 1
R A
!0
This angular interval is swept by the charge during the time interval
D
t 0 D l 0 D v 0 t 0 D v 0
!0
during which the particle moves a length interval
in the direction toward the observer who therefore measures a compressed pulse
FT
(6.189) (6.190) (6.191) (6.192)
122 j
width of length v 0 t 0 v0 l 0 0 D t D 1 t 0 t D t c c c 0 0 0 1 v 1C c v v 1 1 D D 1 v0 c !0 c !0 1C c 2 1 1 v 02 1 D 3 1 c 2 2 !0 2 !0 1= 2
0
v0 c
1 !0 (6.193)
Typically, the spectral width of a pulse of length t is ! 1=t . In the ultra-relativistic synchrotron case one can therefore expect frequency components up to !max 1 D2 t
3
!0
FT
(6.194)
R A
A spectral analysis of the radiation pulse will therefore exhibit a (broadened) line spectrum of Fourier components n!0 from n D 1 up to n 2 3 . When many charged particles, N say, contribute to the radiation, we can have three different situations depending on the relative phases of the radiation elds from the individual particles: 1. All N radiating particles are spatially much closer to each other than a typical wavelength. Then the relative phase differences of the individual electric and magnetic elds radiated are negligible and the total radiated elds from all individual particles will add up to become N times that from one particle. This means that the power radiated from the N particles will be N 2 higher than for a single charged particle. This is called coherent radiation.
2. The charged particles are perfectly evenly distributed in the orbit. In this case the phases of the radiation elds cause a complete cancellation of the elds themselves. No radiation escapes. 3. The charged particles are somewhat unevenly distributed in the orbit. This happens for an open ring current, carried initially by evenly distributed charged particles, which is subject to thermal uctuations. From statistical mechanics we know that this happens forp open systems and that the particle densities all exhibit uctuations of order N . This means that out of the N particles, p N will exhibit deviation from perfect randomnessand thereby perfect radiation eld cancellationand give rise to net radiation elds which are
j 123
vt q0 b jx B O E? x3 0 x0 j O v D v x1
Figure 6.12: The perpendicular electric eld of a charge q 0 moving with O O velocity v 0 D v 0 x is E? z.
6.5.4.3 Radiation in the general case
Integration over the solid angle Q dU rad D dt 0

0q
R A
v P 6 c
0 2 02
We recall that the general expression for the radiation E eld from a moving charge concentration is given by expression (6.123) on page 107. This expression in equation (6.179) on page 118 yields the general formula 2 02 dU rad .; '/ x0 j jx x0 j v 0 0 q jx 0 0 P D .x x / .x x / v0 dt 0 16 2 cs 5 c (6.195) gives the totally radiated power as (6.196)
v 02 c2
v c2
sin2 3 02
P where is the angle between v 0 and v 0 . 0 0 P If v is collinear with v , so that sin D 0, we get bremsstrahlung. For P v 0 ? v 0 , sin D 1, which corresponds to cyclotron radiation or synchrotron radiation.
6.5.4.4 Virtual photons

Let us consider a charge q 0 moving with constant, high velocity v 0 .t 0 / along the x1 axis. According to formula (6.139) on page 111 and Figure 6.12, the perpendicular component along the x3 axis of the electric eld from this moving charge is q0 v 02 O E? D E3 D 1 .x x0 / x3 (6.197) 4 "0 s 3 c2
FT
p proportional to N . As a result, the radiated power will be proportional to N , and we speak about incoherent radiation. Examples of this can be found both in earthly laboratories and under cosmic conditions.
124 j
Utilising expression (6.131) on page 109 and simple geometrical relations, we can rewrite this as E? D q0 4 "0 b
2
.v 0 t 0 /2 C b 2 =
2 3=2
(6.198)
This represents a contracted Coulomb eld, approaching the eld of a plane wave. The passage of this eld pulse corresponds to a frequency distribution of the eld energy. Fourier transforming, we obtain Z 1 1 q0 b! b! i!t E!;? D dt E? .t/ e D K1 (6.199) 2 4 2 "0 bv 0 v0 v0 1 Here, K1 is the Kelvin function (Bessel function of the second kind with imaginary argument) which behaves in such a way for small and large arguments that q0 ; 4 2 "0 bv 0 0; b!
E!;? E!;?
v0 ,
R A
V bmin
showing that the pulse length is of the order b=.v 0 /. Due to the equipartitioning of the eld energy into the electric and magnetic elds, the total eld energy can be written Z Z bmax Z 1 2 2 Q U D "0 d3x E? D "0 db 2 b dt v 0 E? (6.201)
1
where the volume integration is over the plane perpendicular to v 0 . With the use of Parsevals identity for Fourier transforms, formula (6.8) on page 80, we can rewrite this as Z 1 Z bmax Z 1 2 Q Q U D d! U! D 4 "0 v 0 db 2 b d! E!;? 0 bmin 0 (6.202) Z 1 Z v0 =! db q 02 d! 2 2 "0 v 0 1 b bmin from which we conclude that 0 q 02 v Q! U ln 2" v0 2 bmin ! 0
FT
b! v0 , b ! v0 1 1 b ! v0
(6.200a)
(6.200b)
(6.203)
where an explicit value of bmin can be calculated in quantum theory only. As in the case of bremsstrahlung, it is intriguing to quantise the energy into photons [cf. equation (6.173) on page 117]. Then we nd that c d! 2 N! d! ln (6.204) bmin ! !
p2
p1
6.6 Bibliography
[37] H. A LFVN AND N. H ERLOFSON, Cosmic radiation and radio stars, Physical Review, 78 (1950), p. 616. [38] R. B ECKER, Electromagnetic Fields and Interactions, Dover Publications, Inc., New York, NY, 1982, ISBN 0-486-64290-9. [39] M. B ORN AND E. W OLF, Principles of Optics. Electromagnetic Theory of Propagation, Interference and Diffraction of Light, sixth ed., Pergamon Press, Oxford,. . . , 1980, ISBN 0-08-026481-6.
a formula which gives a reasonable semi-classical account of a photon-induced electron-electron interaction process. In quantum theory, including only the lowest order contributions, this process is known as Mller scattering. A diagrammatic representation of (a semi-classical approximation of) this process is given in Figure 6.13.
0 Since this change in momentum corresponds to a change in energy ! D E1 E1 and E1 D m0 c 2 , we see that ! 2 E1 cp1 cp0 d! 1 N! d! ln (6.206) 0 m0 c 2 E1 E1 !
FT
where D e 2 =.4 "0 c/ 1=137 is the ne structure constant. Let us consider the interaction of two (classical) electrons, 1 and 2. The result of this interaction is that they change their linear momenta from p1 to p0 and p2 1 to p0 , respectively. Heisenbergs uncertainty principle gives bmin = p1 p0 2 1 so that the number of photons exchanged in the process is of the order 2 c p1 p0 d! ln (6.205) N! d! 1 ! !
6.6. Bibliography
j 125
p0 2
Figure 6.13: Diagrammatic representation of the semi-classical electron-electron interaction (Mller scattering).
p0 1
126 j
[40] V. L. G INZBURG, Applications of Electrodynamics in Theoretical Physics and Astrophysics, Revised third ed., Gordon and Breach Science Publishers, New York, London, Paris, Montreux, Tokyo and Melbourne, 1989, ISBN 2-88124-719-9. [41] M. A. H EALD AND J. B. M ARION, Classical Electromagnetic Radiation, third ed., Saunders College Publishing, Fort Worth, . . . , 1980, ISBN 0-03-097277-9. [42] J. D. JACKSON, Classical Electrodynamics, third ed., John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, NY . . . , 1999, ISBN 0-471-30932-X. [43] W. K. H. PANOFSKY AND M. P HILLIPS, Classical Electricity and Magnetism, second ed., Addison-Wesley Publishing Company, Inc., Reading, MA . . . , 1962, ISBN 0201-05702-6. [44] J. A. S TRATTON, Electromagnetic Theory, McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., New York, NY and London, 1953, ISBN 07-062150-0. [45] J. VANDERLINDE, Classical Electromagnetic Theory, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, Chichester, Brisbane, Toronto, and Singapore, 1993, ISBN 0-471-57269-1.
R A
FT
RELATIVISTIC ELECTRODYNAMICS
7.1 The special theory of relativity
An inertial system, or inertial reference frame, is a system of reference, or rigid coordinate system, in which the law of inertia (Galileos law, Newtons rst law) holds. In other words, an inertial system is a system in which free bodies move uniformly and do not experience any acceleration. The special theory of relativity describes how physical processes are interrelated when observed in 127
R A
We saw in Chapter 3 how the introduction of electrodynamic potentials led, in a most natural way, to the existence of a characteristic, nite speed of propagation of electromagnetic elds (and related quantities) in free space (vacuum) that p equals the speed of light c D 1= "0 0 and which can be considered a constant of Nature. To take this nite speed of propagation of information into account, and to ensure that our laws of physics be independent of any specic coordinate frame, requires a treatment of electrodynamics in a relativistically covariant (coordinate independent) form. This is the objective of this chapter.1 The technique we shall use to study relativity is the mathematical apparatus developed for non-Euclidean spaces of arbitrary dimensions, here specialised to four dimensions. It turns out that this theory of Riemannian spaces, derived for more or less purely mathematical reasons only, is ideal for a formal description of relativistic physics. For the simple case of the special theory of relativity, the mathematics is quite simple, whereas for the general theory of relativity it becomes more complicated.
FT
1
The Special Theory of Relativity, by the physicist and philosopher D A V I D B O H M , opens with the following paragraph: The theory of relativity is not merely a scientic development of great importance in its own right. It is even more signicant as the rst stage of a radical change in our basic concepts, which began in physics, and which is spreading into other elds of science, and indeed, even into a great deal of thinking outside of science. For as is well known, the modern trend is away from the notion of sure absolute truth, (i.e., one which holds independently of all conditions, contexts, degrees, and types of approximation etc.) and toward the idea that a given concept has signicance only in relation to suitable broader forms of reference, within which that concept can be given its full meaning.
128 j
7 . R ELATIVISTIC ELECTRODYNAMICS
Figure 7.1: Two inertial systems and 0 in relative motion with velocity v along the x D x 0 axis. At time t D t 0 D 0 the origin O 0 of 0 coincided with the origin O of . At time t , the inertial system 0 has been translated a distance vt along the x axis in . An event represented by P .t; x; y; z/ in is represented by P .t 0 ; x 0 ; y 0 ; z 0 / in 0 .
vt y
0
y0 v P .t; x; y; z/ P .t 0 ; x 0 ; y 0 ; z 0 /
O z
x z0
O0
x0
P O S T U L A T E 7.1 (Relativity principle; P OINCAR , 1905) All laws of physics (except the laws of gravitation) are independent of the uniform translational motion of the system on which they operate. P O S T U L A T E 7.2 (E INSTEIN , 1905) The velocity of light in empty space is independent of the motion of the source that emits the light.
R A
D v c 1 2 Dq 1
A consequence of the rst postulate is that all geometrical objects (vectors, tensors) in an equation describing a physical process must transform in a covariant manner, i.e., in the same way.
7.1.1 The Lorentz transformation
Let us consider two three-dimensional inertial systems and 0 in free space. They are in rectilinear motion relative to each other in such a way that 0 moves with constant velocity v along the x axis of the system. The times and the spatial coordinates as measured in the two systems are t and .x; y; z/, and t 0 and .x 0 ; y 0 ; z 0 /, respectively. At time t D t 0 D 0 the origins O and O 0 and the x and x 0 axes of the two inertial systems coincide and at a later time t they have the relative location as depicted in Figure 7.1, referred to as the standard conguration. For convenience, let us introduce the two quantities (7.1) (7.2)
FT
different inertial systems in uniform, rectilinear motion relative to each other and is based on two postulates:
7.1. The special theory of relativity
j 129
where v D jv j. In the following, we shall make frequent use of these shorthand notations. As shown by Einstein, the two postulates of special relativity require that the spatial coordinates and times as measured by an observer in and 0 , respectively, are connected by the following transformation: ct 0 D .ct x D .x y0 D y z Dz
0 0
x/ vt /
(7.3a) (7.3b) (7.3c) (7.3d)
c 2 t 02
x 02 D
c 2 t 2 2xct C x 2 2 x 2 C 2xvt v 2 t 2 v2 v2 1 c2t 2 1 x2 1 D c2 c2 v2 1 c2 2 2 Dc t x2
c2t 2
x2
R A
y2 z 2 D c 2 t 02 x 02 y 02 z 02
From equations (7.3) we see that the y and z coordinates are unaffected by the translational motion of the inertial system 0 along the x axis of system . Using this fact, we nd that we can generalise the result in equation (7.4) above to (7.5)
which means that if a light wave is transmitted from the coinciding origins O and O 0 at time t D t 0 D 0 it will arrive at an observer at .x; y; z/ at time t in and an observer at .x 0 ; y 0 ; z 0 / at time t 0 in 0 in such a way that both observers conclude that the speed (spatial distance divided by time) of light in vacuum is c. Hence, the speed of light in and 0 is the same. A linear coordinate transformation which has this property is called a (homogeneous) Lorentz transformation.
7.1.2 Lorentz space
Let us introduce an ordered quadruple of real numbers, enumerated with the help of upper indices D 0; 1; 2; 3, where the zeroth component is ct (c is the speed of light and t is time), and the remaining components are the components of the ordinary R3 radius vector x dened in equation (M.1) on page 199: x D .x 0 ; x 1 ; x 2 ; x 3 / D .ct; x; y; z/ .ct; x/ (7.6)
In order that this quadruple x represent a physical observable, it must transform as (the component form of) a radius four-vector in a real, linear, four-dimensional
FT
(7.4)
Taking the difference between the square of (7.3a) and the square of (7.3b) we nd that
130 j
The British mathematician and philosopher A L F R E D N O R T H W H I T E H E A D writes in his book The Concept of Nature: I regret that it has been necessary for me in this lecture to administer a large dose of fourdimensional geometry. I do not apologise, because I am really not responsible for the fact that Nature in its most fundamental aspect is four-dimensional. Things are what they are. . . .
vector space.2 We require that this four-dimensional space be a Riemannian space, i.e., a metric space where a distance and a scalar product are dened. In this space we therefore dene a metric tensor, also known as the fundamental tensor, which we denote by g .
7.1.2.1 Radius four-vector in contravariant and covariant form

The radius four-vector x D .x 0 ; x 1 ; x 2 ; x 3 / D .ct; x/, as dened in equation (7.6) on the previous page, is, by denition, the prototype of a contravariant vector (or, more accurately, a vector in contravariant component form). To every such vector there exists a dual vector. The vector dual to x is the covariant vector x , obtained as
FT
to take the simple form D D i D j D 1; 2; 3
x Dg
(7.7)
where the upper index in x is summed over and is therefore a dummy index and may be replaced by another dummy index , say. This summation process is an example of index contraction and is often referred to as index lowering.
7.1.2.2 Scalar product and norm
The scalar product of x with itself in a Riemannian space is dened as
R A
7.1.2.3 Metric tensor
g D D 1 if if :0 or, in matrix representation, 0 1 1 0 0 0 B0 1 0 0C B C . / D B C @0 0 1 0A 0 0 0 1
x x Dx x
(7.8)
This scalar product acts as an invariant distance, or norm, in this space. In order to put the physical property of Lorentz transformation invariance, described by equation (7.5) on the preceding page, into a convenient mathematical framework, we perceive this invariance as the manifestation of the conservation of the norm in a 4D Riemannian space.
In L4 one can choose the metric tensor g 8 1 if D D 0 <
(7.9)
(7.10)
j 131
i.e., a matrix with a main diagonal that has the sign sequence, or signature, fC; ; ; g, the index lowering operation in our at 4D space L4 becomes nearly trivial: In matrix representation the lowering of the indices of x becomes 0 1 0 x0 1 Bx C B0 B 1C B B CDB @x2 A @0 x3 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 10 1 0 x0 0 C Bx 1 C B 0 CB C B CB C D B 0 A @x 2 A @ 1 x3 1 x0 x1C C C x2A x3
(7.11)
I four-tensor notation, this can be written
Hence, if the metric tensor is dened according to expression (7.9) on the preceding page, the covariant radius four-vector x is obtained from the contravariant radius four-vector x simply by changing the sign of the last three components. These components are referred to as the space components; the zeroth component is referred to as the time component. As we see, for this particular choice of metric, the scalar product of x with itself becomes x x D .ct; x/ .ct; x/ D c 2 t 2
R A
x2 y2 z2
which indeed is the desired Lorentz transformation invariance as required by equation (7.13). Without changing the physics, one can alternatively choose a signature f ; C; C; Cg. The latter has the advantage that the transition from 3D to 4D becomes smooth, while it will introduce some annoying minus signs in the theory. In current physics literature, the signature fC; ; ; g seems to be the most commonly used one. Note that our space, regardless of signature chosen, will have an indenite norm, i.e., a norm which can be positive denite, negative denite or even zero. This means that we deal with a non-Euclidean space and we call our four-dimensional space (or space-time) with this property Lorentz space and denote it L4 . A corresponding real, linear 4D space with a positive denite norm which is conserved during ordinary rotations is a Euclidean vector space. We denote such a space R4 . The L4 metric tensor equation (7.9) on the preceding page has a number of interesting properties: rstly, we see that this tensor has a trace Tr D 2 whereas in R4 , as in any vector space with denite norm, the trace equals the space dimensionality. Secondly, we nd, after trivial algebra, that the following relations between the contravariant, covariant and mixed forms of the metric
FT
(7.13)
x D
x D .ct; x/
(7.12)
132 j
tensor hold:
D D
(7.14a) (7.14b) (7.14c) (7.14d)
D D D D
Here we have introduced the 4D version of the Kronecker delta , a mixed four-tensor of rank 2 that fulls ( 1 if D D D (7.15) 0 if Clearly, the matrix representation of this tensor is 0 1 1 0 0 0 B0 1 0 0C B C . / D B C @0 0 1 0A 0 0 0 1 i.e., the 4 4 unit matrix.
FT
.dx 1 /2 .dx 2 /2 .dx 3 /2 dx 2 dt !2 C dx 3 dt !2 3 5 v2 c2 s 1
(7.16)
R A
ds 2 D
7.1.2.4 Invariant line element and proper time
The differential distance ds between the two points x and x C dx in L4 can be calculated from the Riemannian metric, given by the quadratic differential form dx dx D dx dx D .dx 0 /2
(7.17)
where the metric tensor is as in equation (7.9) on page 130. As we see, this form is indenite as expected for a non-Euclidean space. The square root of this expression is the invariant line element
q
r
ds D c dt
2 !2 1 4 dx 1 C c2 dt
D c dt D c dt q
1 1
1 .vx /2 C .vy /2 C .vz /2 D c dt c2 dt 2 D c D c d
(7.18)
j 133
where we introduced d D dt = (7.19)
Since d measures the time when no spatial changes are present, it is called the proper time. Expressing the property of the Lorentz transformation described by equations (7.5) on page 129 in terms of the differential interval ds and comparing with equation (7.17) on the facing page, we nd that ds 2 D c 2 dt 2 dx 2 dy 2 dz 2 (7.20)
dx 2 C dy 2 C dz 2 < c 2 dt 2 ds is a time-like interval , but if dx 2 C dy 2 C dz 2 > c 2 dt 2 ds is a space-like interval , whereas dx 2 C dy 2 C dz 2 D c 2 dt 2
7.1.2.5 Four-vector elds
D
a .x / D
Any quantity which relative to any coordinate system has a quadruple of real numbers and transforms in the same way as the radius four-vector x does, is called a four-vector. In analogy with the notation for the radius four-vector we introduce the notation a D .a0 ; a/ for a general contravariant four-vector eld in L4 and nd that the lowering of index rule, formula (7.7) on page 130, for such an arbitrary four-vector yields the dual covariant four-vector eld a .x / D .a0 .x /; a.x // (7.24)
The scalar product between this four-vector eld and another one b .x / is a .x /b .x / D .a0 ; a/ .b 0 ; b/ D a0 b 0 a b (7.25)
which is a scalar eld , i.e., an invariant scalar quantity .x / which depends on time and space, as described by x D .ct; x; y; z/.
R A
is a light-like interval ; we may also say that in this case we are on the light cone. A vector which has a light-like interval is called a null vector. The time-like, space-like or light-like aspects of an interval ds are invariant under a Lorentz transformation. I.e., it is not possible to change a time-like interval into a space-like one or vice versa via a Lorentz transformation.
FT
(7.21) (7.22) (7.23)
is invariant, i.e., remains unchanged, during a Lorentz transformation. Conversely, we may say that every coordinate transformation which preserves this differential interval is a Lorentz transformation. If in some inertial system
134 j
7.1.2.6 The Lorentz transformation matrix

