Controlengg Compiled Pillai (Session 1 7)

ME55 CONTROL ENGINEERING
(Common to ME/IP/MA/AU)
Sub Code : ME55 IA Marks : 25
Hrs/Week : 04 Exam Hours : 03
Total Hrs. : 52 Exam marks : 100
1. Introduction: Concept of automatic controls, open and closed loop systems,
concepts of feedback, requirement of an ideal control system.
3 Hrs
2. Mathematical Model: Mechanical system (both translational and rotational),
Electrical systems(servos, D. C. Motors, A. C. Servomotors), Hydraulic systems
(liquid level and fluid power systems), Thermal systems, Integrating devices,
Hydraulic servomotor, temperature control system, error detectors.
6 Hrs
3. System Response: First order and second order system response to step, ramp and
sinusoidal inputs, concepts of time constant and its importance in speed response.
System of stability Routh Hurwitz Criterion.
6 Hrs
4. Block Diagrams and Signal Flow Graphs: Transfer function definition, function,
block representation of system elements, reduction of block diagrams, Signal flow
graphs, basic properties and gain formula to block.
6 Hrs
5. Control Action: Types of controllers- Proportional, Integral, Proportional Integral,
Proportional Integral Differential controllers (Basic concepts only).
3 Hrs
6. Frequency Response: Polar and rectangular plots for the frequency response,
system analysis using Nyquist diagrams. Relative stability concepts of gain margin
and phase margin. M and N circles.
4 Hrs
7. System Analysis using Logarithmic Plots: Bode attenuation diagrams, Stability
analysis using Bode diagrams, simplified Bode diagrams.
4 Hrs
8. Root Locus Plots: Definition of root loci, constructing of root loci, graphical
relationship setting the system gain.
6 Hrs
9. System Compensation: Series and feedback compensation, physical devices for
system compensation.
8 Hrs
10. Introduction to State Variable Characteristics of linear Systems: Introduction
to the state concepts, state equation of linear continuous data system. Matrix
representation of state equations, controllability and observability, Kalman and
Gilberts test.
6 Hrs
TEXT BOOKS:
1. Ogatta, K., Modern Control Engineering, Prentice Hall, India, 2003.
2. Raven, F., Automatic Control Systems, 5
th
Edition, McGraw Hill, 1995.
1
REFERENCE BOOKS :
1. Stefano III, J. J., Stubbered, A. R., Williams, I. J., Theory and Problems of
Feedback and Control Systems, Schaums Outline Series, 2001.
2. Nagrath, I. J., and Gopal, M., Control Systems Engineering, Wiley Eastern Ltd.
3. Gopal, M., Control Systems Principles and Design, Tata McGraw Hill, 1997.
4. Sivanandom, S. N., Control Systems Engineering, Vikas Publishing House, 2001.
5. Dorf, R. C., and Bishop, R. H., Modern Control Systems, Addison-Wesely, 8
th
Editiuon, 1998.
6. Kuo, B. C., Automatic Control Systems, Perntice Hall (India), 1995.
7. Eronini, E. U., System Dynamics and Control, Thomson Learning, 2002.
SUBJECT EXPERTS:
1. Pilli, S. C., Principal, K.L.E Societys College of Engineering and
Technology, Udyambag, Belgaum.
2. Sridhar, B. K., Professor, Department of Mechanical Engineering,
National Institute of Engineering, Mysore.
3. Girish, D. V., Professor, Department of Mechanical Engineering,
Malanad College of engineering, Hassan.
4. Sreenidhi, R., Senior lecturer, Department of Mechanical
Engineering, S J C E, Mysore.
2
CHAPTER 1
Introduction
A control system is an arrangement of physical components connected or related in such a
manner as to command, direct, or regulate itself or another system, or is that means by
which any quantity of interest in a system is maintained or altered in accordance with a
desired manner.
Any control system consists of three essential components namely input, system
and out put. The input is the stimulus or excitation applied to a system from an external
energy source. A system is the arrangement of physical components and output is the
actual response obtained from the system. The control system may be one of the following
type.
1) man made
2) natural and / or biological and
3) hybrid consisting of man made and natural or biological.
Examples:
1) An electric switch is man made control system, controlling flow of electricity.
input : flipping the switch on/off
system : electric switch
output : flow or no flow of current
2) Pointing a finger at an object is a biological control system.
input : direction of the object with respect to some direction
system : consists of eyes, arm, hand, finger and brain of a man
output : actual pointed direction with respect to same direction
3) Man driving an automobile is a hybrid system.
input : direction or lane
system : drivers hand, eyes, brain and vehicle
output : heading of the automobile
Classification of Control Systems
Control systems are classified into two general categories based upon the control action
which is responsible to activate the system to produce the output viz.
1) Open loop control system in which the control action is independent of the out put.

2) Closed loop control system in which the control action is some how dependent
upon the output and are generally called as feedback control systems.
Open Loop System is a system in which control action is independent of output. To
each reference input there is a corresponding output which depends upon the system and its
operating conditions. The accuracy of the system depends on the calibration of the system.
In the presence of noise or disturbances open loop control will not perform satisfactorily. A
closed loop control system is one in which the control action depends on the output. In
3
closed loop control system the actuating error signal, which is the difference between the
input signal and the feed back signal (out put signal or its function) is fed to the controller.
Examples:
1) Washing clothes in a washing machine is an open loop control system.
Soaking, washing and rinsing in the washer operate on a time basis. The output
signal, that is, the cleanliness of the clothes is not measured nor feedback for
comparison with the input. The schematic diagram of an open loop control system
is shown in Fig.1.1
2) Room temperature control system is an example of closed loop control system. By
measuring the actual room temperature and comparing it with the reference
temperature the thermostat turns heating or cooling equipment on or off regardless
of outside conditions. The schematic diagram of a closed loop control system is
shown in Fig.1.2
Figure 1 Elements of open loop control system
Figure 2 Elements of closed loop control system
Actuating signal
nput
output input
Controller System
Control
elements
System /
Plant
Feed back elements
controller
Forward path
Reference
input
Actuating
/ error
signal
Error
detector
Feed back signal
Controlled
output
4
Characteristics of open loop control system
1) Simple in construction and easy to maintain.
2) Less expensive than a corresponding closed loop system.
3) There is no stability problem.
4) Convenient when output is hard to measure or economically not feasible.
5) Disturbances and changes in calibration cause errors.
Characteristics of closed open loop control system
1) Feedback systems can faithfully reproduce the input.
2) Increased accuracy.
3) Reduced effects of nonlinearities and distortion.
4) Increased bandwidth over which the system will respond satisfactorily.
5) Closed loop control systems have tendency to oscillate or become unstable
Definitions:
Systems: A system is a combination of components that act together and perform a certain
objective. The system may be physical, biological, economical, etc.
Control system: It is an arrangement of physical components connected or related in a
manner to command, direct or regulate itself or another system.
Open loop: An open loop system control system is one in which the control action is
independent of the output.
Closed loop: A closed loop control system is one in which the control action is somehow
dependent on the output.
Plants: A plant is equipment the purpose of which is to perform a particular operation. Any
physical object to be controlled is called a plant.
Processes: Processes is a natural or artificial or voluntary operation that consists of a series
of controlled actions, directed towards a result.
Input: The input is the excitation applied to a control system from an external energy
source. The inputs are also known as actuating signals.
Output: The output is the response obtained from a control system or known as controlled
variable.
Block diagram: A block diagram is a short hand, pictorial representation of cause and
effect relationship between the input and the output of a physical system. It characterizes
the functional relationship amongst the components of a control system.
Control elements: These are also called controller which are the components required to
generate the appropriate control signal applied to the plant.
Plant: Plant is the control system body process or machine of which a particular quantity
or condition is to be controlled.
Feedback control: feedback control is an operation in which the difference between the
output of the system and the reference input by comparing these using the difference as a
means of control.
Feedback elements: These are the components required to establish the functional
relationship between primary feedback signal and the controlled output.
Actuating signal: also called the error or control action. It is the algebraic sum consisting
of reference input and primary feedback.
5
Manipulated variable: it that quantity or condition which the control elements apply to
the controlled system.
Feedback signal: it is a signal which is function of controlled output
Disturbance: It is an undesired input signal which affects the output.
Forward path: It is a transmission path from the actuating signal to controlled output
Feedback path: The feed back path is the transmission path from the controlled output to
the primary feedback signal.
Servomechanism: Servomechanism is a feedback control system in which output is some
mechanical position, velocity or acceleration.
Regulator: Regulator is a feedback system in which the input is constant for long time.
Transducer: Transducer is a device which converts one energy form into other
Tachometer: Tachometer is a device whose output is directly proportional to time rate of
change of input.
Synchros: Synchros is an AC machine used for transmission of angular position synchro
motor- receiver, synchro generator- transmitter.
Block diagram: A block diagram is a short hand, pictorial representation of cause and
effect relationship between the input and the output of a physical system. It characterizes
the functional relationship amongst the components of a control system.
Lower case letters usually represent functions of time. Upper case letters denote Laplace
transformed quantities as a function of complex variable
s
or Fourier transformed quantity
i.e. frequency function as function of imaginary variable
j s
.
Summing point: It represents an operation of addition and / or subtraction.
Negative feedback: Summing point is a subtractor.
Positive feedback: Summing point is an adder.
Stimulus: It is an externally introduced input signal affecting the controlled output.
Take off point: In order to employ the same signal or variable as an input to more than
block or summing point, take off point is used. This permits the signal to proceed unaltered
along several different paths to several destinations.
Time response: It is the output of a system as a function of time following the application
of a prescribed input under specified operating conditions.
6
SIGNAL FLOW GRAPHS
An alternate to block diagram is the signal flow graph due to S. J. Mason. A signal flow
graph is a diagram that represents a set of simultaneous linear algebraic equations. Each
signal flow graph consists of a network in which nodes are connected by directed branches.
Each node represents a system variable, and each branch acts as a signal multiplier. The
signal flows in the direction indicated by the arrow.
Definitions:
Node: A node is a point representing a variable or signal.
Branch: A branch is a directed line segment joining two nodes.
Transmittance: It is the gain between two nodes.
Input node: A node that has only outgoing branche(s). It is also, called as source and
corresponds to independent variable.
Output node: A node that has only incoming branches. This is also called as sink and
corresponds to dependent variable.
Mixed node: A node that has incoming and out going branches.
Path: A path is a traversal of connected branches in the direction of branch arrow.
Loop: A loop is a closed path.
Self loop: It is a feedback loop consisting of single branch.
Loop gain: The loop gain is the product of branch transmittances of the loop.
Nontouching loops: Loops that do not posses a common node.
Forward path: A path from source to sink without traversing an node more than once.
Feedback path: A path which originates and terminates at the same node.
Forward path gain: Product of branch transmittances of a forward path.
Properties of Signal Flow Graphs:
1) Signal flow applies only to linear systems.
2) The equations based on which a signal flow graph is drawn must be algebraic
equations in the form of effects as a function of causes.
Nodes are used to represent variables. Normally the nodes are arranged left to right,
following a succession of causes and effects through the system.
3) Signals travel along the branches only in the direction described by the arrows of
the branches.
4) The branch directing from node X
k
to X
j
represents dependence of the variable Xj
on X
k
but not the reverse.
5) The signal traveling along the branch X
k
and X
j
is multiplied by branch gain a
kj
and
signal a
kj
X
k
is delivered at node X
j
.
++
7
Guidelines to Construct the Signal Flow Graphs:
The signal flow graph of a system is constructed from its describing equations, or by direct
reference to block diagram of the system. Each variable of the block diagram becomes a
node and each block becomes a branch. The general procedure is
1) Arrange the input to output nodes from left to right.
2) Connect the nodes by appropriate branches.
3) If the desired output node has outgoing branches, add a dummy node and a unity
gain branch.
4) Rearrange the nodes and/or loops in the graph to achieve pictorial clarity.
Signal Flow Graph Algebra
Addtion rule
The value of the variable designated by a node is equal to the sum of all signals entering
the node.
Transmission rule
The value of the variable designated by a node is transmitted on every branch leaving the
node.
Multiplication rule
A cascaded connection of n-1 branches with transmission functions can be replaced by a
single branch with new transmission function equal to the product of the old ones.
Masons Gain Formula
The relationship between an input variable and an output variable of a signal flow graph is
given by the net gain between input and output nodes and is known as overall gain of the
system. Masons gain formula is used to obtain the over all gain (transfer function) of signal
flow graphs.
Gain P is given by