Introducing the transformation matrix 0 B B DB @ 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0C C C 0A 1
(7.26)
the linear Lorentz transformation (7.3) on page 129, i.e., the coordinate transformation x ! x 0 D x 0 .x 0 ; x 1 ; x 2 ; x 3 /, from one inertial system to another inertial system 0 in the standard conguration, can be written x0 D x
FT
(7.27)
7.1.2.7 The Lorentz group
It is easy to show, by means of direct algebra, that two successive Lorentz transformations of the type in equation (7.27) above, and dened by the speed parameters 1 and 2 , respectively, correspond to a single transformation with speed parameter
R A
D 1 C 2 1 C 1 2
(7.28)
This means that the nonempty set of Lorentz transformations constitutes a closed algebraic structure with a binary operation (multiplication) that is associative. Furthermore, one can show that this set possesses at least one identity element and at least one inverse element. In other words, this set of Lorentz transformations constitutes a mathematical group. However tempting, we shall not make any further use of group theory.
7.1.3 Minkowski space
Specifying a point x D .x 0 ; x 1 ; x 2 ; x 3 / in 4D space-time is a way of saying that something takes place at a certain time t D x 0 =c and at a certain place .x; y; z/ D .x 1 ; x 2 ; x 3 /. Such a point is therefore called an event. The trajectory for an event as a function of time and space is called a world line. For instance, the world line for a light ray that propagates in vacuum (free space) is the trajectory x0 D x1.
j 135
X0 X 00
x x1
01
Figure 7.2: Minkowski space can be considered an ordinary Euclidean space where a Lorentz transformation from .x 1 ; X 0 D ict / to .x 01 ; X 00 D ict 0 / corresponds to an ordinary rotation through an angle . This rotation leaves the Euclidean distance x 1 C X 0 x 2 c 2 t 2 invariant.
2 2
X 0 D ix 0 D ict X Dx X Dx
3 1 1
X 2 D x2
3
dS D ids where i D p
1, we see that equation (7.17) on page 132 transforms into
dS 2 D .dX 0 /2 C .dX 1 /2 C .dX 2 /2 C .dX 3 /2
R A
x 1 sin C X 0 cos
0 1
i.e., into a 4D differential form that is positive denite just as is ordinary 3D Euclidean space R3 . We shall call the 4D Euclidean space constructed in this way the Minkowski space M4 .3 As before, it sufces to consider the simplied case where the relative motion between and 0 is along the x axes. Then dS 2 D .dX 0 /2 C .dX 1 /2 D .dX 0 /2 C .dx 1 /2 (7.31)
D
X 00 D
01
and we consider the X 0 and X 1 D x 1 axes as orthogonal axes in a Euclidean space. As in all Euclidean spaces, every interval is invariant under a rotation of the X 0 x 1 plane through an angle into X 00 x 01 : (7.32a) (7.32b)
x D x cos C X sin
See Figure 7.2. If we introduce the angle ' D i , often called the rapidity or the Lorentz boost parameter, and transform back to the original space and time variables by
FT
(7.29a) (7.29c) (7.29b) (7.29d) (7.29e) (7.30)
The fact that our Riemannian space can be transformed in this way into a Euclidean one means that it is, strictly speaking, a pseudo-Riemannian space.
3
Introducing
136 j
using equation (7.29) on the preceding page backwards, we obtain ct 0 D x sinh ' C ct cosh ' ct sinh '
FT
Figure 7.3: Minkowski diagram depicting geometrically the transformation (7.33) from the unprimed system to the primed system. Here w denotes the world line for an event and the line x 0 D x 1 , x D ct the world line for a light ray in vacuum. Note that the event P is simultaneous with all points on the x 1 axis (t D 0), including the origin O. The event P 0 , which is simultaneous with all points on the x 0 axis, including O 0 D O, to an observer at rest in the primed system, is not simultaneous with O in the unprimed system but occurs there at time jP P 0 j =c.
x 0 D ct
w x 00 x0 D x1
' P0 ' ODO

0
x 01 ct
x1 D x
(7.33a) (7.33b)
x 0 D x cosh '
R A
sinh ' D cosh ' D tanh ' D
which are identical to the original transformation equations (7.3) on page 129 if we let (7.34a) (7.34b) (7.34c)
It is therefore possible to envisage the Lorentz transformation as an ordinary rotation in the 4D Euclidean space M4 . Such a rotation in M4 corresponds to a coordinate change in L4 as depicted in Figure 7.3. equation (7.28) on page 134 for successive Lorentz transformation then corresponds to the tanh addition formula tanh.'1 C '2 / D tanh '1 C tanh '2 1 C tanh '1 tanh '2 (7.35)
The use of ict and M4 , which leads to the interpretation of the Lorentz transformation as an ordinary rotation, may, at best, be illustrative, but is not very physical. Besides, if we leave the at L4 space and enter the curved space of general relativity, the ict trick will turn out to be an impasse. Let us therefore immediately return to L4 where all components are real valued.
7.2. Covariant classical mechanics
j 137
7.2 Covariant classical mechanics

The invariance of the differential distance ds in L4 , and the associated differential proper time d [see equation (7.18) on page 132] allows us to dene the four-velocity 1 0 dx u D d B C B C v Bs c C D .u0 ; u/ D .c; v / D B ;s C 2 2 A @ v v 1 1 c2 c2 (7.36)
dx p D m0 d
D m0
B C B m0 c m0 v C Bs C D .p 0 ; p/ .c; v / D B ;s C 2 2 A @ v v 1 1 c2 c2
From this we see that we can write p D mv where m D m0 D s m0 v2 c2
R A
1
We can interpret this such that the Lorentz covariance implies that the mass-like term in the ordinary 3D linear momentum is not invariant. A better way to look at this is that p D mv D m0 v is the covariantly correct expression for the kinetic three-momentum. Multiplying the zeroth (time) component of the four-momentum p by the scalar invariant c, we obtain
m0 c 2 cp 0 D m0 c 2 D s D mc 2 2 v 1 c2
Since this component has the dimension of energy and is the result of a Lorentzcovariant description of the motion of a particle with its kinetic momentum described by the spatial components of the four-momentum, equation (7.37) above, we interpret cp 0 as the total energy E. Hence, cp D .cp 0 ; cp/ D .E; cp/ (7.41)
FT
(7.37) (7.38) (7.39) (7.40)
which, when multiplied with the scalar invariant m0 yields the four-momentum 0 1
138 j
Scalar multiplying this four-vector with itself, we obtain cp cp D c 2 p p D c 2 .p 0 /2 .p 1 /2 .p 2 /2 .p 3 /2 (7.42)
D .E; cp/ .E; cp/ D E 2 c 2 p2 v2 .m0 c 2 /2 1 D .m0 c 2 /2 D v2 c2 1 c2
Since this is an invariant, this equation holds in any inertial frame, particularly in the frame where p D 0 and there we have E D m0 c 2 This is probably the most famous formula in physics history. (7.43)
7.3 Covariant classical electrodynamics
Let us consider a charge density which in its rest inertial system is denoted by The four-vector (in contravariant component form) j with D
0
FT
D
0
0.
dx d
0u
.c; v / D . c; v /
(7.44)
R A
D
0 2
(7.45)
is the four-current. The contravariant form of the four-del operator @ D @=@x is dened in equation (M.82) on page 213 and its covariant counterpart @ D @=@x in equation (M.83) on page 213, respectively. As is shown in Example M.6 on page 215, the dAlembert operator is the scalar product of the four-del with itself: D@ @ D@ @ D 1 @2 c 2 @t 2 r2 (7.46)
Since it has the characteristics of a four-scalar, the dAlembert operator is invariant and, hence, the homogeneous wave equation 2 f .t; x/ D 0 is Lorentz covariant.
7.3.1 The four-potential

If we introduce the four-potential A D ;A c
(7.47)
7.3. Covariant classical electrodynamics
j 139
where is the scalar potential and A the vector potential, dened in Section 3.3 on page 33, we can write the uncoupled inhomogeneous wave equations, equations (3.31) on page 36, in the following compact (and covariant) way:
2
A D
0j
(7.48)
With the help of the above, we can formulate our electrodynamic equations covariantly. For instance, the covariant form of the equation of continuity, equation (1.25) on page 10 is @ j D0 (7.49)
@ A D0
The Lorenz-Lorentz gauge is sometimes called the covariant gauge. The gauge transformations (3.26) on page 34 in covariant form are A 7! A0 D A C @ .x / (7.51)
where dV0 denotes the volume element as measured in the rest system, then from equation (7.45) on the facing page we see that dV D
0 dV0
R A
If only one dimension Lorentz contracts (for instance, due to relative motion along the x direction), a 3D spatial volume element transforms according to s q v2 1 dV D d3x D dV0 D dV0 1 2 D dV0 1 (7.52) c2
i.e., the charge in a given volume is conserved. We can therefore conclude that the elementary electric charge is a universal constant.
7.3.2 The Linard-Wiechert potentials
Let us now solve the the inhomogeneous wave equations (3.31) on page 36 in vacuum for the case of a well-localised charge q 0 at a source point dened by the radius four-vector x 0 .x 00 D ct 0 ; x 01 ; x 02 ; x 03 /. The eld point (observation point) is denoted by the radius four-vector x D .x 0 D ct; x 1 ; x 2 ; x 3 /. In the rest system we know that the solution is simply 0 q 1 .A /0 D ;A D ;0 (7.54) c 4 "0 c jx x0 j0 vD0
FT
(7.50) (7.53)
and the Lorenz-Lorentz gauge condition, equation (3.30) on page 36, can be written
140 j
where jx x0 j0 is the usual distance from the source point to the eld point, evaluated in the rest system (signied by the index 0). Let us introduce the relative radius four-vector between the source point and the eld point: R Dx x 0 D .c.t t 0 /; x x0 / (7.55)
Scalar multiplying this relative four-vector with itself, we obtain R R D .c.t t 0 /; x x0 / .c.t t 0 /; .x x0 // D c 2 .t t 0 /2 x 2 x0 (7.56)
x0 D c.t
t 0/
FT
x 0 /0 D . x x0 0 ; .x x 0 /0 / x 0 0
We know that in vacuum the signal (eld) from the charge q 0 at x 0 propagates to x with the speed of light c so that (7.57)
Inserting this into equation (7.56), we see that R R D0
(7.58)
or that equation (7.55) above can be written
R A D
and .R /0 D .x x0 ; x u R D u R
R D . x
x0 ; x
x0 /
(7.59)
Now we want to nd the correspondence to the rest system solution, equation (7.54) on the preceding page, in an arbitrary inertial system. We note from equation (7.36) on page 137 that in the rest system 0 1 C B B C v Bs c C .u /0 D B ;s D .c; 0/ C 2 2 A @ v v 1 1 c2 c 2 vD0 (7.60)
(7.61)
As all scalar products, u R is invariant, which means that we can evaluate it in any inertial system and it will have the same value in all other inertial systems. If we evaluate it in the rest system the result is: D .u /0 .R /0 0 D .c; 0/ .x x0 0 ; .x x0 /0 / D c x (7.62)
j 141
We therefore see that the expression A D q0 u 4 "0 cu R (7.63)
subject to the condition R R D 0 has the proper transformation properties (proper tensor form) and reduces, in the rest system, to the solution equation (7.54) on page 139. It is therefore the correct solution, valid in any inertial system. According to equation (7.36) on page 137 and equation (7.59) on the facing page u R D .c; v / x x0 ; .x x0 / D c x x0 v .x x0 / (7.64) Generalising expression (7.1) on page 128 to vector form: D v O
def
v c
and introducing
def s x
x0
v .x x0 / x c
x0
.x
we can write u R D cs and
u D cu R
R A
1 v ; cs c 2 s
from which we see that the solution (7.63) can be written q0 1 v A .x / D ; 2 D ;A 4 "0 cs c s c
D
.t; x/ D
where in the last step the denition of the four-potential, equation (7.47) on page 138, was used. Writing the solution in the ordinary 3D way, we conclude that for a very localised charge volume, moving relative an observer with a velocity v, the scalar and vector potentials are given by the expressions q0 1 q0 1 D 0j 4 "0 s 4 "0 jx x .x x0 / 0 0 q v q v A.t; x/ D D 2 s 2 jx 0j 4 "0 c 4 "0 c x .x x0 / (7.70a) (7.70b)
These potentials are the Linard-Wiechert potentials that we derived in a more complicated and restricted way in Subsection 6.5.1 on page 100.
FT
(7.65) x0 / (7.66) (7.67) (7.68) (7.69)
142 j
7.3.3 The electromagnetic eld tensor

Consider a vectorial (cross) product c between two ordinary vectors a and b: cDa bD O ij k ai bj xk a3 b2 /O 1 C .a3 b1 x a1 b3 /O 2 C .a1 b2 x a2 b1 /O 3 x (7.71)
D .a2 b3
We notice that the kth component of the vector c can be represented as ck D ai bj aj bi D cij D cj i ; i; j k (7.72)
@B (7.73) @t can in this tensor notation be written @Ej @Ei @Bij D (7.74) i j @x @x @t We know from Chapter 3 that the elds can be derived from the electromagnetic potentials in the following way: r ED
R A
ED r Bij D
BDr
FT
In other words, the pseudovector c D a b can be considered as an antisymmetric tensor of rank two. The same is true for the curl operator r operating on a polar vector. For instance, the Maxwell equation
(7.75a) (7.75b)
@A @t In component form, this can be written
@Ai @Aj D @i Aj @j Ai (7.76a) @x i @x j @ @Ai Ei D D @i @ t Ai (7.76b) i @x @t From this, we notice the clear difference between the axial vector (pseudovector) B and the polar vector (ordinary vector) E. Our goal is to express the electric and magnetic elds in a tensor form where the components are functions of the covariant form of the four-potential, equation (7.47) on page 138: A D ;A (7.77) c Inspection of (7.77) and equation (7.76) above makes it natural to dene the four-tensor @A @A F D D@ A @ A (7.78) @x @x
j 143
This anti-symmetric (skew-symmetric), four-tensor of rank 2 is called the electromagnetic eld tensor or the Faraday tensor. In matrix representation, the contravariant eld tensor can be written 0 1 0 Ex =c Ey =c Ez =c BE =c 0 Bz By C B x C .F / D B (7.79) C @Ey =c Bz 0 Bx A Ez =c By Bx 0 We note that the eld tensor is a sort of four-dimensional curl of the four-potential vector A . The covariant eld tensor is obtained from the contravariant eld tensor in the usual manner by index lowering F D
F D @ A
@ A
which in matrix representation becomes 0 1 0 Ex =c Ey =c Ez =c B E =c 0 Bz By C B x C F DB C @ Ey =c Bz 0 Bx A Ez =c By Bx 0
@ F
R A
D
0j 0
Comparing formula (7.81) with formula (7.79) above we see that the covariant eld tensor is obtained from the contravariant one by a transformation E ! E. That the two Maxwell source equations can be written (7.82)
D
r ED "0
is immediately observed by explicitly solving this covariant equation. Setting D 0, corresponding to the rst/leftmost column in the matrix representation of the covariant component form of the electromagnetic eld tensor, F , i.e., equation (7.79), we see that @F 00 @F 10 @F 20 @F 30 1 @Ex @Ey @Ez C C C D0C C C @x 0 @x 1 @x 2 @x 3 c @x @y @z (7.83) 1 0 D r E D 0j D 0c c or, equivalently (recalling that "0 D 1=c 2 ), (7.84)
which we recognise as the Maxwell source equation for the electric eld, equation (1.49a) on page 15.
FT
(7.80) (7.81)
144 j
For D 1 [the second column in equation (7.79) on the preceding page], equation (7.82) on the previous page yields @F 01 @F 11 @F 21 @F 31 C C C D @x 0 @x 1 @x 2 @x 3 D
1 0j D 0
1 @Ex @Bz C0C c 2 @t @y
@By @z
(7.85)
vx
This result can be rewritten as @Bz @y @By @z "0

0
@Ex D @t
0 jx
(7.86)
or, equivalently, as .r B/x D

0 jx
C "0
FT
0
@Ex @t
(7.87)
and similarly for form as r BD
D 2; 3. In summary, we can write the result in three-vector @E @t
0 j.t; x/
C "0
(7.88)
R A
?
which we recognise as the Maxwell source equation for the magnetic eld, equation (1.49d) on page 15. With the help of the fully antisymmetric rank-4 pseudotensor 8 1 if ; ; ; is an even permutation of 0,1,2,3 < D 0 (7.89) if at least two of ; ; ; are equal : 1 if ; ; ; is an odd permutation of 0,1,2,3 which can be viewed as a generalisation of the Levi-Civita tensor, formula (M.18) on page 202, we can introduce the dual electromagnetic tensor F D 1 2
F D
(7.90)
with the further property

? ?
(7.91)
In matrix representation the dual eld tensor is 0 1 0 Bx By Bz BB 0 Ez =c Ey =c C B x C ? F DB C @By Ez =c 0 Ex =c A Bz Ey =c Ex =c 0
(7.92)
7.4. Bibliography
j 145
i.e., the dual eld tensor is obtained from the ordinary eld tensor by the duality transformation E ! cB and B ! E=c. The covariant form of the two Maxwell eld equations r ED @B @t (7.93) (7.94)
r BD0 can then be written @

?
D0
(7.95)
Explicit evaluation shows that this corresponds to (no summation!) @ F C@ F
C @ F D 0
sometimes referred to as the Jacobi identity. Hence, equation (7.82) on page 143 and equation (7.96) above constitute Maxwells equations in four-dimensional formalism. It is interesting to note that equation (7.82) on page 143 and @
?
0 jm
[46] J. A HARONI, The Special Theory of Relativity, second, revised ed., Dover Publications, Inc., New York, 1985, ISBN 0-486-64870-2. [47] A. O. BARUT, Electrodynamics and Classical Theory of Fields and Particles, Dover Publications, Inc., New York, NY, 1980, ISBN 0-486-64038-8.
[48] R. B ECKER, Electromagnetic Fields and Interactions, Dover Publications, Inc., New York, NY, 1982, ISBN 0-486-64290-9. [49] W. T. G RANDY, Introduction to Electrodynamics and Radiation, Academic Press, New York and London, 1970, ISBN 0-12-295250-2. [50] L. D. L ANDAU AND E. M. L IFSHITZ, The Classical Theory of Fields, fourth revised English ed., vol. 2 of Course of Theoretical Physics, Pergamon Press, Ltd., Oxford . . . , 1975, ISBN 0-08-025072-6. [51] F. E. L OW, Classical Field Theory, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, NY . . . , 1997, ISBN 0-471-59551-9.
7.4 Bibliography
where jm is the magnetic four-current, represent the covariant form of Diracs symmetrised Maxwell equations (1.50) on page 16.
FT
(7.96) (7.97)
146 j
[52] H. M UIRHEAD, The Special Theory of Relativity, The Macmillan Press Ltd., London, Beccles and Colchester, 1973, ISBN 333-12845-1. [53] C. M LLER, The Theory of Relativity, second ed., Oxford University Press, Glasgow . . . , 1972. [54] W. K. H. PANOFSKY AND M. P HILLIPS, Classical Electricity and Magnetism, second ed., Addison-Wesley Publishing Company, Inc., Reading, MA . . . , 1962, ISBN 0-201-05702-6. [55] J. J. S AKURAI, Advanced Quantum Mechanics, Addison-Wesley Publishing Company, Inc., Reading, MA . . . , 1967, ISBN 0-201-06710-2. [56] B. S PAIN, Tensor Calculus, third ed., Oliver and Boyd, Ltd., Edinburgh and London, 1965, ISBN 05-001331-9.
R A
FT
ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELDS AND PARTICLES
8.1 Charged particles in an electromagnetic eld

We rst establish a relativistically correct theory describing the motion of charged particles in prescribed electric and magnetic elds. From these equations we may then calculate the charged particle dynamics in the most general case.
8.1.1 Covariant equations of motion
We will show that for our problem we can derive the correct equations of motion by using in four-dimensional L4 a function with similar properties as a Lagrange function in 3D and then apply a variational principle. We will also show that we can nd a Hamiltonian-type function in 4D and solve the corresponding Hamilton-type equations to obtain the correct covariant formulation of classical electrodynamics. 147
R A
In previous chapters, we calculated the electromagnetic elds and potentials from arbitrary, but prescribed distributions of charges and currents. In this chapter we rst study the opposite situation, viz., the dynamics of charged particles in arbitrary, but prescribed electromagnetic elds. Then we go on to consider the general problem of interaction between electric and magnetic elds and electrically charged particles. The analysis is based on Lagrangian and Hamiltonian methods, is fully covariant, and yields results which are relativistically correct.
FT
148 j
8 . E L E C TROMAGNETIC FIELDS AND PARTICLES
8.1.1.1 Lagrangian formalism

In analogy with particle dynamics in 3D Euclidean space, we introduce a generalised 4D action Z S4 D L4 .x ; u / d (8.1) where d is the proper time dened via equation (7.18) on page 132, and L4 acts as a kind of generalisation to the common 3D Lagrangian. As a result, the variational principle Z 1 S4 D L4 .x ; u / d D 0 (8.2)
0
R A
L4 D
0
1 m0 u u (8.3) 2 Again drawing inferences from analytical mechanics in 3D, we introduce a generalised interaction between the particles and the electromagnetic eld with the help of the four-potential given by equation (7.77) on page 142 in the following way Lfree D 4
1 m0 u u C qu A .x / (8.4) 2 We call this the four-Lagrangian and shall now show how this function, together with the variation principle, formula (8.2) above, yields Lorentz covariant results which are physically correct. The variation principle (8.2) with the 4D Lagrangian (8.4) inserted, leads to Z 1 m0 S4 D u u C qu A .x / d 2 Z 10 m0 @.u u / @A u C q A u C u x D d (8.5) 2 @u @x Z 01 m0 u u C q A u C u @ A x d D 0 D According to equation (7.36) on page 137, the four-velocity is u D dx d (8.6)
FT
with xed endpoints 0 ; 1 must be fullled. We require that L4 is a scalar invariant which does not contain higher than the second power of the four-velocity u in order that the resulting equations of motion be linear. According to formula (M.113) on page 218 the ordinary 3D Lagrangian is the difference between the kinetic and potential energies. A free particle has only kinetic energy. If the particle mass is m0 then in 3D the kinetic energy is m0 v 2 =2. This suggests that in 4D the Lagrangian for a free particle should be
8.1. Charged particles in an electromagnetic eld
j 149
which means that we can write the variation of u as a total derivative with respect to : dx u D d D d .x / d (8.7)
Inserting this into the rst two terms in the last integral in equation (8.5) on the preceding page, we obtain Z 1 d d .x / C qA .x / C qu @ A x d S4 D m0 u (8.8) d d 0 Partial integration in the two rst terms in the right hand member of (8.8) gives Z 1 dA du x q x C qu @ A x d (8.9) S4 D m0 d d 0
Applying well-known rules of differentiation and the expression (7.36) for the four-velocity, we can express dA =d as follows: dA @A dx D d @x d D@ A u (8.11)
D
m0 du D qu d @ A
By inserting this expression (8.11) into the second term in right-hand member of equation (8.10), and noting the common factor qu of the resulting term and the last term, we obtain the nal variational principle expression Z 1 du S4 D m0 C qu @ A @ A x d (8.12) d 0 Since, according to the variational principle, this expression shall vanish and x is arbitrary between the xed end points 0 and 1 , the expression inside in the integrand in the right hand member of equation (8.12) above must vanish. In other words, we have found an equation of motion for a charged particle in a prescribed electromagnetic eld: @ A (8.13)
R A
where the integrated parts do not contribute since the variations at the endpoints vanish. A change of irrelevant summation index from to in the rst two terms of the right hand member of (8.9) yields, after moving the ensuing common factor x outside the parenthesis, the following expression: Z 1 du dA S4 D m0 q C qu @ A x d (8.10) d d 0
FT
150 j
With the help of formula (7.80) on page 143 for the covariant component form of the eld tensor, we can express this equation in terms of the electromagnetic eld tensor in the following way: m0 du D qu F d (8.14)
This is the sought-for covariant equation of motion for a particle in an electromagnetic eld. It is often referred to as the Minkowski equation. As the reader may easily verify, the spatial part of this 4-vector equation is the covariant (relativistically correct) expression for the Newton-Lorentz force equation.
8.1.1.2 Hamiltonian formalism

The usual Hamilton equations for a 3D space are given by equation (M.124) on page 219 in Appendix M. These six rst-order partial differential equations are dqi @H D @pi dt @H dpi D @qi dt (8.15a) (8.15b)
R A
p D @L4 @u H4 D p u L4
where H.pi ; qi ; t / D pi qi L.qi ; qi ; t/ is the ordinary 3D Hamiltonian, qi is a P P generalised coordinate and pi is its canonically conjugate momentum. We seek a similar set of equations in 4D space. To this end we introduce a canonically conjugate four-momentum p in an analogous way as the ordinary 3D conjugate momentum (8.16)
and utilise the four-velocity u , as given by equation (7.36) on page 137, to dene the four-Hamiltonian (8.17)
With the help of these, the radius four-vector x , considered as the generalised four-coordinate, and the invariant line element ds, dened in equation (7.18) on page 132, we introduce the following eight partial differential equations: @H4 dx D @p d @H4 dp D @x d (8.18a) (8.18b)
which form the four-dimensional Hamilton equations.
FT
j 151
Our strategy now is to use equation (8.16) on the facing page and equations (8.18) on the preceding page to derive an explicit algebraic expression for the canonically conjugate momentum four-vector. According to equation (7.41) on page 137, c times a four-momentum has a zeroth (time) component which we can identify with the total energy. Hence we require that the component p 0 of the conjugate four-momentum vector dened according to equation (8.16) on the preceding page be identical to the ordinary 3D Hamiltonian H divided by c and hence that this cp 0 solves the Hamilton equations, equations (8.15) on the facing page.1 This later consistency check is left as an exercise to the reader. Using the denition of H4 , equation (8.17) on the preceding page, and the expression for L4 , equation (8.4) on page 148, we obtain H4 D p u L4 D p u 1 m0 u u 2 qu A .x / (8.19)
Recall that in 3D, the Hamiltonian equals the total energy.
Furthermore, from the denition (8.16) of the canonically conjugate four-momentum p , we see that @ 1 @L4 D m0 u u C qu A .x / D m0 u C qA (8.20) p D @u @u 2 Inserting this into (8.19), we obtain H4 D m0 u u C qA u 1 m0 u u 2
R A
qA /
qu A .x / D
Since the four-velocity scalar-multiplied by itself is u u D c 2 , we clearly see from equation (8.21) above that H4 is indeed a scalar invariant, whose value is simply H4 D m0 c 2 2 (8.22)
However, at the same time (8.20) provides the algebraic relationship
u D
1 .p m0
and if this is used in (8.21) to eliminate u , one gets m0 1 1 .p H4 D qA / p qA 2 m0 m0 1 .p D qA / p qA 2m0 1 D p p 2qA p C q 2 A A 2m0
FT
1 m0 u u 2 (8.21) (8.23) (8.24)
152 j
That this four-Hamiltonian yields the correct covariant equation of motion can be seen by inserting it into the four-dimensional Hamilton equations (8.18) and using the relation (8.23): @H4 D @x D D D q .p m0 q m0 u m0 @A qu @x dp D d qA / @A @x @A @x (8.25) du d @A u @x
m0
m0
du D qu d
@ A
FT
@ A D qu F .p/2 2 q2 q p 0 C 2q.p A/ C 2 c c
2
where in the last step equation (8.20) on the preceding page was used. Rearranging terms, and using equation (7.80) on page 143, we obtain (8.26)
R A
p p D .p 0 /2 1 0 A p D p c 1 A A D 2 2 c .p/2 .p A/ .A/2
which is identical to the covariant equation of motion equation (8.14) on page 150. We can therefore safely conclude that the Hamiltonian in question yields correct results. Recalling expression (7.47) on page 138 for the four-potential, and representing the canonically conjugate four-momentum as p D .p 0 ; p/, we obtain the following scalar products: (8.27a) (8.27b) (8.27c)
Inserting these explicit expressions into equation (8.24) on the preceding page, and using the fact that H4 is equal to the scalar value m0 c 2 =2, as derived in equation (8.22) on the previous page, we obtain the equation m0 c 2 1 D 2 2m0 .p 0 /2 q 2 .A/2 (8.28)
which is a second-order algebraic equation in p 0 : .p 0 /2 2q 0 p c .p/2 q2 2qp A C q 2 .A/2 C 2 c

.p qA/2 2
m2 c 2 D 0 (8.29) 0
j 153
with two possible solutions q p D c

0
.p
qA/2 C m2 c 2 0
(8.30)
Since the zeroth component (time component) p 0 of a four-momentum vector p multiplied by c represents the energy [cf. equation (7.41) on page 137], the positive solution in equation (8.30) above must be identied with the ordinary Hamilton function H divided by c. Consequently, q H cp 0 D q C c .p qA/2 C m2 c 2 0 (8.31)
LDp v
LDp v
R A
q q c .p qA/2 C m2 c 2 0 m0 v D mv 1 v2 c2 q q c m2 v 2 C m2 c 2 0 q. A v/ mc 2 D q C qA v
Using the the explicit expressions given by equation (8.31) and equation (8.32), we obtain the explicit expression for the ordinary 3D Lagrange function (8.33)
and if we make the identication p qA D s
D
L D qA v C mv 2 D mv 2
where the quantity mv is the usual kinetic momentum, we can rewrite this expression for the ordinary Lagrangian as follows:
What we have obtained is the relativistically correct (covariant) expression for the Lagrangian describing the mechanical motion of a charged particle in scalar and vector potentials associated with prescribed electric and magnetic elds.
FT
(8.32) (8.34) s m0 c 2 1 v2 c2 (8.35)
is the ordinary 3D Hamilton function for a charged particle moving in scalar and vector potentials associated with prescribed electric and magnetic elds. The ordinary Lagrange and Hamilton functions L and H are related to each other by the 3D transformation [cf. the 4D transformation (8.17) between L4 and H4 ]
154 j
Figure 8.1: A one-dimensional chain consisting of N discrete, identical mass points m, connected to their neighbours with identical, ideal springs with spring constants k. The equilibrium distance between the neighbouring mass points is a and i 1 .t /, i .t /, iC1 .t / are the instantaneous deviations, along the x axis, of positions of the .i 1/th, i th, and .i C 1/th mass point, respectively.
i 1
iC1
k a
k a
k a
k a
m x
8.2 Covariant eld theory
R A
8.2.1 Lagrange-Hamilton formalism for elds and interactions
Consider the situation, illustrated in Figure 8.1, with N identical mass points, each with mass m and connected to its neighbour along a one-dimensional straight line, which we choose to be the x axis, by identical ideal springs with spring constants k (Hookes law). At equilibrium the mass points are at rest, distributed evenly with a distance a to their two nearest neighbours so that the equilibrium O coordinate for the ith particle is xi D iax . After perturbation, the motion of O mass point i will be a one-dimensional oscillatory motion along x. Let us denote the deviation for mass point i from its equilibrium position by i .t/O . x As is well known, the solution to this mechanical problem can be obtained if we can nd a Lagrangian (Lagrange function) L which satises the variational equation Z L. i ; Pi ; t / dt D 0 (8.36) According to equation (M.113) on page 218, the Lagrangian is L D T V where T denotes the kinetic energy and V the potential energy of a classical mechanical
FT
So far, we have considered two classes of problems. Either we have calculated the elds from given, prescribed distributions of charges and currents, or we have derived the equations of motion for charged particles in given, prescribed elds. Let us now put the elds and the particles on an equal footing and present a theoretical description which treats the elds, the particles, and their interactions in a unied way. This involves transition to a eld picture with an innite number of degrees of freedom. We shall rst consider a simple mechanical problem whose solution is well known. Then, drawing inferences from this model problem, we apply a similar view on the electromagnetic problem.
8.2. Covariant eld theory
j 155
system with conservative forces. In our case the Lagrangian is 1 X h P2 LD m i 2

iD1 N
k.
iC1
2 i/
(8.37)
Let us write the Lagrangian, as given by equation (8.37) above, in the following way: LD where
N X iD1
aLi
(8.38)
is the so called linear Lagrange density, measured in J m 1 . If we now let N ! 1 and, at the same time, let the springs become innitesimally short according to the following scheme: a ! dx m dm ! D a dx ka ! Y
i C1 i
linear mass density Youngs modulus
R A
! @ @x Y @ @x 2 #
we obtain Z L D L dx
where " 1 @ 2 @ @ L ; ; ;t D @t @x 2 @t
Notice how we made a transition from a discrete description, in which the mass points were identied by a discrete integer variable i D 1; 2; : : : ; N , to a continuous description, where the innitesimal mass points were instead identied O by a continuous real parameter x, namely their position along x. A consequence of this transition is that the number of degrees of freedom for the system went from the nite number N to innity! Another consequence is that L has now become dependent also on the partial derivative with respect to x of the eld coordinate . But, as we shall see, the transition is well worth the cost because it allows us to treat all elds, be it classical scalar or vectorial elds,
FT
(8.40a) (8.40b) (8.40c) (8.40d) (8.41) (8.42)
1 Li D 2
"
m P2 a i
ka
i C1
2 # (8.39)
156 j
or wave functions, spinors and other elds that appear in quantum physics, on an equal footing. Under the assumption of time independence and xed endpoints, the variation principle (8.36) on page 154 yields: Z L dt ZZ @ @ D L ; ; dx dt @t @x 2 3 ZZ @L @ 5 4 @L C @L @ C dx dt D @ @ @ @t @x @ @t @ @x
(8.43)
As before, the last integral can be integrated by parts. This results in the expression ZZ 2 4 @L @ @ @ @L A @t @ @ @t 0 1 @ @ @L A5 dx dt D 0 @x @ @ @x 0 13
FT
1 @2 @x 2 D0
D0
(8.44)
where the variation is arbitrary (and the endpoints xed). This means that the integrand itself must vanish. If we introduce the functional derivative
R A
L @L D @ @ @ @L A @x @ @ @x 0 we can express this as L 0 1 @ @ @L A D0 @t @ @ @t
(8.45)
(8.46)
which is the one-dimensional Euler-Lagrange equation. Inserting the linear mass point chain Lagrangian density, equation (8.42) on the previous page, into equation (8.46), we obtain the equation of motion for our one-dimensional linear mechanical structure. It is: @2 @t 2 @2 Y 2 D @x @2 Y @t 2 (8.47)
i.e., the one-dimensional wave equation for compression waves which propagate p with phase speed v D Y = along the linear structure.
j 157
A generalisation of the above 1D results to a three-dimensional continuum is straightforward. For this 3D case we get the variational principle Z ZZ Z @ d4x L dt D L d3x dt D L ; @x 2 0 13 ZZ (8.48) @L @ @ @L A5 4 D d4x D 0 @ @x @ @
@x
This constitutes the four-dimensional Euler-Lagrange equations. Introducing the three-dimensional functional derivative 0 1 L @L @ @ @L A D @ @x i @ @
@x i
In analogy with particle mechanics (nite number of degrees of freedom), we may introduce the canonically conjugate momentum density .x / D .t; x/ D @L @
@ @t
R A
@t
we can express this as 0 1 L @ @ @L A D0 @t @ @
and dene the Hamilton density @ @ @ @ H ; ; i It D L ; ; i @x @t @t @x
D
@ @H D @ @t H @ D @t
If, as usual, we differentiate this expression and identify terms, we obtain the following Hamilton density equations (8.54a) (8.54b)
The Hamilton density functions are in many ways similar to the ordinary Hamilton functions for a system of a nite number of particles and lead to similar results. However, they describe the dynamics of a continuous system of innitely many degrees of freedom.
FT
(8.50) (8.51) (8.52) (8.53)
where the variation is arbitrary and the endpoints are xed. This means that the integrand itself must vanish: 0 1 @ @ @L A @L D0 (8.49) @ @x @ @
@x
158 j
8.2.1.1 The electromagnetic eld

Above, when we described the mechanical eld, we used a scalar eld .t; x/. If we want to describe the electromagnetic eld in terms of a Lagrange density L and Euler-Lagrange equations, it comes natural to express L in terms of the four-potential A .x /. The entire system of particles and elds consists of a mechanical part, a eld part and an interaction part. We therefore assume that the total Lagrange density L tot for this system can be expressed as
L tot D L mech C L inter C L eld
(8.55)
L mech D
1 %0 u u 2
FT
F 1 4
0
where the mechanical part has to do with the particle motion (kinetic energy). It is given by L4 =V where L4 is given by equation (8.3) on page 148 and V is the volume. Expressed in the rest mass density %0 , the mechanical Lagrange density can be written (8.56)
The L inter part describes the interaction between the charged particles and the external electromagnetic eld. A convenient expression for this interaction Lagrange density is
R A
L inter D j A L eld D
(8.57)
For the eld part L eld we choose the difference between magnetic and electric energy density (in analogy with the difference between kinetic and potential energy in a mechanical eld). With the help of the eld tensor, we express this eld Lagrange density as 1 F F (8.58)
so that the total Lagrangian density can be written

L tot D
1 1 %0 u u C j A C F 2 4 0
(8.59)
From this we can calculate all physical quantities. Using L tot in the 3D Euler-Lagrange equations, equation (8.49) on the preceding page (with replaced by A ), we can derive the dynamics for the whole system. For instance, the electromagnetic part of the Lagrangian density
L EM D L inter C L eld D j A C
(8.60)
j 159
inserted into the Euler-Lagrange equations, expression (8.49) on page 157, yields two of Maxwells equations. To see this, we note from equation (8.60) on the facing page and the results in Example 8.1 that @L EM Dj @A Furthermore, @L EM 1 @ D @ @.@ A / 4 0 @ 1 @ D 4 0 @.@ A ( 1 @ D @ 4 0 @.@ A @ F F @.@ A / h .@ A @ A /.@ A @ A @ A
(8.61)
/ /
@ A /
@ A @ A C @ A @ A D But @ @ A @ A @.@ A / @ D @ A @.@ A @ D @ A @.@ A @ D @ A @.@ A D 2@ A Similarly, D @ A 1 2

0
@ @ A @ A @.@ A /
@ A @ A
R A
@ A /D 1
0
@ @ @ A C @ A @ A @.@ A / @.@ A / @ @ A C @ A @ A / @.@ A / @ @ A C @ A @ A / @.@ A / @ @ A C @ A @ A / @.@ A /
@ @ A @ A D 2@ A @.@ A /
so that @L EM 1 @ D @ .@ A @.@ A / 0
This means that the Euler-Lagrange equations, expression (8.49) on page 157, for the Lagrangian density L EM and with A as the eld quantity become @L EM @L EM 1 @ Dj @ F D0 (8.66) @A @.@ A / 0
FT
)
@ A @ A
(8.62)
(8.63)
(8.64)
@ F
(8.65)
160 j
or @ F D
0j
(8.67)
which, according to equation (7.82) on page 143, is a Lorentz covariant formulation of Maxwells source equations.
E X A M P L E 8.1 Field energy difference expressed in the eld tensor Show, by explicit calculation, that 1 4
0
1 D 2
B2
0
! "0 E
2
(8.68)
i.e., the difference between the magnetic and electric eld energy densities.
FT
Bx 0
2 Ey =c 2 2 Ez =c 2 2 2 2 2 2Ez =c 2 C 2Bx C 2By C 2Bz
From formula (7.79) on page 143 we recall that 0 1 0 Ex =c Ey =c Ez =c BE =c 0 Bz By C C F DB x @Ey =c Bz 0 Bx A Ez =c By and from formula (7.81) on page 143 that 0 1 0 Ex =c Ey =c Ez =c B E =c 0 Bz By C C F DB x @ Ey =c Bz 0 Bx A Ez =c By Bx 0
(8.69)
(8.70)
R A
F F D0
2 Ex =c 2 2 2 2 Ex =c 2 C 0 C Bz C By 2 2 2 Ey =c 2 C Bz C 0 C Bx 2 2 2 Ez =c 2 C By C Bx C 0 2 2Ey =c 2
where denotes the row number and direct substitution yields
the column number. Then, Einstein summation and
D F 00 F00 C F 01 F01 C F 02 F02 C F 03 F03 C F 10 F10 C F 11 F11 C F 12 F12 C F 13 F13 C F 20 F20 C F 21 F21 C F 22 F22 C F 23 F23
C F 30 F30 C F 31 F31 C F 32 F32 C F 33 F33 (8.71)
D D
2 2Ex =c 2
2E 2 =c 2 C 2B 2 D 2.B 2 B2
0
E 2 =c 2 /
or [cf. equation (2.9a) on page 22] 1

0
1 D 2
1 c2
0
! E
2
1 D 2
B2
0
! "0 E
2
"0 2 .E 2
c2B 2/ (8.72)
where, in the last step, the identity "0
D 1=c 2 was used.
QED End of example 8.1
j 161
8.2.1.2 Other elds

In general, the dynamic equations for most any elds, and not only electromagnetic ones, can be derived from a Lagrangian density together with a variational principle (the Euler-Lagrange equations). Both linear and non-linear elds are studied with this technique. As a simple example, consider a real, scalar eld which has the following Lagrange density:
L D
1 @ 2
m2
(8.73)
Insertion into the 1D Euler-Lagrange equation, equation (8.46) on page 156, yields the dynamic equation
with the solution D e i.k x

!t / e mjxj
jxj
which describes the Yukawa meson eld for a scalar meson with mass m. With D 1 @ c 2 @t
A
2
we obtain the Hamilton density 1h 2 2 H D c C .r /2 C m2 2
R
4 m2 A D
0j
which is positive denite. Another Lagrangian density which has attracted quite some interest is the Proca Lagrangian
L EM D L inter C L eld D j A C
1
0
which leads to the dynamic equation
@ F
This equation describes an electromagnetic eld with a mass, or, in other words, massive photons. If massive photons would exist, large-scale magnetic elds, including those of the earth and galactic spiral arms, would be signicantly modied to yield measurable discrepancies from their usual form. Space experiments of this kind on board satellites have led to stringent upper bounds on the photon mass. If the photon really has a mass, it will have an impact on electrodynamics as well as on cosmology and astrophysics.
FT
(8.75) (8.76) (8.77) F C m2 A A (8.78) (8.79)
m2 / D 0
(8.74)
162 j
8.3 Bibliography
[57] A. O. BARUT, Electrodynamics and Classical Theory of Fields and Particles, Dover Publications, Inc., New York, NY, 1980, ISBN 0-486-64038-8. [58] V. L. G INZBURG, Applications of Electrodynamics in Theoretical Physics and Astrophysics, Revised third ed., Gordon and Breach Science Publishers, New York, London, Paris, Montreux, Tokyo and Melbourne, 1989, ISBN 2-88124-719-9. [59] H. G OLDSTEIN, Classical Mechanics, second ed., Addison-Wesley Publishing Company, Inc., Reading, MA . . . , 1981, ISBN 0-201-02918-9. [60] W. T. G RANDY, Introduction to Electrodynamics and Radiation, Academic Press, New York and London, 1970, ISBN 0-12-295250-2.
[62] W. K. H. PANOFSKY AND M. P HILLIPS, Classical Electricity and Magnetism, second ed., Addison-Wesley Publishing Company, Inc., Reading, MA . . . , 1962, ISBN 0201-05702-6. [63] J. J. S AKURAI, Advanced Quantum Mechanics, Addison-Wesley Publishing Company, Inc., Reading, MA . . . , 1967, ISBN 0-201-06710-2. [64] D. E. S OPER, Classical Field Theory, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, London, Sydney and Toronto, 1976, ISBN 0-471-81368-0.
R A
FT
[61] L. D. L ANDAU AND E. M. L IFSHITZ, The Classical Theory of Fields, fourth revised English ed., vol. 2 of Course of Theoretical Physics, Pergamon Press, Ltd., Oxford . . . , 1975, ISBN 0-08-025072-6.
ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELDS AND MAT TER
The microscopic Maxwell equations derived in Chapter 1, which in Chapter 2 were chosen as the axiomatic basis for the treatment in the remainder of the book, are valid on all scales where a classical description is good. They provide a correct physical picture for arbitrary eld and source distributions, on macroscopic and, under certain assumptions, microscopic scales. A more complete and accurate theory, valid also when quantum effects are signicant, is provided by quantum electrodynamics. QED gives a consistent description of how electromagnetic elds are quantised into photons and describes their intrinsic and extrinsic properties. However, this theory is beyond the scope of the current book. In a material medium, be it in a solid, uid or gaseous state or a combination thereof, it is sometimes convenient to replace the Maxwell-Lorentz equations (2.1) on page 20 by the corresponding macroscopic Maxwell equations in which auxiliary, derived elds are introduced. These auxiliary elds, viz., the electric displacement vector D (measured in C m 2 ) and the magnetising eld H (measured in A m 1 ), incorporate intrinsic electromagnetic properties of macroscopic matter, or properties that appear when the medium is immersed fully or partially in an electromagnetic eld. Consequently, they represent, respectively, electric and magnetic eld quantities in which, in an average sense, the material properties of the substances are already included. In the most general case, these derived elds are complicated, possibly non-local and nonlinear, functions of the primary elds E and B :1
D
D D D.t; xI E; B/ H D H.t; xI E; B/
R A
163
FT
1
An example of this are chiral media.
(9.1a) (9.1b)
164 j
9 . E L E CTROMAGNETIC FIELDS AND MATTER
A general treatment of these elds will not be included here. Only simplied, but important and illuminating examples will be given.
9.1 Maxwells macroscopic theory

Under certain conditions, for instance for small magnitudes of the primary eld strengths E and B, we may assume that the response of a substance to the elds can be approximated by a linear one so that D H "E
1
(9.2)
i.e., that the electric displacement vector D.t; x/ is only linearly dependent on the electric eld E.t; x/, and the magnetising eld H.t; x/ is only linearly dependent on the magnetic eld B.t; x/. In this chapter we derive these linearised forms, and then consider a simple, explicit linear model for a medium from which we derive the expression for the dielectric permittivity ".t; x/, the magnetic susceptibility .t; x/, and the refractive index or index of refraction n.t; x/ of this medium. Using this simple model, we study certain interesting aspects of the propagation of electromagnetic particles and waves in the medium.
R A
total
9.1.1 Polarisation and electric displacement