k
k k
P P
1
Where, P
k
is gain of k
th
forward path,
is determinant of graph
=1-(sum of all individual loop gains)+(sum of gain products of all possible combinations
of two nontouching loops sum of gain products of all possible combination of three
nontouching loops) +
k
is cofactor of k
th
forward path determinant of graph with loops touching k
th
forward path.
It is obtained from by removing the loops touching the path P
k
.
++
8
Example1
Draw the signal flow graph of the block diagram shown in Fig.1
Figure 3 Multiple loop system
Choose the nodes to represent the variables say X
1
.. X
6
as shown in the block diagram.
.
Connect the nodes with appropriate gain along the branch. The signal flow graph is shown
in Fig. 2
Figure 4 Signal flow graph of the system shown in Fig. 1
G
2
G
1
G
3
H
2
H
1
+
+ +
++
R
X
1
X
2
X
3
X
4
X
5
X
6
C
R
X
1
X
2
X
3
X
4
X
5
X
6
C
G
1
H
1
-H
2
G
2
G
3
-1
1 1 1 1
9
Example 2
Draw the signal flow graph of the block diagram shown in Fig.3.
Figure 5 Block diagram feedback system
The nodal variables are X
1
, X
2
, X
3
.
The signal flow graph is shown in Fig. 4.
Figure 6 Signal flow graph of example 2
Example 3
Draw the signal flow graph of the system of equations.
3 33 2 32 1 31 3
2 2 3 23 2 22 1 21 2
1 1 3 13 2 12 1 11 1
X a X a X a X
u b X a X a X a X
u b X a X a X a X
+ +
+ + +
+ + +
The variables are X
1
, X
2
, X
3
, u
1
and u
2
choose five nodes representing the variables.
Connect the various nodes choosing appropriate branch gain in accordance with the
equations.
The signal flow graph is shown in Fig. 5.
10
R
G
4
G
2
-G
3
G
1
C 1
1
X
1
X
2
X
3
G
1
G
2
G
3
G
4
R
+
+
+
C
+
X
1
X
2
X
3
u
1
b
1
b
2
a
21
a
12
a
33
a
31
X
1
X
2
u
2
a
23
a
22
Example 4
LRC net work is shown in Fig. 6. Draw its signal flow graph.
11
+
a
11
a
13
a
32
X
3
Figure 8 LRC network
The governing differential equations are
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( ) 3
2
1
1
t i
dt
de
C
t e e Ri
dt
di
L
or
t e idt
C
Ri
dt
di
L
c
c
+ +
+ +
Taking Laplace transform of Eqn.1 and Eqn.2 and dividing Eqn.2 by L and Eqn.3 by C
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) 5
1
0
4
1 1
0
s I
C
e s sE
s E
L
s E
L
S I
L
R
i s sI
c c
c

+ +
+
+
Eqn.4 and Eqn.5 are used to draw the signal flow graph shown in Fig.7.
Figure 9 Signal flow graph of LRC system
12
Cs
1
( )
L
R
s L
1
+
( )
L
R
s L
1 -
+
L
R
s
1
+
s
1
i(0
+
)
E
c
(s)
I(s)
E(s)
e
c
(0
+
)
R L
C
i(t)
+
e
c
(t)
e(t)
SIGNAL FLOW GRAPHS
The relationship between an input variable and an output variable of a signal flow graph is
given by the net gain between input and output nodes and is known as overall gain of the
system. Masons gain formula is used to obtain the over all gain (transfer function) of signal
flow graphs.
Masons Gain Formula
Gain P is given by

k
k k
P P
1
Where, P
k
is gain of k
th
forward path,
is determinant of graph
k
is cofactor of k
th
forward path determinant of graph with loops touching k
th
forward path.
It is obtained from by removing the loops touching the path P
k
.
Example 1
Obtain the transfer function of C/R of the system whose signal flow graph is shown in
Fig.1
There are two forward paths:
Gain of path 1 : P
1
=G
1
Gain of path 2 : P
2
=G
2
There are four loops with loop gains:
L
1
=-G
1
G
3
, L
2
=G
1
G
4
, L
3
= -G
2
G
3
, L
4
= G
2
G
4
There are no non-touching loops.
= 1+G
1
G
3
-G
1
G
4
+G
2
G
3
-G
2
G
4

Forward paths 1 and 2 touch all the loops. Therefore,
1
= 1,
2
= 1
The transfer function T =
( )
( )
4 2 3 2 4 1 3 1
2 1 2 2 1 1
1 G G G G G G G G
G G P P
s R
s C
+ +
+
Example 2
13
R
G
4
G
2
-G
3
G
1
C 1 1
Obtain the transfer function of C(s)/R(s) of the system whose signal flow graph is shown in
Fig.2.
There is one forward path, whose gain is: P
1
=G
1
G
2
G
3
There are three loops with loop gains:
L
1
=-G
1
G
2
H
1
, L
2
=G
2
G
3
H
2
, L
3
= -G
1
G
2
G
3
There are no non-touching loops.
= 1-G
1
G
2
H
1
+G
2
G
3
H
2
+G
1
G
2
G
3
Forward path 1 touches all the loops. Therefore,
1
= 1.
( )
( )
3 2 1 2 3 1 1 2 1
3 2 1 1 1
1 G G G H G G H G G
G G G P
s R
s C
+ +
Example 3
Obtain the transfer function of C(s)/R(s) of the system whose signal flow graph is shown in
Fig.3.
There are three forward paths.
The gain of the forward path are: P
1
=G
1
G
2
G
3
G
4
G
5
P
2
=G
1
G
6
G
4
G
5

P
3
=

G
1
G
2
G
7
L
1
=-G
4
H
1
, L
2
=-G
2
G
7
H
2
, L
3
= -G
6
G
4
G
5
H
2
, L
4
=-G
2
G
3
G
4
G
5
H
2
There is one combination of Loops L
1
and L
2
which are nontouching with loop gain
product L
1
L
2
=G
2
G
7
H
2
G
4
H
1
= 1+G
4
H
1
+G
2
G
7
H
2
+G
6
G
4
G
5
H
2
+G
2
G
3
G
4
G
5
H
2
+ G
2
G
7
H
2
G
4
H
1
Forward path 1 and 2 touch all the four loops. Therefore
1
= 1,
2
= 1.
Forward path 3 is not in touch with loop1. Hence,
3
= 1+G
4
H
1
.
( )
( )
( )
2 1 7 4 2 2 5 4 3 2 2 5 4 6 2 7 2 1 4
1 4 7 2 1 6 5 4 1 5 4 3 2 1 3 3 2 2 1 1
1
1
H H G G G H G G G G H G G G H G G H G
H G G G G G G G G G G G G G P P P
s R
s C
+ + + + +
+ + +
+ +
14
R(s) C(s)
1
1
1
G
1
G
2
G
3
H
1
-1
-H
2
G
1
C(s)
R(s)
G
7
G
6
-H
1
G
2
G
3
G
4
G
5
-H
2
X
1
X
2
X
3
X
4
X
5
1
Example 4
Find the gains
1
3
2
5
1
6
, ,
X
X
X
X
X
X
for the signal flow graph shown in Fig.4.
Figure 13 Signal flow graph of MIMO system
Case 1:
1
6
X
X
There are two forward paths.
1
=acdef
P
2
=abef
L
1
=-cg, L
2
=-eh, L
3
= -cdei, L
4
=-bei
1
and L
2
product L
1
L
2
=cgeh
= 1+cg+eh+cdei+bei+cgeh
Forward path 1 and 2 touch all the four loops. Therefore
1
= 1,
2
= 1.
cgeh bei cdei eh cg
abef cdef P P
X
X
+ + + + +
+
1
2 2 1 1
1
6
Case 2:
2
5
X
X
15
b
a
d
c
f
e
-h
-g
-i
X
1
X
6
X
5
X
4
X
3
X
2
The modified signal flow graph for case 2 is shown in Fig.5.
Figure 14 Signal flow graph of example 4 case 2
The transfer function can directly manipulated from case 1 as branches a and f are removed
which do not form the loops. Hence,
The transfer function T=
cgeh bei cdei eh cg
be cde P P
X
X
+ + + + +
+
1
2 2 1 1
2
5
Case 3:
1
3
X
X
The signal flow graph is redrawn to obtain the clarity of the functional relation as shown in
Fig.6.
Figure 15 Signal flow graph of example 4 case 3
There are two forward paths.
1
=abcd
P
2
=ac
There are five loops with loop gains:
L
1
=-eh, L
2
=-cg, L
3
= -bei, L
4
=edf, L
5
=-befg
1
and L
2
product L
1
L
2
=ehcg
= 1+eh+cg+bei+efd+befg+ehcg
Forward path 1 touches all the five loops. Therefore
1
= 1.
Forward path 2 does not touch loop L
1
.

Hence,
2
= 1+ eh
( )
ehcg befg efd bei cg eh
eh ac abef P P
X
X
+ + + + + +
+ +
1
1
2 2 1 1
1
3
Example 5
For the system represented by the following equations find the transfer function X(s)/U(s)
using signal flow graph technique.
+
+ +
+
u X a X
u X X a X
u X X
1 1 2 2
2 2 1 1 1
3 1

Taking Laplace transform with zero initial conditions
16
b
1
d
c
1
e
-h
-g
-i
X
2
X
5
X
5
X
4
X
3
X
2
a
e
b
f
-h
-g
-i
X
1
X
5
X
4
X
3
X
2
c
d
X
3
1
( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( ) s U s X a s sX
s U s X s X a s sX
s U s X s X
1 1 2 2
2 2 1 1 1
3 1
+
+ +
+
Rearrange the above equation
( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( ) s U
s
s X
s
a
s X
s U
s
s X
s
s X
s
a
s X
s U s X s X
1
1
2
2
2
2 1
1
1
3 1
1
+ +
+

The signal flow graph is shown in Fig.7.
Figure 16 Signal flow grapgh of example 5
There are three forward paths.
1
=
3
P
2
=
1
/ s
2
P
3
=
2
/ s
There are two loops with loop gains:
2
2
2
1
1
s
a
L
s
a
L
L
1
=-eh, L
2
=-cg, L
3
= -bei, L
4
=edf, L
5
=-befg
There are no combination two Loops which are nontouching.
2
2 1
1
s
a
s
a
+ +
Forward path 1 does not touch loops L
1
and L
2
. Therefore
2
2 1
1
1
s
a
s
a
+ +
Forward path 2 path 3 touch the two loops.

Hence,
2
= 1,
2
= 1.
( )
2 1
2
1 2 2 1
2
3 3 3 2 2 1 1
1
3
a s a s
s a s a s P P P
X
X
+ +
+ + + +
+ +

STEADY STATE ERRORS IN UNITY FEEDBACK
17
U
X
1
X
2
3
s
a
1
s
1
s
2
s
a
2
1
1
X
X
CONTROL SYSTEMS
Errors in control systems may be attributed to many factors. Changes in the reference input
will cause unavoidable errors during transient periods, and also cause steady state errors.
Any physical control system inherently suffers from steady state error in response to
certain types of inputs. Whether a given system will exhibit steady state error for a given
input depends on the type of the open loop transfer function of the system.
Classification of Control Systems
Control systems may be classified according to their ability to follow step inputs, ramp
inputs, parabolic inputs etc. The magnitudes of the steady state errors due to these
individual inputs are indicative of the goodness of the system. Consider the unity feedback
control system with the following open loop transfer function G(s):
( )
,
_
,
_
,
_
,
_
,
_
,
_
1 s
p
T 1 s
2
T 1 s
1
T
N
s
1 s
m
T 1 s
b
T 1 s
a
T K
s G
It involves the term s

N
in the denominator, representing the pole of multiplicity N at the
origin which also indicates the number of integrations in the open loop. A system is called
Type 0, Type 1, Type 2 . If N = 0, 1, 2, respectively. As the type number is increased
accuracy is improved; however, increasing the type number aggravates the stability
problem.
Steady State Errors
A unity feedback closed loop control system is shown in Fig.1.
Figure 17 Unity feedback control system
The closed loop transfer function is
18
+
R(s)
G(s)
E(s) C(s)
( )
( )
( )
( ) s G 1
s G
s R
s C
+
The transfer function between the error signal e(t) and input signal r(t) is
( )
( )
( )
( ) ( ) s G 1
1
s R
s C
1
s R
s E
+

, Which can be rearranged as
( )
( )
( ) s R
s G 1
1
s E
+
The final value theorem provides a convenient way to find the steady state error
( ) ( )
( )
( ) s G 1
s sR
lim
s sE
lim
t e
lim
e
0 s 0 s t
ss
+

Three types of static error constants are
1) Static position error constant K
p
due to unit step input.
2) Static velocity error constant K
v
due to

unit ramp input.
3) Static acceleration error constant K
a
due to unit parabolic input
which indicate the figures of merit of control systems.
Static Position Error Constant
The steady state error of the system for a unit step input is
( ) ( ) 0 G 1
1
s
1
s G 1
s
lim e
0 s
ss
+
The static position error constant K

p
is defined by
( ) ( ) 0 G s G
lim
K
0 s
p

Thus, the steady state error in terms of the static position error constant K
p
is given
by
p
ss
K 1
1
e
+
For a type 0 system,

K
1 s
p
T 1 s
2
T 1 s
1
T
1 s
m
T 1 s
b
T 1 s
a
T K
lim
K
0 s
p

,
_
,
_
,
_
,
_
,
_
,
_
and
K 1
1
e
ss
+
For a type 1 or higher system

19
1 N
1 s
p
T 1 s
2
T 1 s
1
T s
1 s
m
T 1 s
b
T 1 s
a
T K
lim
K
N
0 s
p

,
_
,
_
,
_
,
_
,
_
,
_
and

ss
e
Response of a feedback control system to a step input involves a steady state error
if there is no integration in the feed forward path. If a zero steady state error for a step input
is desired, the type of the system must be one or higher.
Static Velocity Error Constant
The steady state error of the system with a unit ramp input is given by
( ) ( ) s sG
1
lim
s
1
s G 1
s
lim e
0
2
0 s
ss

s
The static velocity error constant K
v
is defined by
( ) s sG
lim
K
0 s
v

Thus, the steady state error in terms of the static velocity error constant K
v
is given
by
v
ss
K
1
e
The term velocity error is used here to express the steady state error for a ramp
input. The velocity error is an error in position due to ramp input.
0
1 s
p
T 1 s
2
T 1 s
1
T
1 s
m
T 1 s
b
T 1 s
a
T sK
lim
K
0 s
v

,
_
,
_
,
_
,
_
,
_
,
_
and

v
ss
K
1
e
For a type 1 system
K
1 s
p
T 1 s
2
T 1 s
1
T s
1 s
m
T 1 s
b
T 1 s
a
T sK
lim
K
0 s
v

,
_
,
_
,
_
,
_
,
_
,
_
and
K
1
K
1
e
v
ss

20
2 N
1 s
p
T 1 s
2
T 1 s
1
T s
1 s
m
T 1 s
b
T 1 s
a
T sK
lim
K
N
0 s
v

,
_
,
_
,
_
,
_
,
_
,
_
and
0
K
1
e
v
ss

Type 0 system is incapable of following a ramp input in the steady state. Type 1
system with unity feedback can follow the ramp input with a finite error. Type 2 and
higher order systems can follow a ramp input with zero steady state error.
Static Acceleration Error Constant
The steady state error of the system with a unit parabolic input is given by
( ) ( ) s G s
1
lim
s
1
s G 1
s
lim e
2
0
3
0 s
ss

s
The static acceleration error constant K
a
is defined by
( ) s G s
lim
K
2
0 s
a

Thus, the steady state error in terms of the static acceleration error constant K
a
is given by
a
ss
K
1
e
0
1 s
p
T 1 s
2
T 1 s
1
T
1 s
m
T 1 s
b
T 1 s
a
T K s
lim
K
2
0 s
a

,
_
,
_
,
_
,
_
,
_
,
_
and

a
ss
K
1
e
For a type 1 system
0
1 s
p
T 1 s
2
T 1 s
1
T s
1 s
m
T 1 s
b
T 1 s
a
T K s
lim
K
2
0 s
a

,
_
,
_
,
_
,
_
,
_
,
_
and

a
ss
K
1
e
For a type 2 system
21
K
1 s
p
T 1 s
2
T 1 s
1
T s
1 s
m
T 1 s
b
T 1 s
a
T K s
lim
K
2
2
0 s
a

,
_
,
_
,
_
,
_
,
_
,
_
and
K
1
K
1
e
a
ss

3 N
1 s
p
T 1 s
2
T 1 s
1
T s
1 s
m
T 1 s
b
T 1 s
a
T K s
lim
K
N
2
0 s
a

,
_
,
_
,
_
,
_
,
_
,
_
and
0
K
1
e
a
ss

Type 0 and type 1 systems are incapable of following a parabolic in the steady state. Type
2 system with unity feedback can follow the parabolic input with a finite error. Type 3 and
higher order systems can follow a parabolic input with zero steady state error.
Table 1 shows the summary of error constants and steady state errors for unit step,
unit ramp and unit parabolic inputs to a unity feedback loop.
Table 1: Summary of steady state errors for unity feedback systems
Type of
system
Error constants Steady state error e
ss
K
p
K
v
K
a
Unit step
input
Unit ramp
input
Unit parabolic
input
0 K 0 0 1/(1+K)

1

K 0 0 1/K

2

K 0 0 1/K
3

0 0 0
Note:
1) The step, ramp, parabolic error constants are significant for the error
analysis only when the input signal is a step, ramp and parabolic function
respectively.
2) Since the error constants are defined with respect to forward path transfer
function G(s), the method is applicable to a unity feedback system only.
3) Since error analysis relies on use of final value theorem, it is important first
to check to see if sE(s) has any poles on the j axis or in the right half of s-
plane.
4) Principle of superposition can be used if combination of the three basic
inputs are present.
22
5) If the configuration differs, we can either simplify to unity feedback system
or establish error signal and apply final value theorem.
Examples:
For a negative unity feedback system determine the steady state erroe due to unit step, unit
ramp and unit parabolic input of the following systems.
( )
( ) ( )
( )
( )
( )
( ) ( )
( ) 10 2s s s
4s 1 2s 1 K
s G iii)
200 4s s s
K
s G ii)
2s 1 0.1s 1
50
s G i)
2 2
2
+ +
+ +
+ +
+ +
Solution
a
ss
2
0 s
v
v
ss
0 s
v
p
ss
0 s
p
K
1
e G(s) s
lim
K
K
1
e sG(s)
lim
K
K 1
1
e G(s)
lim
K