By writing the rst microscopic Maxwell-Lorentz equation (2.1a) on page 20 as in equation (6.22) on page 83, i.e., in a form where the total charge density .t; x/ is split into the charge density for free, true charges, true , and the charge density, pol , for bound polarisation charges induced by the applied eld E, as r ED .t; x/ D "0
true
FT
.t; x/ C "0
pol
(9.3)
.t; x/
true
.t; x/
r P .t; x/ "0 (9.4)

2
and at the same time introducing the electric displacement vector (C m D.t; x/ D "0 E.t; x/ C P .t; x/
) (9.5)
one can reshufe expression (9.4) above to obtain r "0 E.t; x/ C P .t; x/ D r D.t; x/ D
true
.t; x/
(9.6)
This is one of the original macroscopic Maxwell equations. It is important to remember that only the induced electric dipole moment of matter, subject to
9.1. Maxwells macroscopic theory
j 165
the eld E, was included in the above separation into true and induced charge densities. Contributions to D from higher-order electric moments were neglected. This is one of the approximations assumed. Another approximation is the assumption that there exists a simple linear relationship between P and E in the material medium under consideration P .t; x/ D "0
e .t; x/E.t; x/
(9.7)
D.t; x/ D ".t; x/E.t; x/ where, approximately, ".t; x/ D "0 1 C

e .t; x/
D "0 e .t; x/
e .t; x/ D
R A
".t; x/ D1C "0
e .t; x/
For an electromagnetically anisotropic medium such as a magnetised plasma or a birefringent crystal , the susceptibility e or, equivalently the relative dielectric permittivity (9.10)
will have to be replaced by a tensor. This would still describe a linear relationship between E and P but one where the linear proportionally factor, or, as we shall call it, the dispersive property of the medium, is dependent on the direction in space. In general, however, the relationship is not of a simple linear form as in equation (9.7) above but non-linear terms are important. In such a situation the principle of superposition is no longer valid and non-linear effects such as frequency conversion and mixing can be expected.3
9.1.2 Magnetisation and the magnetising eld
An analysis of the properties of magnetic media and the associated currents shows that three such types of currents exist: 1. In analogy with true charges for the electric case, we may have true currents j true , i.e., a physical transport of true (free) charges.
FT
(9.8) (9.9)
3
This approximation is often valid for regular media if the eld strength jEj is low enough. Here the variations in time and space of the the material dependent electric susceptibility, e , are usually on much slower and longer scales than for E itself.2 Inserting the approximation (9.7) into equation (9.57) on page 176, we can write the latter
The fact that the relation between the dipole moment per unit volume P and the applied electric eld E is local in time and space is yet another approximation assumed in macroscopic Maxwell theory.
The nonlinearity of semiconductor diodes is used, e.g., in radio receivers to convert high radio frequencies into lower ones, or into the audible spectrum. These techniques are called heterodyning and demodulation, respectively.
166 j
2. In analogy with the electric polarisation P there may be a form of charge transport associated with the changes of the polarisation with time. Such currents, induced by an external eld, are called polarisation currents and are identied with @P =@t. 3. There may also be intrinsic currents of a microscopic, often atomistic, nature that are inaccessible to direct observation, but which may produce net effects at discontinuities and boundaries. These magnetisation currents are denoted jM. Magnetic monopoles have not yet been unambiguously identied in experiments. So there is no correspondence in the magnetic case to the electric monopole moment, formula (6.13a) on page 81. The lowest order magnetic moment, corresponding to the electric dipole moment, formula (6.13b) on page 81, is the magnetic dipole moment [cf. the Fourier component expression (6.61) on page 92] Z 1 d3x 0 .x0 x0 / j.t 0 ; x0 / (9.11) m.t / D 2 V0 Analogously to the electric case, one may, for a distribution of magnetic dipole moments in a volume, describe this volume in terms of its magnetisation, or magnetic dipole moment per unit volume, M. Via the denition of the vector potential A one can show that the magnetisation current and the magnetisation is simply related: jM D r M (9.12)
R A
j total D j true C @P Cr @t M
In a stationary medium we therefore have a total current which is (approximately) the sum of the three currents enumerated above: (9.13) B
One might then, be led to think that the right-hand side (RHS) of the r Maxwell equation (2.1d) on page 20 should be @P RHS D 0 j true C Cr M @t
However, moving the term r M from the right hand side (RHS) to the left hand side (LHS) and introducing the magnetising eld (magnetic eld intensity, Ampre-turn density) as HD B
0
FT
(9.14)
9.1. Maxwells macroscopic theory
j 167
and using the denition for D, equation (9.57) on page 176, we nd that LHS D r H @D @P D j true C @t @t "0 @E @t
RHS D j true C
H.t; x/ D
.t; x/B.t; x/
where, approximately, .t; x/ D and m .t; x/ D .t; x/

0 0 1
m .t; x/
0 m .t; x/
R A
D1C
m .t; x/ true
is the relative permeability. In the case of anisotropy, m will be a tensor, but it is still only a linear approximation.4
9.1.3 Macroscopic Maxwell equations
D
r DD r ED @B @t r BD0 r H D j true C
Field equations, expressed in terms of the derived, and therefore in principle superuous, eld quantities D and H are obtained from the Maxwell-Lorentz microscopic equations (2.1) on page 20, by replacing the E and B in the two source equations by using the approximate relations formula (9.8) on page 165 and formula (9.15) above, respectively: (9.18a) (9.18b) (9.18c) @D @t (9.18d)
FT
(9.15) (9.16) (9.17)
4
Hence, in this simplistic view, we would pick up a term "0 @E=@t which makes the equation inconsistent: the divergence of the left hand side vanishes while the divergence of the right hand side does not! Maxwell realised this and to overcome this inconsistency he was forced to add his famous displacement current term which precisely compensates for the last term the RHS expression. In Chapter 1, we discussed an alternative way, based on the postulate of conservation of electric charge, to introduce the displacement current. We may, in analogy with the electric case, introduce a magnetic susceptibility for the medium. Denoting it m , we can write
This is the case for the Hall effect which produces a potential difference across an electric conduction current channel, orthogonal to this current, in the presence of an external magnetic eld which is likewise perpendicular to the current. This effect was discovered 1879 by the US physicist E D W I N H E R B E R T H A L L (18551938).
168 j
9.2 Phase velocity, group velocity and dispersion

If we introduce the phase velocity in the medium as 1 v' D p " 1 Dp e "0 m c Dp e m
FT
0
It should be recalled that Maxwell formulated these macroscopic equations before it was known that matter has an atomistic structure and that there exist electrically charged particles such as electrons and protons, which possess a quantum mechanical property called spin that gives rise to magnetism!
This set of differential equations, originally derived by Maxwell himself, are called Maxwells macroscopic equations. Together with the boundary conditions and the constitutive relations, they describe uniquely (but only approximately) the properties of the electric and magnetic elds in matter and are convenient to use in certain simple cases, particularly in engineering applications. However, the structure of these equations rely on certain linear approximations and there are many situations where they are not useful or even applicable. Therefore, these equations, which are the original Maxwell equations (albeit expressed in their modern vector form as introduced by O L I V E R H E A V I S I D E ), should be used with some care.5
(9.19)
R A
O k k k D k v' D O
def
p where, according to equation (1.13) on page 6, c D 1= "0 0 is the speed of light, i.e., the phase speed of electromagnetic waves, in vacuum. Associated with the phase speed of a medium for a wave of a given frequency ! we have a wave vector, dened as ! v' v' v' (9.20)
The ratio of the phase speed in vacuum and in the medium p c p def D e m D c " n v' (9.21)
where the material dependent quantity n.t; x/

def
In fact, there exist metamaterials where e and m are negative. For such materials, the refractive index becomes negative: nDi D
Such negative refractive index materials, have quite remarkable electromagnetic properties.
D
p
je j i
p c D e .t; x/m .t; x/ v'
(9.22)
jm j
je m j1=2
is called the refractive index of the medium and describes its refractive and reective properties.6 In general n is a function of frequency. If the medium is anisotropic or birefringent, the refractive index is a rank-two tensor eld. Under our simplifying assumptions, in the material medium that we consider n D Const for each frequency component of the elds. In certain materials, the refractive index is larger than unity (e.g., glass and water at optical frequencies), in others, it can be smaller than unity (e.g., plasma and metals at radio and optical frequencies).
9.3. Radiation from charges in a material medium
j 169
It is important to notice that depending on the electric and magnetic properties of a medium, and, hence, on the value of the refractive index n, the phase speed in the medium can be smaller or larger than the speed of light: c ! v' D D (9.23) n k where, in the last step, we used equation (9.20) on the preceding page. If the medium has a refractive index which, as is usually the case, dependent on frequency !, we say that the medium is dispersive. Because in this case also k.!/ and !.k/, so that the group velocity @! (9.24) @k has a unique value for each frequency component, and is different from v' . Except in regions of anomalous dispersion, vg is always smaller than c. In a gas of free charges, such as a plasma, the refractive index is given by the expression vg D n .!/ D 1 where
2 !p D 2 2 !p
!2
X N q2 "0 m
9.3 Radiation from charges in a material medium
When electromagnetic radiation is propagating through matter, new phenomena may appear which are (at least classically) not present in vacuum. As mentioned earlier, one can under certain simplifying assumptions include, to some extent, the inuence from matter on the electromagnetic elds by introducing new, derived eld quantities D and H according to D D ".t; x/E D e .t; x/"0 E B D .t; x/H D m .t; x/
0H
R A
is the square of the plasma frequency !p . Here m and N denote the mass and number density, respectively, of charged particle species . In an inhomogeneous plasma, N D N .x/ so that the refractive index and also the phase and group velocities are space dependent. As can be easily seen, for each given frequency, the phase and group velocities in a plasma are different from each other. If the frequency ! is such that it coincides with !p at some point in the medium, then at that point v' ! 1 while vg ! 0 and the wave Fourier component at ! is reected there.
FT
(9.25) (9.26) (9.27) (9.28)
170 j
L 9.3.1 Vavilov-Cerenkov radiation

As we saw in Subsection 6.3, a charge in uniform, rectilinear motion in vacuum does not give rise to any radiation; see in particular equation (6.137a) on page 110. Let us now consider a charge in uniform, rectilinear motion in a medium with electric properties which are different from those of a (classical) vacuum. Specically, consider a medium where " D Const > "0 D
0
(9.29a) (9.29b)
This implies that in this medium the phase speed is v' D <c
0
FT
q0 x0 j n .x 1 q0 D x0 / v 0 4 "0 s c 1 q0v 0 D x0 / v 0 4 "0 c 2 s c q0v 0 x0 j n .x x0 / v 0 c
1 c Dp n "
(9.30)
R A
.t; x/ D 1 4 "0 jx
Hence, in this particular medium, the speed of propagation of (the phase planes of) electromagnetic waves is less than the speed of light in vacuum, which we know is an absolute limit for the motion of anything, including particles. A medium of this kind has the interesting property that particles, entering into the medium at high speeds jv 0 j, which, of course, are below the phase speed in vacuum, can experience that the particle speeds are higher than the phase speed in the medium. L This is the basis for the Vavilov-Cerenkov radiation, more commonly known in the western literature as Cherenkov radiation, that we shall now study. If we recall the general derivation, in the vacuum case, of the retarded (and advanced) potentials in Chapter 3 and the Linard-Wiechert potentials, equations (6.100) on page 102, we realise that we obtain the latter in the medium by a simple formal replacement c ! c=n in the expression (6.101) on page 102 for s. Hence, the Linard-Wiechert potentials in a medium characterized by a refractive index n, are (9.31a)
A.t; x/ D
1 4 "0 c 2 jx
(9.31b)
where now s D x
.x
(9.32)
The need for the absolute value of the expression for s is obvious in the case when v 0 =c 1=n because then the second term can be larger than the rst term; if v 0 =c 1=n we recover the well-known vacuum case but with modied phase
j 171
x.t /
c x .t /
0 0
q0
Figure 9.1: Instantaneous picture of the expanding eld spheres from a point charge moving with constant speed v 0 =c > 1=n in a medium where n > 1. This generates a L Vavilov-Cerenkov shock wave in the form of a cone.
D
l 0 D .t t 0 /v 0
speed. We also note that the retarded and advanced times in the medium are [cf. equation (3.47) on page 38] k jx x0 j jx x0 j n 0 0 tret D tret .t; x x0 / D t Dt (9.33a) ! c k jx x0 j jx x0 j n 0 0 DtC (9.33b) tadv D tadv .t; x x0 / D t C ! c so that the usual time interval t t 0 between the time measured at the point of observation and the retarded time in a medium becomes jx x0 j n (9.34) t t0 D c For v 0 =c 1=n, the retarded distance s, and therefore the denominators in equations (9.31) on the facing page, vanish when nv 0 v0 n.x x0 / D x x0 cos c D x x0 (9.35) c c or, equivalently, when c cos c D (9.36) nv 0 In the direction dened by this angle c , the potentials become singular. During the time interval t t 0 given by expression (9.34) above, the eld exists within a sphere of radius jx x0 j around the particle while the particle moves a distance
R A
along the direction of v 0 . In the direction c where the potentials are singular, all eld spheres are tangent to a straight cone with its apex at the instantaneous position of the particle and with the apex half angle c dened according to c sin c D cos c D (9.38) nv 0
FT
(9.37)
172 j
The rst systematic exploration of this radiation was made in 1934 by P A V E L A L E K S E E V I C H L C E R E N K O V , who was then a post-graduate student in S E R G E Y I V A N O V I C H V A V I L O V s research group at the Lebedev Physical Institute in Moscow. Vavilov wrote a manuscript with the experimental ndings, put L Cerenkov as the author, and submitted it to Nature. In the manuscript, Vavilov explained the results in terms of radioactive particles creating Compton electrons which gave rise to the radiation. This was indeed the correct interpretation, but the paper was rejected. The paper was then sent to Physical Review and was, after some controversy with the American editors, who claimed the results to be wrong, eventually published in 1937. In the same year, IGOR EVGENEVICH TAMM and I L Y A M I K H A I L O V I C H F R A N K published the theory for the effect (the singing electron). In fact, predictions of a similar effect had been made as early as 1888 by O L I V E R H E A V I S I D E , and by A R N O L D J O H A N N E S W I L H E L M S O M M E R F E L D in his 1904 paper Radiating body moving with velocity of light. On 8 May, 1937, Sommerfeld sent a letter to Tamm via Austria, saying that he was surprised that his old 1904 ideas were now becoming interesting. Tamm, Frank and L Cerenkov received the Nobel Prize in 1958 for the discovery and the L interpretation of the Cerenkov effect [V. L. Ginzburg, private communication].
This is illustrated in Figure 9.1 on the preceding page. The cone of potential singularities and eld sphere circumferences propagates with speed c=n in the form of a shock front. The rst observation of this type of radiation was reported by M A R I E S K L O D O W S K A C U R I E in 1910, but she never pursued the exploration of it. This radiation in question is therefore called L L Vavilov-Cerenkov radiation.7 The Vavilov-Cerenkov cone is similar in nature to the Mach cone in acoustics. In order to make some quantitative estimates of this radiation, we note that we can describe the motion of each charged particle q 0 as a current density: j D q 0 v 0 .x0 v 0 t 0 / D q 0 v 0 .x 0 v 0 t 0 /.y 0 /.z 0 /O 1 x (9.39)
j! D
q 0 i!x 0 =v0 e .y 0 /.z 0 /O 1 x 2
FT
c v
which has the trivial Fourier transform
(9.40)
This Fourier component can be used in the formul derived for a linear current in Subsection 6.4.1 if only we make the replacements "0 ! " D n 2 "0 n! k! c (9.41a) (9.41b)
In this manner, using j! from equation (9.40) above, the resulting Fourier transL forms of the Vavilov-Cerenkov magnetic and electric radiation elds can be calculated from the expressions (4.10) on page 48) and (4.25) on page 51, respectively. The total energy content is then obtained from equation (6.8) on page 80 (integrated over a closed sphere at large distances). For a Fourier component one obtains [cf. equation (6.11) on page 80] Z 2 1 rad d3x 0 .j! k/e ik x0 d U! d 4 "0 nc V 0 (9.42) Z 1 2 2 h i q 0 n! 2 0 ! 0 2 k cos dx sin d exp ix D 16 3 "0 c 3 1 v0
R A
O1 where is the angle between the direction of motion, x0 , and the direction to the O The integral in (9.42) is singular of a Dirac delta type. If we limit observer, k. the spatial extent of the motion of the particle to the closed interval X; X on the x 0 axis we can evaluate the integral to obtain h i 0 2 02 2 sin2 1 nv cos X! 0 c v q n! sin rad U! d D d (9.43) 3" c3 nv 0 ! 2 4 0 1 cos 0
j 173
which has a maximum in the direction c as expected. The magnitude of this maximum grows and its width narrows as X ! 1. The integration of (9.43) over therefore picks up the main contributions from c . Consequently, we can set sin2 sin2 c and the result of the integration is Z Z 1 rad rad Q rad U! D 2 U! . / sin d D dcos D cD2 U! . / d 0 1 i h Z 1 sin2 1 C nv0 X! 2 c v0 q 0 n! 2 sin2 c h i2 d 2" c3 0 2 ! 0 1 1 C nv c v0 (9.44) The integrand in (9.44) is strongly peaked near D c=.nv 0 /, or, equivalently, near cos c D c=.nv 0 /. This means that the integrand function is practically zero outside the integration interval 2 1; 1. Consequently, one may extend the integration interval to . 1; 1/ without introducing too much an error. Via yet another variable substitution we can therefore approximate h i Z 1 sin2 1 C nv0 X! Z 0 c v c2 cX 1 sin2 x sin2 c d 1 dx h i2 n2 v 02 !n 1 x 2 nv 0 ! 1 1C c v0 c2 cX 1 D !n n2 v 02 (9.45) leading to the nal approximate result for the total energy loss in the frequency interval .!; ! C d!/ q02X Q rad U! d! D 2 "0 c 2 1 c2 n2 v 02 ! d! (9.46)
As mentioned earlier, the refractive index is usually frequency dependent. Realising this, we nd that the radiation energy per frequency unit and per unit length is Q rad U! d! q02! D 1 2X 4 "0 c 2 c2 n2 .!/v 02 d! (9.47)
This result was derived under the assumption that v 0 =c > 1=n.!/, i.e., under the condition that the expression inside the parentheses in the right hand side is positive. For all media it is true that n.!/ ! 1 when ! ! 1, so there exist L always a highest frequency for which we can obtain Vavilov-Cerenkov radiation from a fast charge in a medium. Our derivation above for a xed value of n is valid for each individual Fourier component.
R A
FT
174 j
9.4 Electromagnetic waves in a medium

In Section 2.3 in Chapter 2 we derived the wave equations for the electric and magnetic elds, E and B, respectively, 1 @2 E c 2 @t 2 1 @2 B c 2 @t 2 r 2E D r 2B D r "0
0r 0
@j @t
(9.48a) (9.48b)
R A
j.t; x/ D .t; x/E.t; x/
where the charge density and the current density j were viewed as the sources of the wave elds. As we recall, these wave equations were derived from the Maxwell-Lorentz equations (2.1) on page 20, taken as an axiomatic foundation, or postulates, of electromagnetic theory. As such, these equations just state what relations exist between (the second order derivatives of) the elds, i.e., essentially the Coulomb and Ampre forces, and the dynamics of the charges (charge and current densities) in the region under study. Even if the and j terms in the Maxwell-Lorentz equations are often referred to as the source terms, they can equally well be viewed as terms that describe the impact on matter in a particular region upon which an electromagnetic wave, produced in another region with its own charges and currents, impinges. In order to do so, one needs to nd the constitutive relations that describe how charge and current densities are induced by the impinging elds. Then one can solve the wave equations (9.48) above. In general, this is a formidable task, and one must often resort to numerical methods. Let us, for simplicity, assume that the linear relations, as given by formula (9.8) on page 165 and formula (9.15) on page 167, hold, and that there is also a linear relation between the electric eld E and the current density, known as Ohms law:
FT
".x/ .x/ @2 E D .r @t 2 E/ r ln .x/ r r ln ".x/ E C r
(9.49)
where is the conductivity of the medium. Let us make the further assumption that " D ".x/, D .x/, and .x/ are not explicitly dependent on time and are local in space. Then we obtain the coupled wave equations r 2E .x/ .x/ @E @t
(9.50a)
" @H @2 H r 2H .x/ .x/ ".x/ .x/ 2 D .r H/ r ln ".x/ @t @t r r ln .x/ H C r ln ".x/ . .x/E/ r .x/ E
(9.50b)
9.4. Electromagnetic waves in a medium
j 175
For the case D 0 (no magnetisation) and (9.50) on the facing page simplify to r 2E r 2B
0
D Const in the medium, equations
@E @t @B .x/ @t C .x/
@2 E D r r ln ".x/ E @t 2 @2 B ".x/ 0 2 D .r B/ r ln ".x/ @t . E/ E 0 r ln ".x/ 0 r .x/ ".x/