+

Table 2 shows the results of error constants and steady state errors.
Table 2 Results of example
Problem Error constants Steady state error e
ss
K
p
K
v
K
a
Unit step
input
Unit ramp
input
Unit parabolic
input
i 50 0 0 1/51

ii

K/200 0 0 200/K

iii

K/10 0 0 10/K

23
CONTROL ACTIONS
An automatic controller compares the actual value of the system output with the reference
input (desired value), determines the deviation, and produces a control signal that will
reduce the deviation to zero or a small value. The manner in which the automatic controller
produces the control signal is called the control action. The controllers may be classified
according to their control actions as
1) Two position or on-off controllers
2) Proportional controllers
3) Integral controllers
4) Proportional-plus- integral controllers
5) Proportional-plus-derivative controllers
6) Proportional-plus-integral-plus-derivative controllers
A two position controller has two fixed positions usually on or off.
A proportional control system is a feedback control system in which the output forcing
function is directly proportional to error.
A integral control system is a feedback control system in which the output forcing function
is directly proportional to the first time integral of error.
A proportional-plus-integral control system is a feedback control system in which the
output forcing function is a linear combination of the error and its first time integral.
A proportional-plus-derivative control system is a feedback control system in which the
output forcing function is a linear combination of the error and its first time derivative.
A proportional-plus-derivative-plus-integral control system is a feedback control system in
which the output forcing function is a linear combination of the error, its first time
derivative and its first time integral.
Many industrial controllers are electric, hydraulic, pneumatic, electronic or their
combinations. The choice of the controller is based on the nature of plant and operating
conditions. Controllers may also be classified according to the power employed in the
operation as
1) Electric controllers
2) Hydraulic controllers
3) Pneumatic controllers

24
4) Electronic controllers.
The block diagram of a typical controller is shown in Fig.1. It consists of an
automatic controller, an actuator, a plant and a sensor. The controller detects the actuating
error signal and amplifies it. The output of a controller is fed to the actuator that produces
the input to the plant according to the control signal. The sensor is a device that converts
the output variable into another suitable variable to compare the output to reference input
signal. Sensor is a feedback element of the closed loop control system.
Figure 18 Block diagram of control system
Two Position Control Action
In a two position control action system, the actuating element has only two positions which
are generally on and off. Generally these are electric devices. These are widely used are
they are simple and inexpensive. The output of the controller is given by Eqn.1.
( ) ( )
( ) 0
0
2
1
<
>
t e U
t e U t u
..(1)
Where, U
1
and U
2
are constants ( U
2
= -U
1
or zero)
The block diagram of on-off controller is shown in Fig. 2
Figure 19 Block diagram of on off controller
+
+
Output c(t)
automatic controller
actuating
error signal e(t)
reference
input r(t)
error
detector
Amplifier Actuator Plant
Sensor
feed back
signal b(t)
Controller
output u(t)
+
+
actuating
error signal e(t)
reference
input r(t)
error
detector

feed back
signal b(t)
Controller
output u(t)
25
Proportional Control Action
The proportional controller is essentially an amplifier with an adjustable gain. For a
controller with proportional control action the relationship between output of the controller
u(t) and the actuating error signal e(t) is
( ) ( ) t e K t u
p
.....(2)
Where, K
p
is the proportional gain.
Or in Laplace transformed quantities
( )
( )
p
K
s E
s U
..(3)
Whatever the actual mechanism may be the proportional controller is essentially an
amplifier with an adjustable gain. The block diagram of proportional controller is shown in
Fig.3.
Figure 20 Block diagram of a proportional controller
Integral Control Action
The value of the controller output u(t) is changed at a rate proportional to the actuating
error signal e(t) given by Eqn.4
( )
( ) ( ) ( )

t
0
i i
dt t e K t u or t e K
dt
t du
..(4)
Where, K
i
is an adjustable constant.
The transfer function of integral controller is
( )
( ) s
K
s E
s U
i
.(5)
+
+
actuating
error signal e(t)
reference
input r(t)
error
detector
feed back
signal b(t)
Controller
output u(t)
K
p
26
If the value of e(t) is doubled, then u(t) varies twice as fast. For zero actuating error,
the value of u(t) remains stationary. The integral control action is also called reset control.
Fig.4 shows the block diagram of the integral controller.
Figure 21 Block diagram of an integral controller
Proportional-plus-Integral Control Action
The control action of a proportional-plus-integral controller is defined by
( ) ( ) ( )
+
t
0
i
p
p
dt t e
T
K
t e K t u
..(6)
The transfer function of the controller is
( )
( )

,
_
+
s T
1
1 K
s E
s U
i
p
.....(7)
Where, K
p
is the proportional gain, T
i
is the integral time which are adjustable.
The integral time adjusts the integral control action, while change in proportional
gain affects both the proportional and integral action. The inverse of the integral time is
called reset rate. The reset rate is the number of times per minute that a proportional part of
the control action is duplicated. Fig.5 shows the block diagram of the proportional-plus-
integral controller. For an actuating error of unit step input, the controller output is shown
in Fig.6.
+
+
actuating
error signal e(t)
reference
input r(t)
error
detector
feed back
signal b(t)
Controller
output u(t)
s
K
i
+
+
actuating
error signal e(t)
reference
input r(t)
error
detector
feed back
signal b(t)
Controller
output u(t)
( )
s T
s T 1 K
i
i p
+
27
Figure 22 Block diagram of a proportional-plus-integral control system
Figure 23 Response of PI controller to unit actuating error signal
Proportional-plus-Derivative Control Action
The control action of proportional-plus-derivative controller is defined by
( ) ( )
( )
dt
t de
T K t e K t u
d p p
+ ..(8)
The transfer function is
( )
( )
( ) s T 1 K
s E
s U
d p
+
..(9)
Where, K
p
is the proportional gain and T
d
is a derivative time constant.
Both, K
p
and T
d
are adjustable. The derivative control action is also called rate
control. In rate controller the output is proportional to the rate of change of actuating error
signal. The derivative time T
d
is the time interval by which

the rate action advances the
effect of the proportional control action. The derivative controller is anticipatory in nature
and amplifies the noise effect. Fig.7 shows the block diagram of the proportional-plus-
derivative. For an actuating error of unit ramp input, the controller output is shown in Fig.8
Figure 24 Block diagram of a proportional-plus-derivative controller
t 0
K
p
u(t)
2K
p
proportional only
P-I control action
T
i
+
+
actuating
error signal e(t)
reference
input r(t)
error
detector
feed back
signal b(t)
Controller
output u(t)
( ) S T 1 K
D P
+
28
Figure 25 Response of PD controller to unit actuating error signal
Proportional-plus-Integral-plus-Derivative Control Action
It is a combination of proportional control action, integral control action and derivative
control action. The equation of the controller is
( ) ( ) ( )
( )
dt
t de
T K dt t e
T
K
t e K t u
d p
t
o
i
p
p
+
+
..(10)
or the transfer function is
( )
( )

,
_
+ + s T
s T
1
1 K
s E
s U
d
i
p
..(11)
Where, K
p
is the proportional gain, T
i
is the integral time, and T
d
is the derivative time. The
block diagram of PID controller is shown in Fig.9. For an actuating error of unit ramp
input, the controller output is shown in Fig.10.
Figure 26 Block diagram of a proportional-plus-integral-plus-derivative controller
t 0
u(t)
proportional only
P-D control action
T
d
+
+
actuating
error signal e(t)
reference
input r(t)
error
detector
feed back
signal b(t)
Controller
output u(t)
( )
s T
s T T s T K
d
d i i p
2
1 + +
29
Figure 27 Response of PID controller to unit actuating error signal
t 0
u(t)
proportional only
PD control action
PID control action
30
CHAPTER II
MATHEMATICAL MODELING
2.1 Introduction: In chapter I we have learnt the basic concepts of control systems such as
open loop and feed back control systems, different types of Control systems like regulator
systems, follow-up systems and servo mechanisms. We have also discussed a few simple
applications. In this chapter we learn the concepts of modeling.
The requirements demanded by every control system are many and depend on the system
under consideration. Major requirements are 1) Stability 2) Accuracy and 3) Speed of
Response. An ideal control system would be stable, would provide absolute accuracy
(maintain zero error despite disturbances) and would respond instantaneously to a change
in the reference variable. Such a system cannot, of course, be produced. However, study of
automatic control system theory would provide the insight necessary to make the most
effective compromises so that the engineer can design the best possible system. One of the
important steps in the study of control systems is modeling. Following section presents
modeling aspects of various systems that find application in control engineering.
2.2 Modeling of Control Systems: The first step in the design and the analysis of control
system is to build physical and mathematical models. A control system being a collection
of several physical systems (sub systems) which may be of mechanical, electrical
electronic, thermal, hydraulic or pneumatic type. No physical system can be represented in
its full intricacies. Idealizing assumptions are always made for the purpose of analysis and
synthesis. An idealized representation of physical system is called a Physical Model.