0
(9.51a)
(9.51b)
Making the further assumption that the medium is not conductive, i.e., that D 0, the uncoupled wave equations r 2E r 2B ".x/ @2 E D r fr ln ".x/ Eg "0 c 2 @t 2 ".x/ @2 B D .r B/ r ln ".x/ "0 c 2 @t 2 (9.52a) (9.52b)
are obtained.
9.4.1 Constitutive relations
D
m
In a solid, uid or gaseous medium the source terms in the microscopic Maxwell equations (2.1) on page 20 must include all charges and currents in the medium, i.e., also the intrinsic ones (e.g., the polarisation charges in electrets, and atomistic magnetisation currents in magnets) and the self-consistently imposed ones (e.g., polarisation currents). This is of course also true for the inhomogeneous wave equations derived from Maxwells equations. From now one we assume that and j represent only the charge and current densities (i.e., polarisation and conduction charges and currents, respectively) that are induces by the E and B elds of the waves impinging upon the medium of interest.8 Let us for simplicity consider a medium containing free electrons only and which is not penetrated by a magnetic eld, i.e., the medium is assumed to be isotropic with no preferred direction(s) in space.9 Each of these electrons are assumed to be accelerated by the Lorentz force, formula (5.47) on page 67. However, if the elds are those of an electromagnetic wave one can, for reasonably high oscillation frequencies, neglect the force from the magnetic eld. Of course, this is also true if there is no magnetic eld present. So the equation of motion for each electron in the medium can be written
R A
dx d2 x Cm D qE (9.53) 2 dt dt where m and q are the mass and charge of the electron, respectively, the effective collision frequency representing the frictional dissipative force from
FT
8
If one includes also the effect of the charges on E and B, i.e., treat and j as sources for elds, singularities will appear in the theory. Such so called self-force effects will not be treated here.
9
Unmagnetised plasma belong to this category. So do also, to a good approximation, uid or solid metals.
176 j
the surrounding medium, and E the effective applied electric eld sensed by the electron. For a Fourier component of the electric eld E D E0 exp . i!t/, the equation of motion becomes ! 2 qx.t / i! qx.t/ D q2 E m (9.54)
If the electron is at equilibrium x D 0 when E D 0, then its dipole moment is d.t / D qx.t /. Inserting this in equation (9.54) above, we obtain dD q2 m.! 2 C i! / (9.55)
P D Nd d D
Nd q 2 E m.! 2 C i! /
FT
Nd .x/q 2 1 "0 m ! 2 C i!
This is the the lowest order contribution to the dipole moment of the medium from each electron under the inuence of the assumed electric eld. If Nd .x/ electrons per unit volume can be assumed to give rise to the electric polarisation P , this becomes (9.56)
Using this in formula (9.57), one nds that D.t; x/ D ".x/E.t; x/ where
(9.57)
R A
".x/ D "0 The quantity s !p .x/ D Nd .x/q 2 "0 m
Nd .x/q 2 D "0 1 m.! 2 C i! /
(9.58)
(9.59)
is called the plasma frequency and s s 2 !p ".x/ n.x/ D D 1 "0 ! 2 C i!
(9.60)
is called the refractive index. At points in the medium where the wave frequency ! equals this plasma frequency and the collision frequency vanishes, the refractive index n D 0, and the wave is totally reected. In the ionised outer part of the atmosphere called the ionosphere this happens for radio waves of frequencies up to about 10 MHz. This is the basis for over-the-horizon radio communications.
j 177
9.4.2 Electromagnetic waves in a conducting medium

We shall now restrict ourselves to the wave equations for the electric eld vector E and the magnetic eld vector B in a electrically conductive and neutral medium, i.e., a volume where there exist no net electric charge, D 0, no dielectric effects, " D "0 , and no electromotive force, EEMF D 0. A highly conductive metal is a good example of such a medium.
9.4.2.1 The wave equations for E and B

To a good approximation, metals and other conductors in free space have a conductivity that is not dependent on t or x. The wave equations (9.51) on page 175 are then simplied to r 2E r 2B
0
@E @t @B @t
1 @2 E D0 c 2 @t 2 1 @2 B D0 c 2 @t 2
Multiplying by e i!t and introducing the relaxation time D "0 = of the medium in question, we see that the differential equation for each spectral component can be written !2 i 2 r E.t; x/ C 2 1 C E.t; x/ D 0 (9.64) c ! In the limit of long r 2E C !2 ED0 c2 (low conductivity ), (9.64) tends to (9.65)
R A
which are the homogeneous vector wave equations for E and B in a conducting medium without EMF. We notice that for the simple propagation media considered here, the wave equation for the magnetic eld B has exactly the same mathematical form as the wave equation for the electric eld E, equation (9.61). Therefore, in this case it sufces to consider only the E eld, since the results for the B eld follow trivially. For EM waves propagating in more complicated media, containing, e.g., inhomogeneities, the wave equations for E and for B do not have the same mathematical form. Following the spectral component prescription leading to equation (2.28) on page 26, we obtain, in the special case under consideration, the following time-independent wave equation !2 E0 D 0 (9.63) r 2 E0 C 2 1 C i c "0 !
FT
(9.61) (9.62)
178 j
which is a time-independent wave equation for E, representing undamped propagating waves. In the short (high conductivity ) limit we have instead r 2 E C i!
0
ED0
(9.66)
which is a time-independent diffusion equation for E. For most metals 10 14 s, which means that the diffusion picture is good for all frequencies lower than optical frequencies. Hence, in metallic conductors, the propagation term @2 E=c 2 @t 2 is negligible even for VHF, UHF, and SHF signals. Alternatively, we may say that the displacement current "0 @E=@t is negligible relative to the conduction current j D E. If we introduce the vacuum wave number
p we can write, using the fact that c D 1= "0 page 6, r 1 1 0 D D D D R0 ! "0 ! "0 ck k "0 k
FT
0 0
kD
! c
(9.67)
according to equation (1.13) on
(9.68)
where in the last step we used the characteristic impedance of vacuum dened according to formula (6.3) on page 79.
R A
O r Dn @ O D nr @
9.4.2.2 Plane waves
Consider now the case where all elds depend only on the distance to a given O plane with unit normal n. Then the del operator becomes (9.69)
and the microscopic Maxwell equations attain the form @E @ @E O n @ @B O n @ @B O n @ O n D0 D (9.70a) (9.70b) (9.70c)
0 j.t; x/
@B @t
D0 D C "0 @E D @t
0
E C "0
@E @t
(9.70d)
O Scalar multiplying (9.70d) by n, we nd that @B @ O O O 0Dn n Dn E 0 C "0 0 @ @t
(9.71)
j 179
which simplies to the rst-order ordinary differential equation for the normal component En of the electric eld dEn C En D 0 dt "0 with the solution E n D E n0 e
t ="0
(9.72)
D E n0 e
t=
(9.73)
or O n @B D0 @t
9.4.2.3 Telegraphers equation

@2 E @ 2 1 @2 E D0 c 2 @t 2
In analogy with equation (9.61) on page 177, we can easily derive a wave equation
0
R A
@E @t 1 @2 E D0 c 2 @t 2 ct / C g. C ct /; i D 1; 2; 3
From this, and (9.70c), we conclude that the only longitudinal component of B must be constant in both time and space. In other words, the only non-static solution must consist of transverse components.
D
@2 E @ 2 Ei D f .
describing the propagation of plane waves along in a conducting medium. This equation is is called the telegraphers equation. If the medium is an insulator so that D 0, then the equation takes the form of the one-dimensional wave equation (9.77)
As is well known, each component of this equation has a solution which can be written (9.78)
FT
(9.75) (9.76)
This, together with (9.70a), shows that the longitudinal component of E, i.e., the component which is perpendicular to the plane surface is independent of and has a time dependence which exhibits an exponential decay, with a decrement given by the relaxation time in the medium. O Scalar multiplying (9.70b) by n, we similarly nd that @E @B O O O 0Dn n D n (9.74) @ @t
180 j
where f and g are arbitrary (non-pathological) functions of their respective arguments. This general solution represents perturbations which propagate along , where the f perturbation propagates in the positive direction and the g perturbation propagates in the negative direction. In a medium, the general solution to each component of equation (9.99) on page 182 is given by Ei D f . v' t / C g. C v' t/; i D 1; 2; 3 (9.79)
If we assume that our electromagnetic elds E and B are represented by a Fourier component proportional to exp. i!t/, the solution of equation (9.77) on the preceding page becomes E D E0 e
i.!t k /
D E0 e i.
!t/
(9.80)
By introducing the wave vector O k D kn D ! !O O nD k c c
FT
E ED 1 O k c ED p "0
0
(9.81)
this solution can be written as E D E0 e i.k x

!t/
(9.82)
R A
O n @E O D i!B D ik n @ or, solving for B, BD k O n ! ED 1 k !
Let us consider the lower sign in front of k in the exponent in (9.80). This corresponds to a wave which propagates in the direction of increasing . Inserting this solution into equation (9.70b) on page 178, gives (9.83)
O n
(9.84)
Hence, to each transverse component of E, there exists an associated magnetic eld given by equation (9.84). If E and/or B has a direction in space which is constant in time, we have a plane wave. Allowing now for a nite conductivity in our medium, and making the spectral component Ansatz in equation (9.76) on the previous page, we nd that the time-independent telegraphers equation can be written @2 E C "0 @ 2
0! 2
ECi
!E D
@2 E C K 2E D 0 @ 2
(9.85)
where K D "0
2 0! 2
1Ci "0 !
!2 D 2 c
1Ci "0 !
Dk
1Ci "0 !
(9.86)
j 181
where, in the last step, equation (9.67) on page 178 was used to introduce the wave number k. Taking the square root of this expression, we obtain r K Dk 1Ci D C i (9.87) "0 ! Squaring, one nds that 2 k 1Ci D . 2 "0 ! or 2 D 2 D k 2"0 !
2
2 / C 2i
(9.88)
k2
(9.89)
Squaring the latter and combining with the former, one obtains the second order algebraic equation (in 2 ) 2 . 2 k2/ D k4 2 4"2 ! 2 0 (9.91)
R A
which can be easily solved and one nds that vr u 2 u u 1C C1 t "0 ! Dk 2 vr u 2 u u 1C 1 t "0 ! Dk 2
As a consequence, the solution of the time-independent telegraphers equation, equation (9.85) on the preceding page, can be written
D
BD 1 O Kk ! ED
E D E0 e
e i.
!t /
With the aid of equation (9.84) on the facing page we can calculate the associated magnetic eld, and nd that it is given by 1 O .k ! E/. C i/ D 1 O .k ! E/ jAj e i (9.94)
where we have, in the last step, rewritten C i in the amplitude-phase form jAj exp.i /. From the above, we immediately see that E, and consequently also B, is damped, and that E and B in the wave are out of phase.
FT
(9.90) (9.92a) (9.92b) (9.93)
182 j
In the limit "0 !
, we can approximate K as follows: 1 2 r k.1 C i/ 2"0 !
1 "0 ! 2 Dk i 1 i K Dk 1Ci "0 ! "0 ! r r p 0 ! D "0 0 !.1 C i/ D .1 C i/ 2"0 ! 2
(9.95) In this limit we nd that when the wave impinges perpendicularly upon the medium, the elds are given, inside the medium, by r r 0 ! 0 ! E0 D E0 exp exp i !t (9.96a) 2 2 r 0 0 O .n E 0 / (9.96b) B D .1 C i/ 2! Hence, both elds fall off by a factor 1=e at a distance s 2 D 0 !
FT
(9.97)
R A
@2 E @ 2 @E @t " @2 E D0 @t 2
This distance is called the skin depth . Assuming for simplicity that the electric permittivity " and the magnetic permeability , and hence the relative permittivity e and the relative permeability m all have xed values, independent on time and space, for each type of material we consider, we can derive the general telegraphers equation [cf. equation (9.76) on page 179] (9.98)
describing (1D) wave propagation in a material medium. In Chapter 2 we concluded that the existence of a nite conductivity, manifesting itself in a collisional interaction between the charge carriers, causes the waves to decay exponentially with time and space. Let us therefore assume that in our medium D 0 so that the wave equation simplies to @2 E @ 2 " @2 E D0 @t 2 (9.99)
As in the vacuum case discussed in Chapter 2, assuming that E is timeharmonic, i.e., can be represented by a Fourier component proportional to exp. i!t /, the solution of equation (9.99) can be written E D E0 e i.k x
!t/
(9.100)
j 183
where now k is the wave vector in the medium given by equation (9.20) on page 168. With these denitions, the vacuum formula for the associated magnetic eld, equation (9.84) on page 180, BD p O " k ED 1 O k v' ED 1 k ! E (9.101)
is valid also in a material medium (assuming, as mentioned, that n has a xed constant scalar value). A consequence of a e 1 is that the electric eld will, in general, have a longitudinal component.
Electromagnetic waves in an electrically and magnetically conducting medium Derive the wave equation for the E eld described by the electromagnetodynamic equations (Diracs symmetrised Maxwell equations) [cf. equations (1.50) on page 16]
e
E X A M P L E 9.1
"0 @B r ED @t r BD 0 m r B D "0
r ED
0j
@E C 0 @t
0j
under the assumption of vanishing net electric and magnetic charge densities and in the absence of electromotive and magnetomotive forces. Interpret this equation physically. Assume, for symmetry reasons, that there exists a linear relation between the magnetic current density j m and the magnetic eld B (the magnetic dual of Ohms law for electric currents, j e D e E) jm D
m
.r
R
E/ D D
0r 0
Taking the curl of (9.102b) and using (9.102d), one nds, noting that "0 @ .r B/ @t @ 1 @E m r B je C 2 0 @t c @t 1 @E m e e @E 0 0 EC 2 @t c @t jm
D
0
Using the vector operator identity r .r E/ D r .r E/ r 2 E, and the fact that r E D 0 for a vanishing net electric charge, we can rewrite the wave equation as m @E 1 @2 E e 2 m e r2E C 2 ED0 (9.105) 0 0 @t c c 2 @t 2
This is the homogeneous electromagnetodynamic wave equation for E that we were after. Compared to the ordinary electrodynamic wave equation for E, equation (9.61) on page 177, we see that we pick up extra terms. In order to understand what these extra terms mean physically, we analyse the time-independent wave equation for a single Fourier component.
FT
(9.102a) (9.102b) (9.102c) (9.102d) (9.103)
0
D 1=c 2 , that
(9.104) 1 @2 E c 2 @t 2
184 j
Then our wave equation becomes r 2 E C i!

0 e m
D r2E C
!2 c2
C 2 c " 1
EC 1 0 ! 2 "0
!2 E c2
m e
2 m e E 0
Ci
# C m =c 2 ED0 "0 !
(9.106)
Realising that, according to formula (6.3) on page 79, 0 ="0 is the square of the vacuum radiation resistance R0 , and rearranging a bit, we obtain the time-independent wave equation in Diracs symmetrised electrodynamics 0 r2E C !2 c2 1
2 R0 !2
1 C "0 ! 1
e m =c 2
2 R0 !2
!
m e
From this equation we conclude that the existence of magnetic charges (magnetic monopoles), and non-vanishing electric and magnetic conductivities would lead to a shift in the effective wave number of the wave. Furthermore, even if the electric conductivity e vanishes, the imaginary term does not necessarily vanish and the wave therefore experiences damping or growth according as m is positive or negative, respectively. This would happen in a hypothetical medium which is a perfect insulator for electric currents but which can carry magnetic currents.
r 2 E C i!
0 e m
p m e def ! , the time-independent m Finally, we note that in the particular case ! D R0 wave equation equation (9.106) above becomes a time-independent diffusion equation C ED0 (9.108)
c2
R
@E @t Dr 2 E D0
which in time domain corresponds to the time-dependent diffusion equation (9.109)
with a diffusion coefcient given by DD

0
1
e
FT
! R0 p
m e
B B1 C i @
m e
C CE D 0; A
(9.107)
(9.110)
c2
Hence, electromagnetic waves with this particular frequency do not propagate. This means that if magnetic charges (monopoles) exist in a region in the Universe, electromagnetic waves propagating through this region would, in this simplistic model, exhibit a lower cutoff at ! D !m . This would in fact impose a lower limit on the mass of the photon, the quantum of the electromagnetic eld that we shall come across later. End of example 9.1
9.5. Bibliography
j 185
9.5 Bibliography
[65] E. H ALLN, Electromagnetic Theory, Chapman & Hall, Ltd., London, 1962. [66] J. D. JACKSON, Classical Electrodynamics, third ed., John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, NY . . . , 1999, ISBN 0-471-30932-X. [67] W. K. H. PANOFSKY AND M. P HILLIPS, Classical Electricity and Magnetism, second ed., Addison-Wesley Publishing Company, Inc., Reading, MA . . . , 1962, ISBN 0201-05702-6. [68] J. A. S TRATTON, Electromagnetic Theory, McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., New York, NY and London, 1953, ISBN 07-062150-0.
R A
FT
R A
FT
FORMUL
F .1
The electromagnetic eld
F .1.1
The microscopic Maxwell equations
r ED
R A
@B @t
0j
"0 r BD0 ED BD
r r
C "0
@E @t
F .1.1.1
Constitutive relations
1 c2
D
"0 r
0
"0
D R0 . "E B
376:7 /
H j P
E "0 E 187
FT
(F.1) (F.2) (F.3) (F.4) (F.5) (F.6) (F.7) (F.8) (F.9) (F.10)
188 j
6. FORMUL
F .1.2
F .1.2.1
Fields and potentials

Vector and scalar potentials
A r @ A @t (F.11) (F.12)
BDr ED
F .1.2.2
The Lorenz-Lorentz gauge condition in vacuum

1 @ c 2 @t D0 (F.13)
r AC
F .1.3
F .1.3.1
Force and energy
The Poynting vector in vacuum

1
0
SD
F .1.3.2
FT
0
(F.14)
R A
uD 1 "0 .E E C c 2 B B/ 2
F .1.3.3
TD
Electromagnetic eld energy density in vacuum
(F.15)
The Maxwell stress tensor in vacuum

(F.16) (F.17)
"0 1 E E C c2B B "0 EE C c 2 BB 2 1 Tij D ij u "0 Ei Ej Bi Bj
F .2
Electromagnetic radiation
Relationship between the eld vectors in a plane wave
O k c E (F.18)
F .2.1
BD
F .2.
Electromagnetic radiation
j 189
F .2.2
The far elds from an extended source distribution

i 4
0
far B! .x/ D
e ikjxj jxj
Z
V0
d3 x 0 e Z
V0
ik x0
j!
ik x0
k j! k
(F.19) (F.20)
Efar .x/ !
i e ikjxj O D x 4 "0 c jxj
d3 x 0 e
F .2.3
The far elds from an electric dipole

! 4
0
Efar .x/ D !
1 e ikjxj .d! 4 "0 jxj
k/
F .2.4
The far elds from a magnetic dipole

e ikjxj .m! 4 jxj
0
far B! .x/ D
k/ k
Efar .x/ D !
R A
k e ikjxj m! 4 "0 c jxj i
0!
F .2.5
The far elds from an electric quadrupole

e ikjxj .k Q! / jxj k (F.25) (F.26)
far B! .x/ D
Efar .x/ D !
e ikjxj .k Q! / 8 "0 jxj i
D
F .2.6
E.t; x/ D B.t; x/ D .x x0 /
The elds from a point charge in arbitrary motion

q .x 4 "0 s 3 x0 / 1 v 02 c2 C .x x0 / .x x0 / c2 P v0 (F.27) E.t; x/ cjx x0 j (F.28)
FT
(F.22) (F.23) (F.24)
far B! .x/ D
e ikjxj d! jxj
(F.21)
190 j
6. FORMUL
s D x
x0
.x
x0 /
v0 c x0 j v0 c
(F.29) (F.30) (F.31)
x x0 D .x x0 / jx 0 @t jx x0 j D @t x s
F .3
Special relativity
1 B0 B DB @0 0
0 1 0 0
0 0 1 0
FT
1 0 0C C C 0A 1 0 0 1 0 0 0C C C 0A 1 1
F .3.1
Metric tensor for at 4D space
(F.32)
F .3.2
Covariant and contravariant four-vectors

v
R A
v D
(F.33)
F .3.3
Lorentz transformation of a four-vector

(F.34)
x0 D x 0
B B DB @ 0 0 1 Dp 1 2 v D c
0 0
(F.35)
(F.36) (F.37)
F .3.4
Invariant line element

dt Dcd (F.38)
ds D c
F .4.
Vector relations
j 191
F .3.5
Four-velocity
dx d D .c; v / (F.39)
u D
F .3.6
Four-momentum
E ;p c (F.40)
p D m0 u D
F .3.7
j
Four-current density
0u
F .3.8
Four-potential
c ;A
A D
F .3.9
F
Field tensor
D@ A @ A
R A
0 Ex =c 0 Bz By Ey =c Bz 0 Bx 1 Ez =c By C C C Bx A 0
0 BE =c B x DB @Ey =c Ez =c
D
F .4
Vector relations
Let x be the radius vector (coordinate vector) from the origin to the point .x1 ; x2 ; x3 / .x; y; z/ in 3D Euclidean space R3 and let jxj denote the magnitude (length) of x. Let further .x/; .x/; : : : , be arbitrary scalar elds, a.x/; b.x/; : : : , arbitrary vector elds, and A.x/; B.x/; : : : , arbitrary rank-2 tensor elds in this space. Let denote complex conjugate and denote Hermitian conjugate (transposition and, where applicable, complex conjugation).
FT
(F.41) (F.42) (F.43) (F.44)
192 j
6. FORMUL
The differential vector operator r is in Cartesian coordinates given by r

3 X i D1
O xi
@ def @ def O xi @ @xi @xi
(F.45)
O O O O O O O where xi , i D 1; 2; 3 is the ith unit vector and x1 x, x2 y, and x3 z. In component (tensor) notation r can be written ri D @i D @ @ @ ; ; @x1 @x2 @x3 D @ @ @ ; ; @x @y @z (F.46)
F .4.1.1
Base vectors
O O O O r D sin cos ' x1 C sin sin ' x2 C cos x3 O O O D cos cos ' x1 C cos sin ' x2 O D O O sin ' x1 C cos ' x2
FT
O sin x3 O sin '
F .4.1
Spherical polar coordinates
(F.47a) (F.47b) (F.47c)
R A
O O O x1 D sin cos ' r C cos cos ' O O x3 D cos r O sin
F .4.1.2
(F.48a) (F.48b) (F.48c)
O O O O x2 D sin sin ' r C cos sin ' C cos '
Directed line element
O O O O dx x D dl D dr r C r d C r sin d'
(F.49)
F .4.1.3
Solid angle element
D sin d d'
(F.50)
F .4.1.4
Directed area element

(F.51)
O O O d2x n D dS D dS r D r 2 d r
F .4.1.5
Volume element
(F.52)
d3x D dV D dr dS D r 2 dr d
F .4.
Vector relations
j 193
F .4.2
Vector and tensor formul
O O In the following, x D xi xi and x0 D xi0 xi are radius vectors, k an arbitrary O @ O @ constant vector, a D a.x/ an arbitrary vector eld, r xi @xi , r 0 xi @x 0 , and i 1 the 3D unit tensor. O O 1 D xi xi 0 1 1 0 0 B C .1/ D @0 1 0A 0 0 1 We also introduce the vector O M D Mi x i (F.53) (F.54)
where the components are the matrices 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 i B C B C M1 D @ 0 0 iA M2 D @ 0 0 0A 0 i 0 i 0 0