31
Control systems being dynamic systems in nature require a quantitative mathematical
description of the system for analysis. This process of obtaining the desired
mathematical description of the system is called Mathematical Modeling.
The basic models of dynamic physical systems are differential equations obtained by the
application of appropriate laws of nature. Having obtained the differential equations and
where possible the numerical values of parameters, one can proceed with the analysis.
When the mathematical model of a physical system is solved for various input conditions,
the results represent the dynamic response of the system. The mathematical model of a
system is linear, if it obeys the principle of superposition and homogeneity.
A mathematical model is linear, if the differential equation describing it has coefficients,
which are either functions of the independent variable or are constants. If the coefficients
of the describing differential equations are functions of time (the independent variable),
then the mathematical model is linear time-varying. On the other hand, if the coefficients
of the describing differential equations are constants, the model is linear time-invariant.
Powerful mathematical tools like the Fourier and Laplace transformations are available for
use in linear systems. Unfortunately no physical system in nature is perfectly linear.
Therefore certain assumptions must always be made to get a linear model.
Usually control systems are complex. As a first approximation a simplified model is built
to get a general feeling for the solution. However, improved model which can give better
accuracy can then be obtained for a complete analysis. Compromise has to be made
between simplicity of the model and accuracy. It is difficult to consider all the details for
mathematical analysis. Only most important features are considered to predict behaviour of
32
the system under specified conditions. A more complete model may be then built for
complete analysis.
2.3 Modeling of Mechanical Systems: Mechanical systems can be idealized as spring-
mass-damper systems and the governing differential equations can be obtained on the basis
of Newtons second law of motion, which states that
F = ma: for rectilinear motion: where F: Force, m: mass and a: acceleration (with
consistent units)
T = I : or J for rotary motion: where T: Torque, I or J: moment of inertia and
: angular acceleration (with consistent units)
Mass / inertia and the springs are the energy storage elements where in energy can be
stored and retrieved without loss and hence referred as conservative elements. Damper
represents the energy loss (energy absorption) in the system and hence is referred as
dissipative element. Depending upon the choice of variables and the coordinate system, a
given physical model may lead to different mathematical models. The minimum number of
independent coordinates required to determine completely the positions of all parts of a
system at any instant of time defines the degrees of freedom (DOF) of the system. A large
number of practical systems can be described using a finite number of degrees of freedom
and are referred as discrete or lumped parameter systems. Some systems, especially those
involving continuous elastic members, have an infinite number of degrees of freedom and
are referred as continuous or distributed systems. Most of the time, continuous systems
are approximated as discrete systems, and solutions are obtained in a simpler manner.
Although treatment of a system as continuous gives exact results, the analysis methods
available for dealing with continuous systems are limited to a narrow selection of
33
problems. Hence most of the practical systems are studied by treating them as finite
lumped masses, springs and dampers. In general, more accurate results are obtained by
increasing the number of masses, springs and dampers-that is, by increasing the number of
degrees of freedom.
Mechanical systems can be of two types: 1) Translation Systems 2) Rotational Systems.
The variables that described the motion are displacement, velocity and acceleration.
2.3.1 Characteristics of Elementary parts of Mechanical Systems
Translational Systems
Mass: Property or means Kinetic energy is stored
Figure 2.1:
F= Mass * Acceleration
= m x
Linear Spring
Elasticity (Spring): Property or means Potential energy is stored. Spring force is
proportional to displacement
m
x
F
34
..
Figure 2.2 (a) and (b):
Spring Force = Stiffness * displacement
F
s
= Kx
Damping
Exists in all system and opposes motion. The types which are generally considered are:
Static Friction
Coulomb Friction
Viscous Friction
Viscous Friction (Damping)
Viscous Damping: Means by which energy is absorbed. Damping Force is proportional to
velocity
x
F k
Linear
Non Linear
F
s
x
35
Figure 2.3 (a) and (b):
Damping Force =
Damping Coefficient * Velocity
F
d
= C x
Rotational Systems
Inertia Element

Figure 2.4:
Torque = Inertia * Angular Acceleration
T = J
Torsional Spring
F
d
x
.
Oil
Piston Cylinder
F
d
F
d
= C x
.
T
J
36
.
..
Figure 2.5:
Torque = Torsional Stiffness * Angular displacement
T = k
t
*
Friction (Viscous Damping)
Figure 2.6:
Damping Torque = Damping Coefficient * Angular velocity
Td = B *
T
k
t
T
B
37
.
CHAPTER II
MATHEMATICAL MODELING (Continued)
(Continued from session III: 30.08.2006)
2.3.2 Models for Translational Systems:
Illustration 1: Figure 2.7 shows a spring mass system that represents the simplest possible
mechanical system. It is a single DOF system since one coordinate (x) is sufficient to
specify the position of mass at any time.
Figure 2.7: Spring Mass System Figure 2.7 a: Free Body Diagram
Using Newtons second law of motion, we will consider the derivation of the equation of
motion in this section. The procedure we will use can be summarized as follows:
1) Select a suitable coordinate (x) to describe the position of the mass or rigid body in
the system. Use a linear coordinate to describe the linear motion of a point mass or the
centroid of a rigid body, and an angular coordinate () to describe the angular motion
of a rigid body.
2) Determine the static equilibrium configuration of the system and measure the
displacement of the mass or rigid body from its static equilibrium position.
38
m m
x
K
Kx (Spring force)
Static equilibrium position
3) Draw the free-body diagram of the mass or rigid body when a positive
displacement and velocity are given to it. Indicate all the active and reactive forces
acting on the mass or rigid body.
4) Apply Newtons second law of motion to the mass or rigid body shown by the free-
body diagram. Newtons second law of motion can be stated as follows:
Note:
1. Spring Force: Stiffness*displacement = K*x
2. Sign Convention: Forces and torques in the direction of motion are positive. Therefore
in the above example spring force (Kx) is to be taken negative as it is in the direction
opposite to that of displacement (motion).
Illustration 2: Here the mass m slides on a frictionless surface. Therefore there is no
damping
Figure 2.8:
From NSL
Kx
m
x
Friction less surface
m
K
39
F = ma ---- Newtons Second Law of Motion
m x = - Kx
mx + Kx = 0

..
..
F = ma
m x = - Kx
mx + Kx = 0
Points to Note:
The displacement of the mass is to be considered zero with the system at equilibrium i.e.,
the spring is neither stretched nor compressed
Sign Convention: Adopted sign convention must not be changed during the course of the
problem
All the forces / torque in the direction of the displacement are considered positive,
otherwise, negative
Behaviour of the system is independent of the sign convention
Illustration 3: The weight of the mass was not factor in the system just analyzed.
However, weight is a factor in the spring mass system shown in figure 2.9
Figure 2.9:
From NSL
F = ma
m x = k ( x) - mg
k ( x)
x
k
m
mg
x
40
..
..
Position with spring
relaxed
Reference position
(x = 0)
..
= k kx mg
= (mg / k) = Static deflection
mx = - kx mx + kx = 0
The weight of the mass has no effect on the differential equation when the reference is at
the equilibrium position. Hence, the differential equation is same as that of the previous
system in which weight was not a factor.
Illustration 4: Figure 2.10 (a) shows a spring mass damper system and a corresponding
free body diagram is shown in figure 2.10 (b) which assumes positive (downward)
displacement and velocity. If the reference x = 0 is chosen at the equilibrium position, the
mass can be considered weight less. Both the spring force and the damping force act
vertically upwards.
Figure 2.10 (b)
Figure 2.10 (a)
From NSL
F = ma
mx = - c x kx
41
x
m
k
c
x
k x (Spring Force)
c x (damping Force)
.
.
mx + c x + kx = 0
.. .
..
..
..
Illustration 5: A variation of the previous system is shown in figure 2.11 (a) where a
provision is made for input displacement x at the top of spring. Figure 2.11 (b) shows the
free body diagram of the mass responding to a positive input at x. It is assumed that x is
displaced upward and that the mass is responding with a positive displacement y (less than
x) and with a positive velocity. With this assumption the spring force acts upward with a
magnitude k (x-y) and the damping force is acts downwards as shown in the free body
diagram.
Figure 2.11 (b)
Figure 2.11 (a)

--- GDE
42
m
X (Input)
y (Response)
m
k (x-y)
c y
.
m
kx
c y
.
ky
From NSL
my = + k (x-y) - c y
.. .
my + c y + ky = kx
.. .
c
k
x > y
2.3.3 Models for Rotational or Torsional Systems: The principles presented previously
can be extended to obtain the mathematical model for torsional or rotational systems.
Illustration 6: Consider a system with rotating inertia J with torsional spring of stiffness k
t
and a rotary damper with damping coefficient b as shown in figure 2.12 (a). If J is
displaced by the corresponding free body diagram is as shown in figure 2.12 (b).

Figure 2.12 (a) Figure 2.12 (b)
From NSL for rotating system
T J
b k J
t

0 + +
t
k b J
Illustration 7: A variation of the previous system is shown in figure 2.13 (a) where a
provision is made for input displacement
i
at the end of torsional spring. Figure 2.13 (b)
shows the free body diagram of the inertia responding to a positive input
i
. It is assumed
that
i
is displaced clockwise (looking from left) and that the inertia is responding with a
clockwise displacement
0
(less than
i
) and a positive velocity. With this assumption the
k
t
b
J
J
k
t.
b
.
43
.. .
.. .
spring torque is acting clockwise with a magnitude k
t
(
i
-
0
) and the damping torque is
acting counter clockwise as shown in the free body diagram.
Figure 2.13 (a)
Figure 2.13 (b)
Let
i
: Input
And
0
: Response
Let (
i
>
0
)
T J
Illustration 8: A torsional system with torque T as input and angular displacement as
output.
k
t
b
J
i
J
b
K
t
i
K
t
(
i
-
0
)
J
b
k
t
0
.
.
x
2
44
J
0
= k
t
(
i
-
0
) - b
J
0
+ b
0
+ k
t
0
= k
t

i
--- Model
..
.
..
. .
Figure 2.14 (a)
Figure 2.14 (b)
T J
J = T - b
J + b = T --- Model
2.3.4 System with more than one mass: System involving more than one mass is
discussed below.
Illustration 9: For a two DOF spring mass damper system obtain the mathematical model
where F is the input x
1
and x
2
are responses.
b
T
J
b
T
. J
x
2
45
.. .
.. .

Figure 2.15 (a)
Figure 2.15 (b)
From NSL F= ma
For mass m
1
m
1
x
1
= F - b
1
(x
1
-x
2
) - k
1
(x
1
-x
2
) --- (a)
For mass m
2
m
2
x
2
= b
1
(x
2
-x
1
) + k
1
(x
2
-x
1
) - b
2
x
2
- k
2
x
2
--- (b)
m
2
m
1
k
2
b
2
(Damper)
x
2
(Response)
x
1
(Response)
k
1
F
b
1
m
2
m
1
F
k
2
x
2
b
2
x
2
k
1
x
2
k
1
x
1
b
1
x
1
b
1
x
2
x
2
k
1
x
2
k
1
x
1
b
1
x
1
b
1
x
2
.
. .
.
m
2
m
1
F
k
2
x
2
b
2
x
2
k
1
(x
1
-x
2
)
.
.
b
1
(x
1
-x
2
)
.
x
1
.
46
.. . .
.. . . .
Draw the free body diagram for mass m
1
and m
2
separately as shown in figure 2.15
(b)
Apply NSL for both the masses separately
and get equations as given in (a) and (b)
Illustration 10: For the system shown in figure 2.16 (a) obtain the mathematical model if
x
1
and x
2
are initial displacements.
Let an initial displacement x
1
be given to mass m
1
and x
2
to mass m
2
.

Figure 2.16 (a)
K
1
K
2
K
3
m
2
m
1
X
1
X
2
47
Figure 2.16 (b)
Based on Newtons second law of motion: F = ma
For mass m
1

m
1
x
1
= - K
1
x
1
+ K
2
(x
2
-x
1
)

m
1
x
1
+ K
1
x
1
K
2
x
2
+ K
2
x
1
= 0

m
1
x
1
+ x
1
(K
1
+ K
2
) = K
2
x
2
----- (1)
For mass m
2

m
2
x
2
= - K
3
x
2
K
2
(x
2
x
1
)

m
2
x
2
+ K
3
x
2
+ K
2
x
2
K
2
x
1

m
2
x
2
+ x
2
(K
2
+ K
3
) = K
2
x
1
----- (2)
Mathematical models are:
m
1
x
1
+ x
1
(K
1
+ K
2
) = K
2
x
2
----- (1)
m
2
x
2
+ x
2
(K
2
+ K
3
) = K
2
x
1
----- (2)
K
1
X
1
K
2
X
2
K
2
X
2
K
2
X
1
K
2
X
1
K
3
X
2
K
3
X
2
K
1
X
1
X
1
X
1
m
1
m
1
m
2
m
2
X
2
X
2
K
2
(X
2
X
1
)
K
2
(X
2
X
1
)
48
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
CHAPTER VI
FREQUENCY RESPONSE
6.1 Introduction
We have discussed about the system response to step and ramp input in time domain earlier
in Chapter 3. When input signals are frequency dependent, frequency response assume
greater importance. In such systems the time domain analysis is difficult from the design
point of view.
Frequency response of a control system refers to the steady state response of a system
subject to sinusoidal input of fixed (constant) amplitude but frequency varying over a
specific range, usually from 0 to . For linear systems the frequency of input and output
signal remains the same, while the ratio of magnitude of output signal to the input signal
and phase between two signals may change. Frequency response analysis is a
complimentary method to time domain analysis (step and ramp input analysis). It deals
with only steady state and measurements are taken when transients have disappeared.
Hence frequency response tests are not generally carried out for systems with large time
constants.
The frequency response information can be obtained either by analytical methods or by
experimental methods, if the system exits. The concept and procedure is illustrated in
Figure 6.1 (a) in which a linear system is subjected to a sinusoidal input. I(t) = a Sin t and
the corresponding output is O(t) = b Sin (t + ) as shown in Figure 6.1 (b).
49
The following quantities are very important in frequency response analysis.
M () = b/a = ratio of amplitudes = Magnitude ratio or Magnification factor or gain.
() = = phase shift or phase angle
These factors when plotted in polar co-ordinates give polar plot, or when plotted in
rectangular co-ordinates give rectangular plot which depict the frequency response
characteristics of a system over entire frequency range in a single plot.
6.2 Frequency Response Data
The following procedure can be adopted in obtaining data analytically for frequency
response analysis.
1. Obtain the transfer function of the system
) (
) (
) (
S I
S O
S F
, Where F (S) is transfer function, O(S) and I(S) are the Laplace
transforms of the output and input respectively.
2. Replace S by (j) (As S is a complex number)
) (
) (
) (
j I
j O
j F
) ( ) (
) (
) (

j B A
j I
j O
+
(another complex number)
3. For various values of , ranging from 0 to determine M () and .

jB A j B A
j I
j O
M + + ) ( ) (
) (
) (
) (
50
2 2
B A M +
jB A
j I
j O
+
) (
) (
A
B
1
tan

4. Plot the results from step 3 in polar co-ordinates or rectangular co-ordinates. These
plots are not only convenient means for presenting frequency response data but are also
serve as a basis for analytical and design methods.
6.3 Comparison between Time Domain and Frequency Domain Analysis
An interesting and revealing comparison of frequency and time domain approaches is based
on the relative stability studies of feedback systems. The Rouths criterion is a time domain
approach which establishes with relative ease the stability of a system, but its adoption to
determine the relative stability is involved and requires repeated application of the criterion.
The Root Locus method is a very powerful time domain approach as it reveals not only
stability but also the actual time response of the system. On the other hand, the Nyquist
criterion (discussed later in this Chapter) is a powerful frequency domain method of
extracting the information regarding stability as well as relative stability of a system
without the need to evaluate roots of the characteristic equation.
6.4 Graphical Methods to Represent Frequency Response Data
Two graphical techniques are used to represent the frequency response data. They are: 1)
Polar plots 2) Rectangular plots.
51
6.5 Polar Plot
The frequency response data namely magnitude ratio M() and phase angle () when
represented in polar co-ordinates polar plots are obtained. The plot is plotted in complex
plane shown in Figure 6.2. It is also called Nyquist plot. As is varied the magnitude and
phase angle change and if the magnitude ratio M is plotted for varying phase angles, the
locus obtained gives the polar plot. It is easier to construct a polar plot and ready
information of magnitude ratio and phase angle can be obtained.
Figure 6.2: Complex Plane Representation
A typical polar plot is shown in Figure 6.3 in which the magnitude ratio M and phase angle
at a given value of can be readily obtained.

52
M
Real
Img
0, + 360, -360
+90, -270
+180, -180
+270, -90
Positive angles
Negative angles
Figure 6.3: A Typical Polar Plot
6.6 Rectangular Plot
The frequency response data namely magnitude ratio M() and phase angle () can also
be presented in rectangular co-ordinates and then the plots are referred as Bode plots which
will be discussed in Chapter 7.
6.7 Illustrations on Polar Plots: Following examples illustrate the procedure followed in
obtaining the polar plots.
Illustration 1: A first order mechanical system is subjected to a input x(t). Obtain the polar
plot, if the time constant of the system is 0.1 sec.

53
x (t) (input)
y (t) (output)
C
K
Transfer function F(S) =
1
1
) (
) (
+
S S X
S Y
Given = 0.1 sec

S S S X
S Y
1 . 0 1
1
1 1 . 0
1
) (
) (
+
To obtain the polar plot (i.e., frequency response data) replace S by j.
) 1 . 0 ( 1
1
1 1 . 0
1
) (
) (

j j j X
j Y
+
Magnification Factor M =
) 1 . 0 ( 1
) 0 ( 1
) 1 . 0 ( 1
1
) (
) (

j
j
j j X
j Y
+
+
2
) 1 . 0 ( 1
1
+
M
Phase angle =
) 1 . 0 1 ( ) 0 ( 1 ) (
) (
) (

+ + j Xj j Y
j X
j Y
) 1 . 0 ( tan
1
0
tan
1 1

,
_
) 1 . 0 ( tan
1

54
Governing Differential Equation:
Kx Ky
dt
dy
C + . by K
x y
dt
dy
K
C
+ .
x y
dt
dy
+ . Take Laplace transform
SY(S) + Y(S) = X(S)
(S+1) Y(S) = X(S)
Now obtain the values of M and for different values of ranging from 0 to as given
in Table 6.1.
Table 6.1 Frequency Response Data
2
) 1 . 0 ( 1
1
+
M
) 1 . 0 ( tan
1

0 1.00 0
2 0.98 -11.13
4 0.928 -21.8
5 0.89 -26.6
6 0.86 -30.9
10 0.707 -45
20 0.45 -63.4
40 0.24 -76
50 0.196 -78.69
100 0.099 -84.29
0 -90
The data from Table 6.1 when plotted on the complex plane with as a parameter polar
plot is obtained as given below.
55

= 6
= 50
= 20
Illustration 2: A second order system has a natural frequency of 10 rad/sec and a damping
ratio of 0.5. Sketch the polar plot for the system.
The transfer function of the system is given by
2 2
2
2
) (
) (
n n
n
S S
S X
S Y

+ +
Given
n
= 10 rad/sec and = 0.5
100 10
100
) (
) (
2
+ +

S S S X
S Y

Replace S by j
100 10
) 0 ( 100
100 10 ) (
100
) (
) (
2 2
+ +
+
+ +

j
j
j j j X
j Y
as 1 j
2 2 2
2
2
) 10 ( ) 100 (
100
) 10 ( ) 100 (
) 0 ( 100
) (
) (

+
+

j
j
j X
j Y
M
Magnification Factor =
2 2 2
) 10 ( ) 100 (
100
+
M
Phase angle =
) 10 ( ) 100 ( ) 0 ( 100
) 10 ( ) 100 (
) 0 ( 100
2
2

j j
j
j
+ +
+
+

56
m
x (Input)
y (Response)
C
K
,
_

,
_

2
1 1
100
10
tan
100
0
tan
Now obtain the values of M and for various value of ranging from 0 to as given in
the following Table 6.2.
Table 6.2 Frequency Response Data: Illustration 2
M()
0 1.00 0.0
2 1.02 -11.8
5 1.11 -33.7
8 1.14 -65.8
10 1.00 -90.0
12 0.78 -110.1
15 0.51 -129.8
20 0.28 -146.3
40 0.06 -165.1
70 0.02 -171.7
0.00 -180.0
The data from Table 6.2 when plotted on the complex plane with as a parameter polar
plot is obtained as given below.
Note: The polar plot intersects the imaginary axis at a frequency equal to the natural
frequency of the system =
n
= 10 rad/sec.
57
Illustration 3: Obtain the polar plot for the transfer function
) 1 (
10
) (
+
S
S F
Replace S by j
1
10
) (
+
j
j F
1
10
) ( ) (
2
+

j F M
() = F (j) = 10 - (j+1)
1
tan
1

Table 6.3 Frequency Response Data: Illustration 3
M()
0 1.00 0
0.2 9.8 -11
0.4 9.3 -21
0.6 8.6 -31
0.8 7.8 -39
2.0 4.5 -63
3.0 3.2 -72
4.0 2.5 -76
5.0 1.9 -79
10 0.99 -84
0.00 -90
58
Polar plot for Illustration 3
6.8 Guidelines to Sketch Polar Plots
Polar plots for some typical transfer function can be sketched on the following guidelines.
I
) (
) (
) )( (
S F jB A
jf e
jd c jb a
+
+
+ +
--- (Transfer function)
Magnitude Ratio =
2 2
2 2 2 2
*
f e
d c b a
jf e
jd c jb a
M
+
+ +
+
+ +
Phase angle:
( ) ( )
( )
) ( ) ( ) ( jf e jd c jb a
jf e
jd c jb a
+ + + +
1
]
1
+
+ +

e
f
c
d
a
b
1 1 1
tan tan tan

+
59
=
M() = 0
II Values of tan functions
IQ: tan
-1
(b/a) Positive:
IIQ: tan
-1
(b/-a) Negative: 180 -
IIIQ: tan
-1
(-b/-a) Positive: 180 +
IVQ: tan
-1
(-b/a) Negative: 360 -
tan
-1
(0) = 0
0
tan
-1
(-0) =180
0
tan
-1
(1) = 45
0
tan
-1
(-1) = 135
0
tan
-1
() = 90
0
tan
-1
(-) = 270
0
III Let K = Constant
= K + j(0)
Therefore K K K +
2 2
0 Applicable for both K>0 and K<0
K = (K+ j0)
= tan
-1
(0/K)
= tan
-1
(0) = 0, if K>0
= tan
-1
(-0) = 180
0
, if K<0
60
Real
Img
IQ
IIQ
IIIQ IVQ
(a+jb)
(-a-jb)
(a-jb)
(-a+jb)
Real
Img
K+j0 -K+j0
IV: S
n
= (j)
n
= (0+j)
n
= (0+j) (0+j) . . . . . . . . . . . . . n times
a. Magnitude
) 0 ( ) 0 ( ) ( j j j S
n n
+ +
. . . . . . . . . . . . . n times
2 2
0 ( ) 0 ( + + . . . . . . . . . . . . . n times
Therefore S
n
=
n
b. Angle
+ + + + ) 0 ( ) 0 ( ) ( j j j S
n n
. . . . . . . . . . . . n times
= tan
-1
(/0) + tan
-1
(/0)+ . . . . . . . . . . . . n times
= 90
0
+ 90
0
+ . . . . . . . . . . . . n times
S
n
= n * 90
0
Illustration 4: Sketch the polar plot for the system represented by the following open loop
transfer function.
) 2 )( 10 (
10
) ( ) (
+ +
S S S
S H S G
, obtain M and for different values of
i) As
0 , 0 S j S
61