F .4.2.1
General vector and tensor algebraic identities
a b D b a D ij ai bj D ab cos a
R A
b aD O ij k aj bk xi D O j ki ak bi xj D a/b c/ c/ D .a b/ c ca b D b.a c/ c.a b/ c/ D ba c
bD
O O A D Aij xi xj
O O A D Aij xj xi Tr.A/ D Ai i
O O Aij D xi A xj O O ab D ai bj xi xj
a.b C c/ D ab C ac .a C b/c D ac C bc c ab D .c a/b c ab D .c ab c D a.b c/ ab c D a.b
D
ab cd D .b c/ad a .b a .b
FT
(F.55) 0 0 B M3 D @ i 0 1 i 0 C 0 0A 0 0 (F.56) (F.57) (F.58) (F.59) (F.60) (F.61) (F.62) (F.63) (F.64) (F.65) (F.66) (F.67) (F.68) (F.69) (F.70) (F.71) (F.72) O kij ai bj xk
194 j
6. FORMUL
a .a .a
.b b/
c/ C b .c
.c
a/ C c .c b d/c
.a
b/ D 0 .a b c/d
(F.73) .a d/.b c/ (F.74) (F.75)
b/ .c
d/ D a b d/ D .a
d/ D .a c/.b d/
F .4.2.2
Special vector and tensor algebraic identities

(F.76) (F.77) 0 B 1/ D @ a3 a2 b 0 a3 0 a1 a2 C a1 A D iM a 0 1 (F.78) (F.79) (F.80) (F.81)
1 aDa 1Da 1
aDa a/ D .a
.1
a .1 b/ D a b a .1
1
b/ D a b/ D ba
.a
ab
F .4.2.3
General vector and tensor analytic identities
O r D xi @i O O r a D xi xj @i aj r a D @i ai r a aD a r D ai @i r D
FT
.r b/ a a/ a .r b/ a a r ab/ rb a rb a.r b/ r r a D r .r a/ r a
2
(F.82) (F.83) (F.84) (F.85) (F.86) (F.87) (F.88) (F.89) (F.90) (F.91) (F.92) (F.93) (F.94) (F.95) (F.96) (F.97) (F.98) (F.99)
R A
O ij k xi @j ak O ij k xi aj @k r ./ D r C r r .a b/ D .r a/ b r .a b/ D .r a/ b C .r b/ a r .a/ D a r C r a r .a r r r a .a r b/ D b .r r .ab/ D .r a/b C a r b .a/ D r .a .r r/ .r .ab/ D .r a a/b b/ D r .ba b/ D .r b/ a b D ai r bi a/ D r r a
F .4.
Vector relations
j 195
r r D r 2 O r r a D r .r a/ D xi @i @j aj r .r r a/ D 0 r D 0
(F.100) (F.101) (F.102) (F.103)
F .4.2.4
Special vector and tensor analytic identities

(F.104) (F.105) a (F.106) (F.107) (F.108) (F.109)
r .1/ D r r .1 a/ D r a r .1 r a/ D r r xD3 xD0 rx D 1 r .x k/ D k
D
r .k
F .4.2.5
r .x a/ D a C x.r a/ C .x r / a x r jxj D jxj x x0 r jx x0 j D D r 0 jx x0 j jx x0 j 1 x r D jxj jxj3 x x0 1 1 0 D D r r jx x0 j3 jx x0 j jx x0 j x 1 r D r2 D 4 .x/ 3 jxj jxj 1 x x0 2 r D r D 4 .x x0 / jx x0 j3 jx x0 j k 1 k x r Dk r D jxj jxj jxj3 x k x r k D r if jxj 0 3 jxj jxj3 1 k r2 D kr 2 D 4 k.x/ jxj jxj a/ D k.r a/ C k .r a/ r .k a/
R A
Integral identities
Let V .S/ be the volume bounded by the closed surface S.V /. Denote the 3D volume element by d3x. dV / and the surface element, directed along the
FT
(F.110) (F.111) (F.112) (F.113) (F.114) (F.115) (F.116) (F.117) (F.118) (F.119) (F.120) (F.121)
196 j
6. FORMUL
O O outward pointing surface normal unit vector n, by dS. d2x n/. Then Z I d3x r a D dS a (F.122) V Z I S d3x r D dS (F.123) V S Z I d3x r a D dS a (F.124)
V S
F .5
Bibliography
R A
[69] G. B. A RFKEN AND H. J. W EBER, Mathematical Methods for Physicists, fourth, international ed., Academic Press, Inc., San Diego, CA . . . , 1995, ISBN 0-12-059816-7. [70] P. M. M ORSE AND H. F ESHBACH, Methods of Theoretical Physics, Part I. McGrawHill Book Company, Inc., New York, NY . . . , 1953, ISBN 07-043316-8. [71] W. K. H. PANOFSKY AND M. P HILLIPS, Classical Electricity and Magnetism, second ed., Addison-Wesley Publishing Company, Inc., Reading, MA . . . , 1962, ISBN 0201-05702-6.
FT
If S.C / is an open surface bounded by the contour C.S/, whose line element is dl, then I Z dl D dS r (F.125) S IC Z dl a D dS .r a/ (F.126)
MATHEMATICAL METHODS
The science of physics systematically studies and describes the physical world, nds new laws or generalises existing ones that govern its behaviour under different conditions, andperhaps most important of allmakes new predictions, based on these physical laws, and tests these predictions in accurately designed, carefully performed systematic, repeatable experiments producing objective data.1 Merely describing nature and explaining physical experiments in terms of already existing laws is not physics in the true sense of the term. Had this non-creative, static view of physics been adopted by physicists since the renaissance, we would all still be doing essentially classical mechanics. Even if such a scientic giant as M I C H A E L F A R A D A Y , who started out as a lowly printers apprentice, was able to make truly remarkable contributions to physics (and chemistry) without using any formal mathematical tools at all, it is for us mere mortals most convenient to use the shorthand language of mathematics, together with the formal methods of logic, in physics. After all, mathematics was once introduced by us human beings to make it easier to quantitatively and systematically describe, understand and predict the physical world around us. Examples of this from ancient times are arithmetics and geometry. A less archaic example is differential calculus, needed by S I R I S A A C N E W T O N to formulate, in a compact and unambiguous manner, the physical laws that bear his name. Another modern example is the delta function introduced by P A U L A D R I E N M A U R I C E D I R A C . But the opposite is also very common: the expansion and generalisation of mathematics has more than once provided excellent tools for creating new physical ideas and to better analyse observational data. Examples of the latter include non-Euclidean geometry and group theory. Unlike mathematics per se, where the criterion of logical consistency is both necessary and sufcient, a physical theory that is supposed to describe the physi-
R A
197
FT
1
The theoretical physicist S I R R U D O L F P E I E R L S described an ideal physical theory in the following way: It must rstly leave undisturbed the successes of earlier work and not upset the explanations of observations that had been used in support of earlier ideas. Secondly it must explain in a reasonable manner the new evidence which brought the previous ideas into doubt and which suggested the new hypothesis. And thirdly it must predict new phenomena or new relationships between different phenomena, which were not known or not clearly understood at the time when it was invented.
198 j
13. MATHEMATICAL METHODS
M .1
Scalars, vectors and tensors
Every physical observable can be represented by a mathematical object. We have chosen to describe the observables in classical electrodynamics in terms of scalars, pseudoscalars, vectors, pseudovectors, tensors or pseudotensors, all of which obey certain canonical rules of transformation under a change of coordinate systems. We will not exploit differential forms to any signicant degree to describe physical observables. A scalar, which may or may not be constant in time and/or space, describes the scaling of a physical quantity. A vector describes some kind of physical motion along a curve in space due to vection. A tensor describes the local motion or deformation of a surface or a volume due to some form of tension and is therefore a relation between several vectors. However, generalisations to more abstract notions of these quantities have proved useful and are therefore commonplace. The difference between a scalar, vector and tensor and a pseudoscalar, pseudovector and a pseudotensor is that the latter behave differently under such coordinate transformations which cannot be reduced to pure rotations. For computational convenience, it is often useful to allow for these quantities to be complex-valued, i.e., let them be analytically continued into (a domain of) the complex plane. However, since by denition our physical world is real, care must then be exercised when comparing mathematical results with physical observables, i.e., real-valued numbers obtained from physical measurements.
R A
FT
cal reality has to full the additional criterion that its predictions be empirically testable. Ultimately, as G A L I L E O G A L I L E I taught us, physical reality is dened by the outcome of experiments and observations, and not by mere Aristotelean logical reasoning, however mathematically correct and logically consistent this may be. Common sense is not enough and logic and reasoning can never outsmart nature. Should the outcome of repeated, carefully performed, independent experiments produce results that contradict predictions based on a logically stringent theory, the only conclusion one can draw is that the theory in question is wrong. On the other hand, extending existing physical theories by mathematical and logical generalisations is a very powerful way of making hypotheses and predictions of new physical phenomena. But it is not until these hypotheses and predictions have withstood empirical tests in physical experiments that they can be said to extend our knowledge of physics. This appendix describes briey some of the more common mathematical methods and tools that are used in Classical Electrodynamics.
M .1.
j 199
Throughout we adopt the convention that Latin indices i; j; k; l; : : : run over the range 1; 2; 3 to denote vector or tensor components in the real Euclidean three-dimensional (3D) conguration space R3 , and Greek indices ; ; ; ; : : : , which are used in four-dimensional (4D) space, run over the range 0; 1; 2; 3.
M .1.1
M .1.1.1
Vectors
Radius vector
R A
O O xi xi xi xi
def
Mathematically, a vector can be represented in a number of different ways. One suitable representation in a vector space of dimension N is in terms of an ordered N -tuple of real or complex numbers2 .a1 ; a2 ; : : : ; aN / of the components along the N coordinate axes that span the vector space under consideration. Note, however, that there are many ordered N -tuples of numbers that do not comprise a vector, i.e., do not exhibit vector transformation properties! The most basic vector, and the prototype against which all other vectors are benchmarked, is the radius vector which is the vector from the origin to the point of interest. Its N -tuple representation simply enumerates the coordinates of the position of this point. In this sense, the radius vector from the origin to a point is synonymous with the coordinates of the point itself. In the 3D Euclidean space R3 , we have N D 3 and the radius vector can be represented by the triplet .x1 ; x2 ; x3 / of coordinates xi , i D 1; 2; 3. The coordinates xi are scalar quantities which describe the position along the unit O base vectors xi which span R3 . Therefore a convenient representation of the radius vector in R3 is3 xD
3 X i D1
It is often very convenient to use complex notation in physics. This notation can simplify the mathematical treatment considerably. But since all physical observables are real, we must in the nal step of our mathematical analysis of a physical problem always ensure that the results to be compared with experimental values are real-valued. In classical physics this is achieved by taking the real (or imaginary) part of the mathematical result, whereas in quantum physics one takes the absolute value.
FT
3
(M.1)
We introduce the symbol which may be read is, by denition, to equal in meaning, or equals by denition, or, formally, deniendum deniens. Another symbol often used is .
def
def
D
def
where we have introduced Einsteins summation convention (E) which states that a repeated index in a term implies summation over the range of the index in question. Whenever possible and convenient we shall in the following always assume E and suppress explicit summation in our formul. Typographically, we represent a vector or vector operator in 3D Euclidean space R3 by a boldface letter or symbol in a Roman font, for instance a, r , , and . Alternatively, we can describe the radius vector x in component notation as xi where xi .x1 ; x2 ; x3 / .x; y; z/ (M.2)
This component notation is particularly useful in 4D space where we can represent the radius vector either in its contravariant component form, (superscript
200 j
index form) as the quartet x .x 0 ; x 1 ; x 2 ; x 3 / or its covariant component form (subscript index form) x .x0 ; x1 ; x2 ; x3 /
def def
(M.3)
(M.4)
dx 0 D
@x 0 dx @x
FT
The relation between the covariant and contravariant forms is determined by the metric tensor (also known as the fundamental tensor) whose actual form is dictated by the properties of the vector space in question. The dual representation of vectors in contravariant and covariant forms is most convenient when we work in a non-Euclidean vector space with an indenite metric. An example is Lorentz space L4 which is a 4D Riemannian space frequently employed to formulate the special theory of relativity. We note that for a change of coordinates x ! x 0 D x 0 .x 0 ; x 1 ; x 2 ; x 3 /, due to a transformation from a system to another system 0 , the differential radius vector dx transforms as (M.5)
R A
M .1.2
which follows trivially from the rules of differentiation of x 0 considered as functions of four variables x .
Fields
A eld is a physical entity that depends on one or more continuous parameters. Such a parameter can be viewed as a continuous index which enumerates the coordinates of the eld. In particular, in a eld which depends on the usual radius vector x of R3 , each point in this space can be considered as one degree of freedom so that a eld is a representation of a physical entity which has an innite number of degrees of freedom.
M .1.2.1
Scalar elds
We denote an arbitrary scalar eld in R3 by .x/ D .x1 ; x2 ; x3 / .xi /

def
(M.6)
This eld describes how the scalar quantity varies continuously in 3D R3 space. In 4D, a four-scalar eld is denoted .x 0 ; x 1 ; x 2 ; x 3 / .x /
def
(M.7)
M .1.
j 201
which indicates that the four-scalar depends on all four coordinates spanning this space. Since a four-scalar has the same value at a given point regardless of coordinate system, it is also called an invariant. Analogous to the transformation rule, equation (M.5) on the facing page, for the differential dx , the transformation rule for the differential operator @=@x under a transformation x ! x 0 becomes @x @ @ D 0 0 @x @x @x which, again, follows trivially from the rules of differentiation.
M .1.2.2
(M.8)
Vector elds
We can represent an arbitrary vector eld a.x/ in R3 as follows: a.x/ D ai .x/O i x
In component notation this same vector can be represented as ai .x/ D .a1 .x/; a2 .x/; a3 .x// D ai .xj /
In 4D, an arbitrary four-vector eld in contravariant component form can be represented as a .x / D .a0 .x /; a1 .x /; a2 .x /; a3 .x // or, in covariant component form, as
R A
a .x / D .a0 .x /; a1 .x /; a2 .x /; a3 .x //
D
y0 D @x 0 y @x
where x is the radius four-vector. Again, the relation between a and a is determined by the metric of the physical 4D system under consideration. Whether an arbitrary N -tuple fulls the requirement of being an (N -dimensional) contravariant vector or not, depends on its transformation properties during a change of coordinates. For instance, in 4D an assemblage y D .y 0 ; y 1 ; y 2 ; y 3 / constitutes a contravariant four-vector (or the contravariant components of a four-vector) if and only if, during a transformation from a system with coordinates x to a system 0 with coordinates x 0 , it transforms to the new system according to the rule (M.13) transforms
i.e., in the same way as the differential coordinate element dx according to equation (M.5) on the preceding page.
FT
(M.9) (M.10) (M.11) (M.12)
202 j
The analogous requirement for a covariant four-vector is that it transforms, during the change from to 0 , according to the rule y0 D @x y @x 0 (M.14)
i.e., in the same way as the differential operator @=@x transforms according to equation (M.8) on the preceding page.
M .1.2.3
Tensor elds
Strictly speaking, the tensor eld described here is a tensor of rank two. A particularly simple rank 2 tensor in R3 is the 3D Kronecker delta tensor ij , with the following properties: ( ij D 0 1 if i j if i D j (M.16)
R A
Clearly, this tensor fulls the relations
ij k
The 3D Kronecker delta tensor has the following matrix representation 0 1 1 0 0 B C .ij / D @0 1 0A (M.17) 0 0 1 Another common and useful tensor is the fully antisymmetric tensor of rank three, also known as the Levi-Civita tensor 8 1 if i; j; k is an even permutation of 1,2,3 < (M.18) 0 if at least two of i; j; k are equal ij k D : 1 if i; j; k is an odd permutation of 1,2,3
j ki
FT
We denote an arbitrary tensor eld in R3 by A.x/. This tensor eld can be represented in a number of ways, for instance in the following matrix representation: 0 1 A11 .x/ A12 .x/ A13 .x/ def def B C .A.x// Aij .xk / @A21 .x/ A22 .x/ A23 .x/A (M.15) A31 .x/ A32 .x/ A33 .x/
kij
(M.19)
and
ij k
i kj
kij
(M.20)
M .1.
j 203
It has the following further property

ij k i lm
D j l km
j m kl
(M.21)
ij k /iD1
ij k /iD2
ij k /iD3
A
iM3 0 0 0 B M3 D @ i 0 1 i 0 C 0 0A 0 0
0 0 B D @0 0 0 1 0 0 0 B D @0 0 1 0 0 0 1 B D@ 1 0 0 0
1 0 C 1A D 0 1 1 C 0 AD 0 1 0 C 0A D 0
iM 1
iM2
where we have introduced the matrix vector
with the vector components being the matrices 0 0 0 B M1 D @0 0 0 i 1 0 C iA 0 1 0 0 i B C M2 D @ 0 0 0 A i 0 0
O M D Mi xi
D
Tensors in 3D space
Tensors of rank higher than 3 are best represented in their tensor notation (component form). It is important to remember that a tensor of any rank is fully and totally characterized by its transformation properties under the change of coordinates. This is a very strict constraint.
FT
(M.22a) (M.22b) (M.22c) (M.23) (M.24)
EXAMPLE
M .1
In fact, tensors may have any rank n. In this picture a scalar is considered to be a tensor of rank n D 0 and a vector a tensor of rank n D 1. Consequently, the notation where a vector (tensor) is represented in its component form is called the tensor notation. A tensor of rank n D 2 may be represented by a two-dimensional array or matrix, and a tensor of rank n D 3 may be represented as a vector of tensors of rank n D 2. Assuming that one of the indices of the Levi-Civita tensor ij k , e.g., the rst index i D 1; 2; 3, denotes the component of such a vector of tensors, these components have the matrix representations (the second and third indices, j; k D 1; 2; 3, are the matrix indices)
Consider a tetrahedron-like volume element V of a solid, uid, or gaseous body, whose
204 j
Figure M.1: Tetrahedron-like volume element V containing matter.
x3
O n
d2x x2
x1
R
T
O n
atomistic structure is irrelevant for the present analysis; gure M.1 indicates how this volume O may look like. Let dS D d2x n be the directed surface element of this volume element and let the vector Tn d2x be the force that matter, lying on the side of d2x toward which the unit O O normal vector n points, acts on matter which lies on the opposite side of d2x. This force concept is meaningful only if the forces are short-range enough that they can be assumed to act only in the surface proper. According to Newtons third law, this surface force fulls
A
Tn O cos 1 Tx1 d2x O
FT
V
(M.25) cos 2 Tx2 d2x O cos 3 Tx3 d2x C Fext D ma O (M.26)
Using (M.25) and Newtons second law, we nd that the matter of mass m, which at a given instant is located in V obeys the equation of motion Tn d2x O
where Fext is the external force and a is the acceleration of the volume element. In other words m Fext Tn D n1 Tx1 C n2 Tx2 C n3 Tx3 C 2 a (M.27) O O O O m dx Since both a and Fext =m remain nite whereas m=d2x ! 0 as V ! 0, one nds that in this
M .1.
j 205
limit Tn D O
3 X i D1
ni Txi ni Txi O O
(M.28)
From the above derivation it is clear that equation (M.28) is valid not only in equilibrium but also when the matter in V is in motion. Introducing the notation Tij D Txi O
j
(M.29)
for the j th component of the vector Txi , we can write equation (M.28) above in component O form as follows Tnj D .Tn /j D O O
3 X i D1
ni Tij ni Tij
(M.30)
Using equation (M.30), we nd that the component of the vector Tn in the direction of an O O arbitrary unit vector m is O Tnm D Tn m O O O D
3 X j D1 3 3 X X j D1 iD1
! ni Tij
Tnj mj D O
O O mj ni Tij mj D n T m
The j th component of this equation can be written Z Z Z Z Z d 3 2 3 vj dm D fj d x C Tnj d x D fj d x C ni Tij d2x O V dt V S V S
R
@Tij D0 @xi @Tij D0 @xi fj
We shall now show how one can use the momentum law (force equation) to derive the equation of motion for an arbitrary element of mass in the body. To this end we consider a part V of the body. If the external force density (force per unit volume) is denoted by f and the velocity for a mass element dm is denoted by v , we obtain Z Z Z d (M.32) v dm D f d3x C Tn d2x O dt V V S
Hence, the j th component of the vector Txi , here denoted Tij , can be interpreted as the ij th O component of a tensor T. Note that Tnm is independent of the particular coordinate system O O used in the derivation.
D
d vj dt fj or, equivalently @vj C v r vj @t
where, in the last step, equation (M.30) above was used. Setting dm D d3x and using the divergence theorem on the last term, we can rewrite the result as Z Z Z @Tij 3 d vj d3x D fj d3x C dx (M.34) V dt V V @xi Since this formula is valid for any arbitrary volume, we must require that (M.35)
FT
(M.31) (M.33) (M.36)
206 j
Note that @vj =@t is the rate of change with time of the velocity component vj at a xed point x D .x1 ; x1 ; x3 /. End of example M.1
In 4D, we have three forms of four-tensor elds of rank n. We speak of a contravariant four-tensor eld , denoted A a covariant four-tensor eld , denoted A a mixed four-tensor eld , denoted A
1 1 2 ::: n
.x /,
2 ::: n
.x /,
1 2 ::: k kC1 ::: n
.x /.
The 4D metric tensor (fundamental tensor) mentioned above is a particularly important four-tensor of rank two. In covariant component form we shall denote it g . This metric tensor determines the relation between an arbitrary contravariant four-vector a and its covariant counterpart a according to the following rule: a .x / g
def
a .x /
FT
1 2 ::: k 1 k kC1 ::: n
(M.37)
This rule is often called lowering of index. The raising of index analogue of the index lowering rule is: a .x / g
A
def
a .x /
(M.38)
More generally, the following lowering and raising rules hold for arbitrary rank n mixed tensor elds:
R
g
k k
1 2 ::: k 1 k kC1 kC2 ::: n
.x / D A
.x /
(M.39)
k k
1 2 ::: k 1 k kC1 ::: n
.x / D A
1 2 ::: k 1 k kC1 kC2 ::: n
.x /
(M.40)
Successive lowering and raising of more than one index is achieved by a repeated application of this rule. For example, a dual application of the lowering operation on a rank 2 tensor in contravariant form yields A Dg
g
(M.41)
i.e., the same rank 2 tensor in covariant form. This operation is also known as a tensor contraction.
M .1.
j 207
Contravariant and covariant vectors in at Lorentz space The 4D Lorentz space L4 has a simple metric which can be described either by the metric tensor 8 if D D 0 1 < g D D (M.42) 1 if D D i D j D 1; 2; 3 : 0 if which in matrix notation becomes 0 1 1 0 0 0 B0 1 0 0C C . / D B @0 0 1 0A 0 0 0 1
EXAMPLE
M .2
(M.43)
which in matrix representation becomes 0 1 1 0 0 0 B 0 1 0 0C C . / D B @ 0 0 1 0A 0 0 0 1 i.e., a matrix with signature f ; C; C; Cg.
Consider an arbitrary contravariant four-vector a in this space. In component form it can be written: a .a0 ; a1 ; a2 ; a3 / D .a0 ; a/
def
A
a
1 2 2 3
def
.a0 ; a1 ; a2 ; a3 / D
R
a1 D 0 a
0 0
According to the index lowering rule, equation (M.37) on the facing page, we obtain the covariant version of this vector as (M.47)
In the fC; ; ; g metric we obtain D0W D1W D2W
a0 D 1 a 0 C 0 a 1 C 0 a 2 C 0 a 3 D a 0 1 a C0 a C0 a D
1 1
D
D3W
0
a2 D 0 a C 0 a
1 a C0 a D
2
3 3
a3 D 0 a C 0 a C 0 a
1 a D
or
a D .a0 ; a1 ; a2 ; a3 / D .a0 ; a1 ; a2 ; a3 / D .a0 ; a/ L4 and in this metric is given by
Radius 4-vector itself in
x D .x 0 ; x 1 ; x 2 ; x 3 / D .x 0 ; x; y; z/ D .x 0 ; x/ x D .x0 ; x1 ; x2 ; x3 / D .x 0 ; x 1 ; x 2 ; x 3 / D .x 0 ; x/
FT
(M.45) (M.46) (M.48)
1 2 3
i.e., a matrix with a main diagonal that has the sign sequence, or signature, fC; ; ; g or 8 1 if D D 0 < D 1 (M.44) if D D i D j D 1; 2; 3 : 0 if
a a a
(M.49) (M.50) (M.51)
(M.52)
(M.53)
208 j
where x 0 D ct. Analogously, using the f ; C; C; Cg metric we obtain a D .a0 ; a1 ; a2 ; a3 / D . a0 ; a1 ; a2 ; a3 / D . a0 ; a/ (M.54)
End of example M.2
M .1.3
M .1.3.1
Vector algebra
Scalar product
O O O O a b D ai xi bj xj D xi xj ai bj D ij ai bj D ai bi
FT
def def
The scalar product (dot product, inner product) of two arbitrary 3D vectors a and b in Euclidean R3 space is the scalar number (M.55)
O O where we used the fact that the scalar product xi xj is a representation of the Kronecker delta ij dened in equation (M.16) on page 202. In Russian literature, the 3D scalar product is often denoted .ab/. The scalar product of a vector a in R3 with itself is
and similarly for b. This allows us to write a b D ab cos (M.57)
EXAMPLE
R
M .3
def 2 A2 A A D aR def
where is the angle between a and b.