0
5 . 0 5 . 0
2 * 10 *
10
) ( ) (
0
S S
S H S G
S
S 5 . 0
0
90 0
0
90
ii) As
S ,

0
10
) )( (
10
) ( ) (
3

S S S S
S H S G
S
3
10 S
0
270 90 * 3 0
62

Illustration 5: Sketch the polar plots for the system represented by the following open loop
transfer function.
) 5 (
) ( ) (
2
+
S S
K
S H S G
M() ()
0 -90
0

0 -270
0
63
Real
Img
0
-90
-180
-270
= , M = 0
= 0, M =
i) As
0 , 0 S j S
, S is far lesser than 5 and can be neglected
2 2
5 /
5 S
K
S
K

n
K
S
K
M
2
5 /
) (
2
5 /
) (
S
K

2
) 5 / ( S K = 0 2*90 = 0 180 = - 180
0
ii) As
S ,
3 2
) 5 (
) ( ) (
S
K
S S
K
S H S G
S

+
0 ) (
3 3

K
S
K
M
3
) ( S K
= 0 - 3*90 = - 270
0
64
) 5 (
) ( ) (
2
0
0
+
S S
K
S H S G
S

M() ()
0 -180
0

0 -270
0
65
Real
Img
0
-90
-180
-270
= , M = 0 = 0, M =
transfer function.
) 8 )( 5 (
10
) ( ) (
2
+ +
S S S
S H S G
i) As
0 , 0 S j S
2 2
0
0
4 / 1
8 . 5 .
10
) ( ) (
S S
S H S G
S

0
4 / 1 4 / 1 4 / 1
) (
2 2
S
M
2
4 / 1 ) ( S
= 0 - 2*90
= - 2*90
0
= 180
0
ii) As
S ,
4 2
10
. .
10
) ( ) (
S S S S
S H S G
S

4 4
10 10
) (

S
M
as

, M () = 0
4
10 ) ( S
66
= 0 4*90 = - 360
0

transfer function.
) 5 )( 4 (
) 2 ( 10
) ( ) (
3
+ +
+
S S S
S
S H S G
i) As
0 , 0 S j S
) 5 )( 4 (
) 2 ( 10
) ( ) (
3
0
0
+ +
+

S S S
S
S H S G
S
3 3
1
5 . 4 .
2 . 10
S S

M() ()
0 -180
0

0 -360
0
67
Real
Img
0, -360
-90
-180
-270
= , M = 0
= 0, M =

3 3
1 1
) (
S
M
3
1 ) ( S = 0 3*90 = - 270
0
ii) As
S ,
4 3
10
) . .
. 10
) ( ) (
S S S S
S
S H S G
S

0
10 10
) (
4 4

S
M
4
10 ) ( S = 0 4*90 = -360
0
68
Img -270

M() ()
0 -270
0

0 -360
0
69
Real
0, -360
-90
-180
= , M = 0
= 0, M =
transfer function.
) 4 )( 2 (
10
) ( ) (
+
S S S
S H S G
i) As
0 , 0 S j S
S S
S H S G
S
8 / 10
4 ). 2 (
10
) ( ) (
0
0

8 / 10 8 / 10
) (
S
M
S 8 / 10 ) (
= 180
0
- 90
0
= 90
0
ii) As
S ,
3
10
) ( ) (
S
S H S G
S

0
10 10
) (
3 3

S
M
3
10 ) ( S = 0 3*90
0
= - 270
0
70
-270
+90

Illustration 9: Sketch the polar plot for the system represented by the following transfer
function.
M() ()
0 90
0

0 -270
0
71
Real
Img
0, -360
+270
-90
+180
-180
= , M = 0
= 0, M =
100 10
100
) (
) (
2
+
S S S X
S Y
i) As
0 , 0 S j S
1 1 ) ( M
, for both K positive and negative
0
180 1 ) (
ii) As
S ,
2
100
S
0
100
) (
2

S
S
M ,
2
100
) (
S
= 0 2* = - 90
0
*2 = -180
0

6.9 Experimental determination of Frequency Response
Many a times the transfer function of a physical system may not be available in such
circumstances it is necessary to obtain frequency response information experimentally.
Such data may then be used to establish the transfer function. This method requires the
actual system.
6.10 System Analysis using Polar Plots: Nyquist Criterion: Continued in Session 21 on
17.10.2006
CHAPTER VI
FREQUENCY RESPONSE
(Continued from Session 20)
M() ()
0 1 180
0

0 -180
0
72
Real
Img
0, -360
+270
-90
+180
-180
-270
+90
= 0, M = 1
= , M = 0
SYSTEM ANALYSIS USING POLAR PLOTS: NYQUIST
CRITERION
6.10 System Analysis using Polar Plots: Nyquist Criterion
Polar plots can be used to predict feed back control system stability by the application of
Nyquist Criterion, and therefore are also referred as Nyquist Plots. It is a labor saving
technique in the analysis of dynamic behaviour of control systems in which the need for
finding roots of characteristic equation of the system is eliminated.
Consider a typical closed loop control system which may be represented by the simplified
block diagram as shown in Figure 6.4
Figure 6.4 Simplified System Block Diagram
The closed-loop transfer function or the relationship between the output and input of the
system is given by
) ( ) ( 1
) (
) (
) (
S H S G
S G
S R
S C
+
The open-loop transfer function is G(S) H(S) (the transfer function with the feedback loop
broken at the summing point).
73
H(S)
G(S)
C(S)
R(S) +
-
1+ G(S) H(S) is called Characteristic Function which when equated to zero gives the
Characteristic Equation of the system.
1 + G(S) H(S) = 0 Characteristic Equation
The characteristic function F(S) = 1 + G(S) H(S) can be expressed as the ratio of two
factored polynomials.
Let
) .( )......... )( )( (
) ....( )......... )( (
) ( ) ( 1 ) (
3 2 1
2 1
n
k
n
Z S P S P S P S S
Z S Z S Z S K
S H S G S F
+ + + +
+ + +
+
The Characteristic equation in general can be represented as
F(S) = K (S+Z
1
) (S+Z
2
) (S+Z
3
) . (S+Z
n
) = 0
Then:
Z
1
, -Z
2
, -Z
3
. Z
n
are the roots of the characteristic equation
at S= -Z
1
, S= -Z
2
, S= -Z
3
, 1+ G(S) H(S) becomes zero.
These values of S are termed as Zeros of F(S)
Similarly:
at S= -P
1
, S= -P
2
, S= -P
3
. Etc. 1+ G (S) H (S) becomes infinity.
These values are called Poles of F (S).
6.10.1 Condition for Stability
For stable operation of control system all the roots of characteristic equation must be
negative real numbers or complex numbers with negative real parts. Therefore, for a
system to be stable all the Zeros of characteristic equation (function) should be either
negative real numbers or complex numbers with negative real parts. These roots can be
plotted on a complex-plane or S-plane in which the imaginary axis divides the complex
74
plane in to two parts: right half plane and left half plane. Negative real numbers or complex
numbers with negative real parts lie on the left of S-plane as shown Figure 6.5.
Figure 6.5 Two halves of Complex Plane
Therefore the roots which are positive real numbers or complex numbers with positive real
parts lie on the right-half of S-plane.
In view of this, the condition for stability can be stated as For a system to be stable all
the zeros of characteristic equation should lie on the left half of S-plane.
Therefore, the procedure for investigating system stability is to search for Zeros on the
right half of S-plane, which would lead the system to instability, if present. However, it is
impracticable to investigate every point on S-plane as to which half of S-plane it belongs to
and so it is necessary to have a short-cut method. Such a procedure for searching the right
half of S-plane for the presence of Zeros and interpretation of this procedure on the Polar
plot is given by the Nyquist Criterion.
6.10.2 Nyquist Criterion: Cauchys Principle of Argument:
75
2+j1
2-j1
-3-j2
-3+j2
Real
Img Right half of
S Plane
Left half of S
Plane
In order to investigate stability on the Polar plot, it is first necessary to correlate the region
of instability on the S-plane with identification of instability on the polar plot, or 1+GH
plane. The 1+GH plane is frequently the name given to the plane where 1+G(S) H(S) is
plotted in complex coordinates with S replaced by j. Likewise, the plot of G(S) H(S) with
S replaced by j is often termed as GH plane. This terminology is adopted in the remainder
of this discussion.
The Nyquist Criterion is based on the Cauchys principle of argument of complex variable
theory. Consider [F(S) = 1+G(S) H(S)] be a single valued rational function which is
analytic everywhere in a specified region except at a finite number of points in S-plane. (A
function F(S) is said to be analytic if the function and all its derivatives exist). The points
where the function and its derivatives does not exist are called singular points. The poles of
a point are singular points.
Let C
S
be a closed path chosen in S-plane as shown Figure 6.6 (a) such that the function
F(S) is analytic at all points on it. For each point on C
S
represented on S-plane there is a
corresponding mapping point in F(S) plane. Thus when mapping is made on F(S) plane, the
curve C
G
mapped by the function F(S) plane is also a closed path as shown in Figure 6.6
(b). The direction of traverse of C
G
in F(S) plane may be clockwise or counter clockwise,
depending upon the particular function F(S).
Then the Cauchy principle of argument states that: The mapping made on F(S) plane will
encircle its origin as many number of times as the difference between the number of
Zeros and Poles of F(S) enclosed by the S-plane locus C
S
in the S-plane.
76
Figure 6.6 Mapping on S-plane and F(S) plane
Thus N = Z P
N
0+j0
= Z P
77
S-plane
+j
-j
S
5
S
1
S
2
S
3
S
4
C
S
-
+j
-j
-
G
S1
G
S2
G
S3
G
S4
G
S5
(0+j)
C
G
F(S) = 1+G(S) H(S) plane
Where N
0+j0
: Number of encirclements made by F(S) plane plot (C
G
) about its
origin. Z and P: Number of Zeros and Poles of F(S) respectively enclosed by the locus
C
S
in the S-plane.
Illustration: Consider a function F(S)
) 2 5 )( 2 5 )( 5 )( 3 (
) 2 2 )( 2 2 )( 1 (
) (
j S j S S S S
j S j S S K
S F
+ + + + +
+ + + +