Scalar products in complex vector space
A 3D complex vector A is a vector in C3 (or, if we like, in R6 ), expressed in terms of two real vectors aR and aI in R3 in the following way O O O A aR C iaI D aR aR C iaI aI AA 2 C3 (M.58)
The inner product of A with itself may be dened as

2 aI C 2iaR aI A2 2 C
A
2 aR 2 aI C 2iaR aI 2 C
a a .a/2 D jaj2 D .ai /2 D a2
def
(M.56)
(M.59)
from which we nd that AD
(M.60)
Using this in equation (M.58), we see that we can interpret this so that the complex unit vector is
M .1.
j 209
A O AD D q A
aR
2 aR 2 aI
C 2iaR
2 aI
O aR C i q 2 aI aR 2iaR aI O aR C i
aI
2 aI
O aI
C 2iaR aI
q
D aR
2 aR
q
aI
2 2 4aR aI sin2 2 2 .aR C aI /2
2 aR
2 aI
2iaR aI
2 2 4aR aI sin2 2 2 .aR C aI /2
s
2 2 .aR C aI /
s
2 2 .aR C aI /
O aI 2 C3
(M.61) On the other hand, the denition of the scalar product in terms of the inner product of a complex vector with its own complex conjugate yields
2 2 jAj2 A A D aR C aI D jAj2 def
(M.62)
with the help of which we can dene the unit vector as A aR aI O O O AD D q aR C i q aI jAj 2 2 2 2 aR C aI aR C aI
q
D aR
2 2 aR C aI
q
O aR C i aI
2 2 aR C aI
2 2 aR C aI
2 2 aR C aI
O aI 2 C3
a b Dg a b Da b Dg
A
a b
a b L4
In 4D space we dene the scalar product of two arbitrary four-vectors a and b in the following way (M.64)
ds 2 D g
R
dx dx D dx dx
where we made use of the index lowering and raising rules (M.37) and (M.38). The result is a four-scalar, i.e., an invariant which is independent of in which 4D coordinate system it is measured. The quadratic differential form (M.65)
i.e., the scalar product of the differential radius four-vector with itself, is an invariant called the metric. It is also the square of the line element ds which is the distance between neighbouring points with coordinates x and x C dx .
Scalar product, norm and metric in Lorentz space EXAMPLE
M .4
In L4 the metric tensor attains a simple form [see Example M.2 on page 207] and, hence, the scalar product in equation (M.64) can be evaluated almost trivially. For the fC; ; ; g signature it becomes a b D .a0 ; a/ .b 0 ; b/ D a0 b 0 (M.66)
The important scalar product of the
radius four-vector with itself becomes
FT
(M.63) End of example M.3
210 j
x x D .x0 ; x/ .x 0 ; x/ D .ct; x/ .ct; x/ D .ct/2 .x 1 /2 .x 2 /2 .x 3 /2 D s 2
(M.67)
which is the indenite, real norm of L4 . The L4 metric is the quadratic differential form ds 2 D dx dx D c 2 .dt/2 .dx 1 /2 .dx 2 /2 .dx 3 /2 (M.68)
End of example M.4
M .1.3.2
Vector product
The vector product or cross product of two arbitrary 3D vectors a and b in ordinary R3 space is the vector cDa bD O ij k aj bk xi
FT
(M.69)
Here ij k is the Levi-Civita tensor dened in equation (M.18) on page 202. In matrix representation 1 0 1 0 c1 a2 b3 a3 b2 B C B C (M.70) .c/ D @c2 A D .a b/ D @a3 b1 a1 b3 A D ia Mb c3 a1 b2 a2 b1
R A
a O b D ab sin e
where M is the matrix vector given by formula (M.23) on page 203. Sometimes the 3D vector product of a and b is denoted a ^ b or, particularly in the Russian literature, ab. Alternatively, (M.71)
O where is the angle between a and b and e is a unit vector perpendicular to the plane spanned by a and b. 0 0 0 A spatial reversal of the coordinate system, .x1 ; x2 ; x3 / D . x1 ; x2 ; x3 /, known as a parity transformation, changes sign of the components of the vectors a and b so that in the new coordinate system a0 D a and b0 D b, which is to say that the direction of an ordinary vector is not dependent on the choice of directions of the coordinate axes. On the other hand, as is seen from equation (M.69) above, the cross product vector c does not change sign. Therefore a (or b) is an example of a true vector, or polar vector, whereas c is an example of an axial vector, or pseudovector. A prototype for a pseudovector is the angular momentum vector L D x p and hence the attribute axial. Pseudovectors transform as ordinary vectors under translations and proper rotations, but reverse their sign relative to ordinary vectors for any coordinate change involving reection. Tensors (of any rank) which transform analogously to pseudovectors are called pseudotensors. Scalars
M .1.
j 211
are tensors of rank zero, and zero-rank pseudotensors are therefore also called O O pseudoscalars, an example being the pseudoscalar xi .O j xk /. This triple x product is a representation of the ij k component of the Levi-Civita tensor ij k which is a rank 3 pseudotensor.
M .1.3.3
Dyadic product
O O O O A D ab a b D a1 x1 b1 x1 C a1 x1 b2 x2 C
In matrix representation 0 1 a1 B C .A/ D .ab/ D @a2 A b1 a3
R A
b2 b3 0 a1 b1 B D @a2 b1 a3 b1 a1 b2 a2 b2 a3 b2
def def
O O O O O O D ai xi bj xj D ai bj xi xj D xi ai bj xj 0 10 1 O x1 a1 b1 a1 b2 a1 b3 B CB C D x1 x2 x3 @a2 b1 a2 b2 a2 b3 A @x2 A O O O O O a3 b1 a3 b2 a3 b3 x3
which we identify with expression (M.15) on page 202, viz. a tensor in matrix representation. Hence, a dyadic of two vectors is intimately related to a rank 2 tensor, emphasising the vectorial characteristics. Scalar multiplication from the right and from the left of the dyad A.x/ D a.x/b.x/ by a vector is another vector c according to the scheme
D
def def
O A c ab c a.b c/ D aj bi ci xj O c A c ab .c a/b D ai bj ci xj
respectively. I.e., two new vectors, proportional to a and b, respectively, that, in general, are not identical to each other. In the rst case, c is known as the postfactor, in the second case as the prefactor. O O Specically, if a D xi and b D xj , then O O A xj D abj D ai bj xi (M.75a)
FT
O O C a3 x3 b3 x3 (M.72a) (M.72b) (M.72c) 1 a1 b3 C a2 b3 A a3 b3 (M.73) (M.74a) (M.74b)
The dyadic product eld A.x/ a.x/b.x/ with two juxtaposed vector elds a.x/ and b.x/ is the outer product of a and b known as a dyad . Here a is called the antecedent and b the consequent. The dyadic product between vectors (rank 1 tensors) is a special instance of the direct product, usually denoted , between arbitrary rank tensors. This associative but non-commuting operation is also called the tensor product or, when applied to matrices (matrix representations of tensors), the Kronecker product. Written out in explicit form, the dyadic product A.x/ D a.x/b.x/ becomes
212 j
O O xi A D ai b D ai bj xj which means that O O xi A xj D ai bj D Aij
(M.75b)
(M.75c)
Cross multiplication from the right and from the left of the dyad A by a vector is another dyad according to the scheme
A
c D ab
ADc
c a.b ab .c
def
def
c/ D a/b D
O O j kl ai bk cl xi xj O O j kl ak bl ci xi xj
(M.76a) (M.76b)
aD
O O O O a3 x1 x2 C a2 x1 x3 O O C a 3 x2 x1 O O a1 x2 x3
FT
1 1/
respectively. The two new dyads thus created are, in general, not identical to each other. O O Specially, if A D 1 D xi xi , i.e., the unit dyad or the second-rankunit tensor, then
(M.77)
O O O O a2 x1 x3 C a1 x3 x2 D a
R A
.1 a/ D .a
1/ D
or, in matrix representation, 0 1 0 a3 a2 C B .1 a/ D @ a3 0 a1 A D .a a2 a1 0
(M.78)
Using the matrix vector formula (M.23) on page 203, we can write this as iM a (M.79)
One can extend the dyadic scheme and introduce abc, called a tryad , and so on. In this vein, a vector a is sometimes called a monad .
D
This operator was introduced by WILLIAM ROWEN HAMILTON who, however, used the symbol for it. It is therefore sometimes called the Hamilton operator.
4
M .1.4
Vector analysis
The del operator
M .1.4.1
In R3 the del operator is a differential vector operator, denoted in Gibbs notation by r and dened as4 O O r D xi r i xi
def
@ def @ def @ @xi @x
(M.80)
M .1.
j 213
O where xi is the ith unit vector in a Cartesian coordinate system. Since the operator in itself has vectorial properties, we denote it with a boldface nabla. In component notation we can write @ @ @ ; ; (M.81) @i D @x1 @x2 @x3 In 4D, the contravariant component representation of the four-del operator is dened by @ @ @ @ ; ; ; (M.82) @ D @x0 @x1 @x2 @x3 whereas the covariant four-del operator is @ @ @ @ @ D ; ; ; @x 0 @x 1 @x 2 @x 3
We can use this four-del operator to express the transformation properties (M.13) and (M.14) on page 202 as y0 D @ x0 and y 0 D @0 x respectively.
M .1.4.2
The gradient of a scalar eld
O r .x/ D @.x/ D xi @i .x/ D a.x/
R
@.x / @x
The gradient of an R3 scalar eld .x/, denoted r .x/, is an R3 vector eld a.x/: (M.86)
If the scalar eld depends only on one coordinate, say, then
D
@ .x / D
O @. / D r. / O r .x/ D r . / D @
O and, therefore, r D r. From this we see that the boldface notation for the gradient (r ) is very handy as it elucidates its 3D vectorial property and separates it from the nabla operator (r) which has a scalar property. In 4D, the four-gradient of a four-scalar is a covariant vector, formed as a derivative of a four-scalar eld .x /, with the following component form: (M.88)
FT
(M.83) (M.84) (M.85) (M.87)
214 j
EXAMPLE
M .5
Gradient of a scalar product of two vector elds The gradient of the scalar product of two vector elds a and b can be calculated in the following way: O O r .a b/ D .O i @i /.aj xj bk xk / x O O O O D .O i @i /.aj xj / .bk xk / C .aj xj / .O i @i /.bk xk / x x O O D .O i @i aj xj / b C .O i @i bk xk / a D .r a/ b C .r b/ a x x This is formula (F.89) on page 194. End of example M.5 (M.89)
M .1.4.3
The divergence of a vector eld
r a.x/ D @i ai .x/ D
FT
@ai .x/ D .x/ @xi @a .x / @x D O ij k xi @ak .x/ D b.x/ @xj @ a .x / D G .x / X @2 @2 @xi2 @xi2 i D1
3
We dene the 3D divergence of a vector eld a in R3 as
(M.90)
which, as indicated by the notation .x/, is a scalar eld in R3 . The four-divergence of a four-vector a is the four-scalar @ a .x / D @ a .x / D
M .1.4.4
(M.91)
The curl of a vector eld
R A
r a.x/ D O ij k xi @j ak .x/
In R3 the curl of a vector eld a.x/, denoted r a.x/, is another R3 vector eld b.x/ which can be dened in the following way: (M.92)
where use was made of the Levi-Civita tensor, introduced in equation (M.18) on page 202. The covariant 4D generalisation of the curl of a four-vector eld a .x / is the antisymmetric four-tensor eld G .x / D @ a .x / (M.93)
A vector with vanishing curl is said to be irrotational .
M .1.4.5
The Laplacian
The 3D Laplace operator or Laplacian can be described as the divergence of the del operator: r r D r 2 D @2 D i
def
(M.94)
M .1.
j 215
The symbol r 2 is sometimes read del squared . If, for a scalar eld .x/, r 2 < 0 at some point in 3D space, it is a sign of concentration of at that point. Numerous vector algebra and vector analysis formul are given in Chapter F. Those which are not found there can often be easily derived by using the component forms of the vectors and tensors, together with the Kronecker and Levi-Civita tensors and their generalisations to higher ranks.
The four-del operator in Lorentz space In L4 the contravariant form of the four-del operator can be represented as 1 @ 1 @ @ D ; @ D ; r c @t c @t and the covariant form as 1 @ 1 @ @ D ;@ D ;r c @t c @t Taking the scalar product of these two, one obtains @ @ D 1 @2 c 2 @t 2 r2 D
2
EXAMPLE
M .6
(M.95)
which is the dAlembert operator, sometimes denoted opposite sign convention.
Gradients of scalar functions of relative distances in 3D
A
x0 D x0 j O xi @jx x0 j 0 @xi r0 jx 1 x0 j
FT
(M.96) (M.97) , and sometimes dened with an End of example M.6 EXAMPLE
M .7
O r 0 D xi
@ 0 0 D@ @xi
R
@jx x0 j x D @xi jx r 0 jx x0 j D D x x0 D jx x0 j3
Very often electrodynamic quantities are dependent on the relative distance in R3 between two vectors x and x0 , i.e., on jx x0 j. In analogy with equation (M.80) on page 212, we can dene the primed del operator in the following way: (M.98)
D
r jx O x0 j D xi and r 1 jx x0 j
Using this, the unprimed version, equation (M.80) on page 212, and elementary rules of differentiation, we obtain the following two very useful results:
(M.99)
(M.100)
End of example M.7
216 j
EXAMPLE
M .8
Divergence in 3D For an arbitrary R3 vector eld a.x0 /, the following relation holds: a.x0 / r 0 a.x0 / 1 r0 D C a.x0 / r 0 jx x0 j jx x0 j jx x0 j
(M.101)
which demonstrates how the primed divergence, dened in terms of the primed del operator in equation (M.98) on the previous page, works. End of example M.8
EXAMPLE
M .9
The Laplacian and the Dirac delta A very useful formula in 3D R3 is 1 1 2 Dr D r r jx x0 j jx x0 j
FT
4 .x x0 / @2 @x3 @x2 ! .x/O 1 x ! .x/O 2 x ! .x/O 3 x @2 @x1 @x3 @2 @x2 @x1
(M.102)
where .x x0 / is the 3D Dirac delta function. This formula follows directly from the fact that Z I Z 1 x x0 x x0 O d3x r r D d3x r D d2x n jx x0 j jx x0 j3 jx x0 j3 V V S (M.103) equals 4 if the integration volume V .S/, enclosed by the surface S.V /, includes x D x0 , and equals 0 otherwise.
A
O ij k xi @j @k .x/ D D C C 0
ij k
End of example M.9
EXAMPLE
M .10
The curl of a gradient
R
r r .x/ D O ij k xi @j @k .x/
Using the denition of the R3 curl, equation (M.92) on page 214, and the gradient, equation (M.86) on page 213, we see that (M.104)
which, due to the assumed well-behavedness of .x/, vanishes: @ @ .x/O i x @xj @xk
D
We thus nd that
@2 @x2 @x3 @2 @x3 @x1 @2 @x1 @x2
(M.105)
M .1.
j 217
r .x/ 0
(M.106)
for any arbitrary, well-behaved R3 scalar eld .x/. In 4D we note that for any well-behaved four-scalar eld .x / .@ @ @ @ /.x / 0 (M.107)
so that the four-curl of a four-gradient vanishes just as does a curl of a gradient in R3 . Hence, a gradient is always irrotational. End of example M.10
The divergence of a curl
FT
(M.108) (M.109) (M.110) (M.111) End of example M.11
EXAMPLE
M .11
With the use of the denitions of the divergence (M.90) and the curl, equation (M.92) on page 214, we nd that r r a.x/ D @i r a.x/i D
ij k @i @j ak .x/
Using the denition for the Levi-Civita symbol, dened by equation (M.18) on page 202, we nd that, due to the assumed well-behavedness of a.x/,
ij k
D C C
@2 @x2 @x3
i.e., that r r
D
a.x/ 0 @ G D @ @ a .x /
for any arbitrary, well-behaved R3 vector eld a.x/.
In 4D, the four-divergence of the four-curl is not zero, for

2
R
@2 @x1 @x2 @2 @x2 @x1 ! 0 a .x / 0
@2 @x3 @x1
A
@2 @x3 @x2 ! a1 .x/ ! @2 @x1 @x3 a2 .x/ a3 .x/
@i
ij k @j ak .x/
@ @xi
@ a @xj k
218 j
EXAMPLE
M .12
A non-trivial vector analytic triple product When differential operators appear inside multiple-product vector formul, one has to ensure that the range of the operator is taken into account in a proper and correct manner. The following calculation of the triple product .a r / b, where a and b are 3D vector elds, illustrates how this situation can be handled. .a r/ bD. D. D D O ij k xi aj @k /
ij k aj @k /.
bD. D
x ij k aj @k /.O i
b/ (M.112) O xj aj @j bk
O lmn xl i m bn / D
O ij k lmn i m xl aj @k bn
O ij k li n xl aj @k bn .j l k n
O ij k i ln xl aj @k bn a.r b/
O j n kl /O l aj @k bn D xk aj @k bj x O xj aj @j bk D ai r bi
O D xi aj @i bj
This is formula (F.98) on page 194.
M .2
Analytical mechanics
Lagranges equations
M .2.1
R A
t1
As is well known from elementary analytical mechanics, the Lagrange function or Lagrangian L is given by dqi ;t D T V (M.113) L.qi ; qi ; t / D L qi ; P dt where qi is the generalised coordinate, T the kinetic energy and V the potential energy of a mechanical system, Using the action Z t2 SD dt L.qi ; qi ; t/ P (M.114) and the variational principle with xed endpoints t1 and t2 , S D 0 (M.115)
one nds that the Lagrangian satises the Euler-Lagrange equations d @L @L D0 dt @qi P @qi
FT
End of example M.12
(M.116)
To the generalised coordinate qi one denes a canonically conjugate momentum pi according to pi D @L @qi P (M.117)
M .2.
Analytical mechanics
j 219
and note from equation (M.116) on the preceding page that @L D pi P @qi (M.118)
If we introduce an arbitrary, differentiable function D .qi ; t/ and a new Lagrangian L0 related to L in the following way L0 D L C then @L0 @L @ D C @qi P @qi P @q 0 @L d @ @L D C @qi @qi dt @q Or, in other words, d @L0 @L0 dt @qi P where pi0 D and qi0 D @L @ @ @L0 D C D pi C @qi P @qi P @qi @qi @qi (M.120a) @ d @ C D L C qi P dt @qi @t (M.119)
d @L dt @qi P
@L @qi
R A
@L0 @L D D qi @pi P @p P L.qi ; qi ; t / P @L dqi @qi
M .2.2
Hamiltons equations
From L, the Hamiltonian (Hamilton function) H can be dened via the Legendre transformation
H.pi ; qi ; t / D pi qi P
After differentiating the left and right hand sides of this denition and setting them equal we obtain @H @H @H dpi C dqi C dt D qi dpi C pi dqi P P @pi @qi @t @L dqi P @qi P @L dt @t (M.124)
According to the denition of pi , equation (M.117) on the facing page, the second and fourth terms on the right hand side cancel. Furthermore, noting that according
FT
(M.120b) (M.121) (M.122a) (M.122b) (M.123)
220 j
to equation (M.118) on the previous page the third term on the right hand side of equation (M.124) on the preceding page is equal to pi dqi and identifying terms, P we obtain the Hamilton equations: @H dqi D qi D P @pi dt @H D pi D P @qi (M.125a) dpi dt (M.125b)
[72] M. A BRAMOWITZ AND I. A. S TEGUN, Handbook of Mathematical Functions, Dover Publications, Inc., New York, 1972, Tenth Printing, with corrections. [73] G. B. A RFKEN AND H. J. W EBER, Mathematical Methods for Physicists, fourth, international ed., Academic Press, Inc., San Diego, CA . . . , 1995, ISBN 0-12-059816-7. [74] R. A. D EAN, Elements of Abstract Algebra, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, NY . . . , 1967, ISBN 0-471-20452-8. [75] A. A. E VETT, Permutation symbol approach to elementary vector analysis, American Journal of Physics, 34 (1965), pp. 503507. [76] A. M ESSIAH, Quantum Mechanics, vol. II, North-Holland Publishing Co., Amsterdam, 1970, Sixth printing. [77] P. M. M ORSE AND H. F ESHBACH, Methods of Theoretical Physics, Part I. McGrawHill Book Company, Inc., New York, NY . . . , 1953, ISBN 07-043316-8.
R A
[78] B. S PAIN, Tensor Calculus, third ed., Oliver and Boyd, Ltd., Edinburgh and London, 1965, ISBN 05-001331-9. [79] W. E. T HIRRING, Classical Mathematical Physics, Springer-Verlag, New York, Vienna, 1997, ISBN 0-387-94843-0.
FT
M .3
Bibliography
INDEX
Abdus Salam, 2 acceleration eld, 106 advanced time, 38 Albert Einstein, 1, 3 Alfred North Whitehead, 130 Alfred-Marie Linard, 102 Ampres law, 6 Ampre-turn density, 166 Anders Eriksson, xx Andr-Marie Ampre, 6 angular frequency, 26 angular momentum current density, 69 angular momentum ux tensor, 69 angular momentum theorem, 69 anisotropic, 168 anisotropic medium, 165 anomalous dispersion, 169 antecedent, 211 antenna, 93 antenna current, 93 antenna feed point, 94 antisymmetric tensor, 142 Arnold Johannes Wilhelm Sommerfeld, 172 arrow of time, 61 associated Legendre polynomial of the rst kind, 85 associative, 134 axial gauge, 41 axial vector, 142, 210
R A
221
FT
Bengt Lundborg, xx Bessel functions, 99 Biot-Savarts law, 8 birefringent, 168 birefringent crystal, 165 braking radiation, 115 bremsstrahlung, 115, 123
axiomatic foundation of classical electrodynamics, 19 axions, 16
canonically conjugate four-momentum, 150 canonically conjugate momentum, 150, 218 canonically conjugate momentum density, 157 Carroll-Field-Jackiw electrodynamics, 16 Cesare Barbieri, xvii CGS units, 3, 15 characteristic impedance of vacuum, 79, 178 charge conjugation, 59 Charles-Augustin de Coulomb, 3 Cherenkov radiation, 170 chiral media, 163 Christer Wahlberg, xx classical electrodynamics, 1, 9 closed algebraic structure, 134 coherent radiation, 122 collision frequency, 175 collisional interaction, 182 complete -Lorenz gauge, 41
222
INDEX
complex conjugate, 191 complex notation, 20, 199 complex vector, 208 complex-eld six-vector, 22 component notation, 199 concentration, 215 conductivity, 174 consequent, 211 conservation law, 63 conservation law for angular momentum, 69 conservation law for linear momentum, 67 conservation law for the total current, 63 conservation laws, 61 conservative eld, 12 conservative forces, 155 conserved quantities, 61 constants of motion, 61 constitutive relations, 15, 174 continuity equation, 62 contravariant component form, 130, 199 contravariant eld tensor, 143 contravariant four-tensor eld, 206 contravariant four-vector, 201 contravariant four-vector eld, 133 contravariant vector, 130 control sphere, 61 convective derivative, 13 cosine integral, 96 Coulomb gauge, 40 Coulombs law, 3 covariant, 128 covariant component form, 200 covariant eld tensor, 143 covariant four-tensor eld, 206 covariant four-vector, 202 covariant four-vector eld, 133 covariant gauge, 139 covariant vector, 130 CPT theorem, 61 cross product, 210 curl, 214
cutoff, 117 cyclotron radiation, 119, 123 dAlembert operator, 24, 36, 138, 215 David Bohm, 127 deniendum, 199 deniens, 199 del operator, 212 del squared, 215 demodulation, 165 dielectric permittivity, 164 differential distance, 132 differential vector operator, 212 diffusion coefcient, 184 dipole antennas, 93 Dirac delta, 216 Diracs symmetrised Maxwell equations, 16 direct product, 211 dispersive, 169 dispersive property, 165 displacement current, 11 divergence, 214 dot product, 208 dual electromagnetic tensor, 144 dual vector, 130 duality transformation, 71, 145 dummy index, 130 dyad, 211 dyadic product, 211 dyons, 72 E1 radiation, 88 E2 radiation, 93 Edwin Herbert Hall, 167 Einsteins summation convention, 199 electric and magnetic eld energy, 65 electric charge conservation law, 10 electric charge density, 4 electric conductivity, 11 electric current density, 8 electric dipole moment, 87
R A
FT
INDEX
223
electric dipole moment vector, 82 electric dipole radiation, 88 electric displacement current, 75 electric displacement vector, 163, 164 electric eld, 3, 164 electric eld energy, 65 electric monopole moment, 81 electric permittivity, 182 electric polarisation, 82 electric quadrupole moment tensor, 82 electric quadrupole radiation, 93 electric quadrupole tensor, 92 electric susceptibility, 165 electricity, 2 electrodynamic potentials, 33 electromagnetic angular momentum density, 68, 89 electromagnetic energy current density, 64 electromagnetic energy ux, 64 electromagnetic eld energy, 64 electromagnetic eld energy density, 23, 64 electromagnetic eld tensor, 143 electromagnetic linear momentum density, 66, 89 electromagnetic moment of momentum density, 68 electromagnetic orbital angular momentum, 70 electromagnetic scalar potential, 33 electromagnetic spin angular momentum, 70 electromagnetic vector potential, 33 electromagnetic virial density, 71 electromagnetic virial theorem, 71 electromagnetism, 1 electromagnetodynamic equations, 16 electromagnetodynamics, 71 electromotive force, 12 electrostatic dipole moment vector, 31 electrostatic quadrupole moment tensor, 31 electrostatic scalar potential, 30 electrostatics, 2
R A
FT
electroweak theory, 2 EMF, 12 Emil Johann Wiechert, 102 energy theorem in Maxwells theory, 65 equation of continuity, 139 equation of continuity for electric charge, 10 equation of continuity for magnetic charge, 16 equations of classical electrostatics, 9 equations of classical magnetostatics, 9 Ettore Majorana, 22 Euclidean space, 135 Euclidean vector space, 131 Euler-Lagrange equation, 156 Euler-Lagrange equations, 157, 218 Euler-Mascheroni constant, 96 event, 134 Fabrizio Tamburini, xvii far eld, 49, 52 far elds, 45, 56 far zone, 45, 53, 86 Faraday tensor, 143 Faradays law, 12 eld, 200 eld Lagrange density, 158 eld momentum, 25 eld point, 4 eld quantum, 117 ne structure constant, 117, 125 four-current, 138 four-del operator, 213 four-dimensional Hamilton equations, 150 four-dimensional vector space, 130 four-divergence, 214 four-gradient, 213 four-Hamiltonian, 150 four-Lagrangian, 148 four-momentum, 137 four-potential, 138 four-scalar, 200
224
INDEX
four-tensor elds, 206 four-vector, 133, 201 four-velocity, 137 Fourier amplitude, 26 Fourier integral, 27 Fourier transform, 27, 36 free-free radiation, 115 frequency mixing, 11 functional derivative, 156 fundamental tensor, 130, 200, 206 Galileo Galilei, 198 Galileos law, 127 gauge xing, 41 gauge function, 34 gauge invariant, 35 gauge theory, 35 gauge transformation, 35 Gausss law of electrostatics, 5 general inhomogeneous wave equations, 35 general theory of relativity, 127 generalised coordinate, 150, 218 generalised four-coordinate, 150 Gerardus tHooft, xx Gibbs notation, 212 gradient, 213 Green function, 37, 85 group theory, 134 group velocity, 169 Gran Fldt, xx
Hall effect, 167 Hamilton density, 157 Hamilton density equations, 157 Hamilton equations, 150, 220 Hamilton function, 219 Hamilton gauge, 41 Hamilton operator, 43, 212 Hamiltonian, 43, 219 Hans Christian rsted, 6 Heaviside-Larmor-Rainich transformation, 71
R A
FT
Heaviside-Lorentz units, 15 Heinrich Rudolf Hertz, 77 Helmholtz equation, 94 Helmholtz theorem, 35 Helmholtzs theorem, 5 Helmut Kopka, xx help vector, 85 Hendrik Antoon Lorentz, 1, 36 Hermitian conjugate, 191 Hertz vector, 84 Hertzs method, 81 heterodyning, 165 Hodge star operator, 71 homogeneous vector wave equations, 177 Hookes law, 154 Huygens principle, 37 identity element, 134 Igor Evgenevich Tamm, 172 Ilya Mikhailovich Frank, 172 in a medium, 171 incoherent radiation, 123 indenite norm, 131 index contraction, 130 index lowering, 130 index of refraction, 164 inertial reference frame, 127 inertial system, 127 inhomogeneous Helmholtz equation, 37 inhomogeneous time-independent wave equation, 37 inhomogeneous wave equation, 36 inner product, 208 instantaneous, 112 interaction Lagrange density, 158 intermediate eld, 52 intermediate zone, 45 invariant, 201 invariant line element, 132 inverse element, 134 inverse Fourier transform, 27
INDEX
225
ionosphere, 176 irrotational, 6, 214 Jacobi identity, 145 James Clerk Maxwell, xix, 1 Jemenko equations, 50 Johan Lindberg, xviii Johan Sjholm, vi, xviii John Archibald Wheeler, 39 John Learned, xx Joule heat power, 65 Julian Seymour Schwinger, 1, 15 Kelvin function, 124 kinetic energy, 154, 218 kinetic momentum, 153 Kristoffer Palmer, vi, xviii Kronecker delta tensor, 202 Kronecker product, 211 Lagrange density, 155 Lagrange function, 154, 218 Lagrangian, 154, 218 Laplace operator, 214 Laplacian, 214 Larmor formula for radiated power, 112 law of inertia, 127 Legendre polynomial, 85 Legendre transformation, 219 Lev Mikahilovich Erukhimov, xx Levi-Civita tensor, 202 light cone, 133 light-like interval, 133 line broadening, 26 line element, 209 linear mass density, 155 linear momentum current density, 67 linear momentum density, 66 linear momentum ux tensor, 67 linear momentum theorem in Maxwells theory, 67 Linard-Wiechert potentials, 102, 141
R A
FT
longitudinal component, 179 loop antenna, 97 Lorentz boost parameter, 135 Lorentz force, 14, 67 Lorentz force density, 66 Lorentz power, 64 Lorentz power density, 64 Lorentz space, 131, 200 Lorentz transformation, 129 Lorenz-Lorentz gauge, 39 Lorenz-Lorentz gauge condition, 36, 139 lowering of index, 206 Ludvig Valentin Lorenz, 36 M1 radiation, 92 Mach cone, 172 magnetic charge density, 15 magnetic current density, 15 magnetic dipole moment, 92, 166 magnetic dipole moment per unit volume, 166 magnetic dipole radiation, 92 magnetic displacement current, 75 magnetic eld, 7, 164 magnetic eld energy, 65 magnetic eld intensity, 166 magnetic ux, 12 magnetic ux density, 8 magnetic four-current, 145 magnetic induction, 8 magnetic monopoles, 15 magnetic permeability, 182 magnetic susceptibility, 164, 167 magnetisation, 166 magnetisation currents, 166 magnetised plasma, 165 magnetising eld, 163, 164, 166 magnetostatic vector potential, 30 magnetostatics, 6 Majorana representation, 22 Marcus Eriksson, xviii
226
INDEX
Marie Sklodowska Curie, 172 mass density, 66 massive photons, 161 material derivative, 13 mathematical group, 134 matrix representation, 202 Mattias Waldenvik, xx Maxwell stress tensor, 67 Maxwells displacement current, 10 Maxwells macroscopic equations, 168 Maxwells microscopic equations, 15 Maxwell-Chern-Simons equations, 16 Maxwell-Lorentz equations, 15 Maxwell-Lorentz source equations, 20 mechanical angular momentum, 68 mechanical angular momentum density, 68 mechanical energy, 64 mechanical energy density, 64 mechanical Lagrange density, 158 mechanical linear momentum, 68 mechanical linear momentum density, 66 mechanical moment of momentum, 68 mechanical orbital angular momentum, 68 mechanical spin angular momentum, 68 mechanical torque, 68 metamaterials, 168 metric, 200, 209 metric tensor, 130, 200, 206 Michael Faraday, 197 Minkowski equation, 150 Minkowski space, 135 mixed four-tensor eld, 206 mixing angle, 72 moment of velocity, 62 monad, 212 monochromatic, 46 monochromatic wave, 26 multipole expansion, 81 Mller scattering, 125 natural units, 15
near zone, 45, 52 negative refractive index, 168 Newtons rst law, 127 Newton-Lorentz force equation, 150 Noethers theorem, 61 non-Euclidean space, 131 non-linear effects, 11 norm, 130, 210 null vector, 133 observation point, 4 Ohms law, 11, 174 Ohmic losses, 65 Oliver Heaviside, 109, 168, 172 one-dimensional wave equation, 179 orbital angular momentum (OAM), 70 orbital angular momentum operator, 70 outer product, 211 paraxial approximation, 55 parity transformation, 59, 210 Parsevals identity, 80, 116, 124 Paul Adrien Maurice Dirac, 1, 39, 197 L Pavel Alekseevich Cerenkov, 172 Per Olof Frman, xix phase velocity, 168 photon, 117, 184 photons, 163 physical observable, 20, 129 Pierre Duhem, 2 Planck units, 15 plane wave, 180 plasma, 169 plasma frequency, 169, 176 plasma physics, 71 Poincar gauge, 41 Poissons equation, 30 polar vector, 142, 210 polarisation charges, 164 polarisation currents, 166 polarisation potential, 84
R A
FT
INDEX
227
radial gauge, 41 radiated electromagnetic power, 65 radiation eld, 106 radiation resistance, 96 radius four-vector, 129 radius vector, 199 raising of index, 206 rank, 202 rapidity, 135 reciprocal space, 28 refractive index, 164, 168, 176 relative dielectric permittivity, 165 relative permeability, 167, 182
R A
QCD, 2 QED, 1, 163 quadratic differential form, 132, 209 quantum chromodynamics, 2 quantum electrodynamics, 1, 40, 163 quantum mechanical non-linearity, 4
FT
scalar, 198, 214 scalar eld, 133, 200 scalar product, 208 Schrdinger equation, 43 self-force effects, 175 Sergey Ivanovich Vavilov, 172 Sheldon Glashow, 2 shock front, 172 SI units, 3, 15 Siavoush Mohammadi, xx signature, 131, 207 simultaneous coordinate, 109 Sin-Itiro Tomonaga, 1 Sir Isaac Newton, 197 Sir Rudolf Peierls, 197 skew-symmetric, 143 skin depth, 182 source equations, 167 source point, 4 source terms, 20 space components, 131 space inversion, 59 space-like interval, 133 space-time, 131
polarisation vector, 83 positive denite, 135 positive denite norm, 131 postfactor, 211 postulates, 19 potential energy, 154, 218 potential theory, 84 Poynting vector, 64 Poyntings theorem, 65 prefactor, 211 probability density, 43 Proca Lagrangian, 161 propagator, 37, 85 proper time, 133 pseudo-Riemannian space, 135 pseudoscalar, 198 pseudoscalars, 211 pseudotensor, 198 pseudotensors, 210 pseudovector, 60, 142, 198, 210
relative permittivity, 182 Relativity principle, 128 relaxation time, 177 rest mass density, 158 retarded Coulomb eld, 52 retarded induction eld, 49 retarded potentials, 39 retarded relative distance, 102 retarded time, 38 Richard Phillips Feynman, 1, 39 Riemann-Silberstein vector, 22 Riemannian metric, 132 Riemannian space, 130, 200 Roger Karlsson, xx rotational degree of freedom, 81 Rudolf Kohlrausch, 3
228
INDEX
telegraphers equation, 179, 182 temporal dispersive media, 12 temporal Fourier components, 26 temporal Fourier series, 26 temporal gauge, 41 temporal spectral components, 26 tensor, 198 tensor contraction, 206 tensor eld, 202 tensor notation, 203 tensor product, 211 thermodynamic entropy, 61 three-dimensional functional derivative, 157 time component, 131 time reversal, 60 time-dependent diffusion equation, 184 time-dependent Poissons equation, 40 time-harmonic wave, 26 time-independent diffusion equation, 178 time-independent telegraphers equation, 180 time-independent wave equation, 94, 178
R A
FT
wave equation, 63 wave equations, 23 wave vector, 25, 28, 168, 180 Webers constant, 3 Wilhelm Eduard Weber, 3
spatial Fourier components, 27 spatial spectral components, 27 special theory of relativity, 127 spectral energy density, 80 spherical Bessel function of the rst kind, 85 spherical Hankel function of the rst kind, 85 spherical harmonic, 85 spherical waves, 57 spin angular momentum (SAM), 70 spin angular momentum operator, 70 standard conguration, 128 standing wave, 94 static net charge, 31 Steven Weinberg, 2 super-potential, 84 superposition principle, 27 synchrotron radiation, 119, 123 synchrotron radiation lobe width, 120
time-like interval, 133 Tobia Carozzi, xx torque density, 68 total charge, 81 total electromagnetic angular momentum, 90 total electromagnetic linear momentum, 90 traceless, 32 translational degree of freedom, 78 transversality condition, 25 transverse components, 179 transverse gauge, 40 tryad, 212 uncertainty principle, 61 uncoupled inhomogeneous wave equations, 36 unit dyad, 212 unit tensor, 212 universal constant, 139 Unmagnetised plasma, 175
vacuum permeability, 6 vacuum permittivity, 3 vacuum polarisation effects, 4 vacuum wave number, 178 variational principle, 218 L Vavilov-Cerenkov cone, 172 L Vavilov-Cerenkov radiation, 170, 172 vector, 198 vector product, 210 vector wave equations, 24 vector waves, 25 velocity eld, 106 velocity gauge condition, 41 virtual simultaneous coordinate, 106 Vitaliy Lazarevich Ginzburg, xx
INDEX
229
William Rowen Hamilton, 212 world line, 134 Yang-Mills theory, 35 Youngs modulus, 155 Yukawa meson eld, 161
R A
FT
R A
E L E C T R O M AGNETIC FIELD THEORY ISBN 978-0-486-4773-2
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ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELD THEORY

ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELD THEORY

ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELD THEORY

Department of Physics and Astronomy Uppsala University, Sweden

ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELD THEORY EXERCISES

Copyright 19972009 by Bo Thid Uppsala, Sweden All rights reserved.

Electromagnetic Field Theory ISBN 978-0-486-4773-2

Freely downloadable from www.plasma.uu.se/CED

Preface to the second edition Preface to the rst edition

1 Foundations of Classical Electrodynamics

2 Electromagnetic Fields and Waves

3 Electromagnetic Potentials and Gauges

4 Fields from Arbitrary Charge and Current Distributions

5 Fundamental Properties of the Electromagnetic Field

6 Radiation and Radiating Systems

8 Electromagnetic Fields and Particles

9 Electromagnetic Fields and Matter

The electromagnetic eld . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187

Electromagnetic radiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188

Special relativity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190

Field tensor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191

Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196 197

Scalars, vectors and tensors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198 Vectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199 Fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200

Vector algebra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208

Vector analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212

Analytical mechanics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218 Lagranges equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218 Hamiltons equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219

1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4

3 5 7 13 55 84 87 94 95 97 101 103 113 114 119 121 123 125

8.1 Linear one-dimensional mass chain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154

L 9.1 Vavilov-Cerenkov cone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171 Tetrahedron-like volume element of matter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204

PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION

P R E F A C E TO THE SECOND EDITION

Padova, Italy October, 2009

PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION

P R E F A CE TO THE FIRST EDITION

P R E F A C E TO THE FIRST EDITION

FOUNDATIONS OF CLASSICAL ELECTRODYNAMICS

1 . F O U N D A TIONS OF CLASSICAL ELECTRODYNAMICS

1.1.2 The electrostatic eld

1 . F O U N D A TIONS OF CLASSICAL ELECTRODYNAMICS

Since, by denition, the integral Z d3x 0 .x0 x0 / i V0 Z 0 d3x 0 .x 0 xi /

1 . F O U N D A TIONS OF CLASSICAL ELECTRODYNAMICS

representing four scalar partial differential equations.

1.2.2 The magnetostatic eld

1 . F O U N D A TIONS OF CLASSICAL ELECTRODYNAMICS

and the equations of classical magnetostatics

1 . F O U N D A TIONS OF CLASSICAL ELECTRODYNAMICS

1.3.1 The indestructibility of electric charge

1.3.2 Maxwells displacement current

.t; x /r jx x0 j Z 1 1 @ d3x 0 .t; x0 /r D @t 4 "0 V 0 jx x0 j Z 0 @ 1 .t; x / @ D r d3x 0 D E.t; x/ 0j @t 4 "0 @t jx x V0

1.3.3 Electromotive force

In semiconductors this approximation is in general not applicable at all.

1 . F O U N D A TIONS OF CLASSICAL ELECTRODYNAMICS

The electromotive force is dened as I E D dl .Estat C EEMF /

where dl is a tangential line element of the closed loop C .11

1.3.4 Faradays law of induction

1 . F O U N D A TIONS OF CLASSICAL ELECTRODYNAMICS

An observer in a xed frame of reference measures the electric eld (1.45)

is indeed valid even if the loop is moving.

1.3.5 The microscopic Maxwell equations

In CGS units the microscopic Maxwell equations are r ED4