Zeros: -1, (-2-j2), (-2+j2) indicated by O (dots) in the S-plane
Poles: 0, -3, -5, (-5 j2), (-5 +j2) indicated by X (Cross) in S-plane: As shown in Figure 6.6
(c)
78

Figure 6.6 (c) Figure 6.6 (d)
Now consider path C
S1
(CCW) on S-plane for which:
Z: 2, P =1
79
S-plane
+j
-j
C
S2
-
C
S1
O: ZEROS
X: POLES
+j
-j
C
G2
-
C
G1
C
G2
C
G2
(0+j0)
F(S) = 1+G(S) H(S) plane
C
S1
C
S2
Consider another path C
S2
(CCW) in the same S plane for which:
Z = 1, P = 4
C
G1
and C
G2
are the corresponding paths on F(S) plane [Figure 6.6 (d)].
Considering C
G1
[plot corresponding to C
S1
on F (S) plane]
N
0+j0
= Z P = 2-1 = +1
C
G1
will encircle the origin once in the same direction of C
S1
(CCW)
Similarly for the path C
G2

N
0+j0
= Z P = 1 4 = - 3
C
G2
will encircle the origin 3 times in the opposite direction of C
S2
(CCW)
Note: The mapping on F(S) plane will encircle its origin as many number of times as the
difference between the number of Zeros and Poles of F(S) enclosed by the S-plane locus.
From the above it can be observed that
In the expression
N= Z - P,
N can be positive when: Z>P
N = 0 when: Z = P
N can be negative when: Z<P
When N is positive the map C
G
encircles the origin N times in the same direction
as that of C
S
When N = 0, No encirclements
80
N is negative the map C
G
encircles the origin N times in the opposite direction as
that of C
S

6.10.3 Nyquist Path and Nyquist Plot
The above Cauchys principle of argument can be used to investigate the stability of
control systems. We have seen that if the Zeros of characteristic function lie on the right
half of S-plane it will lead to system instability. Now, to encircle the entire right half of S-
plane, select a closed path as shown in Figure 6.6 (e) such that all the Zeros lying on the
right-half of S-plane will lie inside this path. This path in S-plane is known as Nyquist
path. Nyquist path is generally taken in CCW direction. This path consists of the
imaginary axis of the S-plane (S = 0+j, - < < ) and a closing semicircle of infinite
radius. If the system being tested has poles of F(S) on the imaginary axis, it is customary to
modify the contour as shown Figure 6.6 (f) excluding these poles from the path.
81

Figure 6.6 (e): Nyquist Path Figure 6.6 (f)
82
S-plane
+j
-j
-
-j
+j
0+j0
0-j0
r =
+j
-j
-
S=+j0
S= -j0
r =
S= -j
r 0
Corresponding to the Nyquist path a plot can be mapped on F(S) = 1+G(S) H(S) plane as
shown in Figure 6.6 (g) and the number of encirclements made by this F(S) plot about its
origin can be counted.
Figure 6.6 (g)
Now from the principle of argument
N
0+j0
= Z-P
N
0+j0
= number of encirclements made by F(S) plane plot
Z, P: Zeros and Poles lying on right half of S-plane
For the system to be stable: Z = 0
N
0+j0
= - P Condition for Stability
Apart from this, the Nyquist path can also be mapped on G(S) H(S) plane (Open-loop
transfer function plane) as shown in Figure 6.6 (h).
Now consider
F(S) = 1+ G(S) H(S) for which the origin is (0+j0) as shown in Figure 6.6 (g).
Therefore G(S) H(S) = F(S) 1
= (0+j0) 1 = (-1+j0) Coordinates for origin on G(S) H(S) plane as shown
in Figure 6.6(h)
83
Img
G(S) H(S) plane
Real
Img
Real
Img
0+j0
1+ G(S) H(S) plane

Figure 6.6 (h)
Thus a path on 1+ G(S) H(S) plane can be easily converted to a path on G(S) H(S) plane or
open loop transfer function plane. This path will be identical to that of 1+G(S) H(S) path
except that the origin is now shifted to the left by one as shown in Figure 6.6 (h).
This concept can be made use of by making the plot in G(S) H(S) plane instead of 1+ G(S)
H(S) plane. The plot made on G(S) H(S) plane is termed as the Niquist Plot and its net
encirclements about (-1+j0) (known as critical point) will be the same as the number of net
encirclements made by F(S) plot in the F(S) = 1+G(S) H(S) plane about the origin.
Now, the principle of argument now can be re-written as
N
-1+j0
= Z-P
Where N
-1+j0
= Number of net encirclements made by the G(S) H(S) plot (Nyquist Plot) in
the G(S) H(S) plane about -1+j0
For a system to be stable Z = 0
N
-1+j0
= -P
Thus the Nyquist Criterion for a stable system can be stated as The number of net
encirclements made by the Nyquist plot in the G(S) H(S) plane about the critical point
(-1+j0) is equal to the number of poles of F(S) lying in right half of S-plane.
84
0+j0
(-1+j0)
Origin of the plot for
G(S) H(S)
[Encirclements if any will be in the opposite direction. Poles of F(S) are the same as
the poles of G(S) H(S)].
Thus the stability of closed-loop control system is determined from its open-loop transfer
function.
CHAPTER VI
FREQUENCY RESPONSE
(Continued from Session 21)
6.10.4 System Analysis using Nyquist Criterion: Illustrations
Illustration 1: Sketch the Nyquist plot for the system represented by the open loop transfer
function and comment on its stability.
0 , 0
) (
) ( ) ( > >
+
a K
a S S
K
S H S G
Poles: S = 0 (on imaginary axis) and S = -a
Step 1: Define Nyquist path. Let the Nyquist path be defined as given below.
Section I: S = +j to S = +j0; Section II: S = +j0 to S = -j0
Section III: S = -j0 to S = -j; Section IV: S = -j to S = +j
85
+j
-j
S=+j0
S= -j0
r =
S= -j
r 0
-
S= -j
Nyquist Path
S= +j
2. Corresponding to different sections namely I, II, III, and IV Obtain polar plots on G(S)
H(S) plane, which are nothing but Nyquist Plots.
Nyquist Plot for Section I: In S-plane section I runs from S= + j to S = +j0
To obtain polar plot in G(S) H(S) plane:
0 , 0
) (
) ( ) ( > >
+
a K
a S S
K
S H S G
(i)
2
) ( ) (
S
K
S H S G
j S

,

0 ) ( ) (
2

S
K
S H S G

2
2
) ( ) ( S K
S
K
S H S G
= 0 2*90
0
= - 180
0
(ii)
S
K
S
a
K
a S
K
S H S G
j S
1
0
.
) ( ) ( ,
G(S) H(S) = K/a S = 0 - 90
0
= - 90
0
86
Img G(S) H(S) Plane

Nyquist Plot for Section II: In S-plane section II runs from S= + j0 to S = -j0
In this region 0 S
In S-plane section II is a semicircle from S = + j0 to S = -j0 of radius r 0
0
, covering an
angle of 180
0
in clockwise direction
S
K
a S
K
S H S G
1
) (
) ( ) (
where K
1
= K/a
But S = re
+j
equation of a circle in exponential form

where
re
K
S H S G
j
j
, Re ) ( ) (
1
+

r
K
R
1
G(S) H(S) = R.e

-j

r
K
R
1
(as r is very small)
S
M() ()
S 0 -180
0
0 S -90
0
87
S=j0
Real
-90
0
S=j
-180
0
Section I
This shows that G(S) H(S) plot of section II of Nyquist path is a circle of radius =
starting from S = +j0 and ending at a point S = -j0 covering an angle of 180
0
in opposite
direction of section II of Nyquist path (CCW direction i.e., negative sign)
In general if G (S) H (S) =
n
S
K
1

jn
jn n
e R
e r
K
S H S G

+
. ) ( ) (
1
Where R =
n
r
K
1
The G (S) H (S) plot will be a portion circle (part) of radius R , starting at a point S =
+j and ending at a point S = -j covering an angle of (n*180
0
) in the opposite direction
(CCW) (since sign is negative)
Nyquist Plot for Section III: In S-plane section III runs from S= -j0 to S = j
) (
) ( ) (
0
a S S
K
S H S G
j S
+
S K
a S
K
/
.
1
where K
l
= (K/a)
S K S H S G / ) ( ) (
1
G(S) H(S) = K
l
S, K
l
is negative
= -K
l
S
G(S) H(S) = 180
0
90
0
= 90
0

+
j S j S
a S S
K
S H S G
) (
) ( ) (
= K/S
2
88
S=j0
S= -j0
Real
Img
R=
G(S) H(S) Plane
Section II
0 ) ( ) (
2

S
K
S H S G

G(S) H(S) = K - S
2
= 0 2 (-90
0
) = 180
0
; (S is negative)
This Section III is the mirror image of section of the Section I.
Nyquist Plot for Section IV: In S-plane section IV runs from S= -j to S = j
In this region S
In the S-plane it is a semicircle of radius R from S = - j to S = + j covering an
angle of 180
0
in the counter clockwise direction.
In the G(S) H(S) plane
2
) ( ) (
S
K
S H S G
S

But S = R e
+j
Equation in circle in exponential form
2
2 2
.
.
) ( ) (
j
j
e r
e R
K
S H S G

where 0
2

R
K
r
Thus G(S) H(S) plot for section IV is also a circle of radius 0 r starting at S = - j and
ending at S = + j covering an angle of 2* 180
0
(2 ) in the opposite direction (CW).
89
S= -j
S= -j0
+90
0
+180
0
Section III
G(S) H(S) Plane
Real
Img
Img
G(S) H(S) Plane
Now assemble the Nyquist plots of all the sections as given below to get the overall
Nyquist plot
From Nyquist Criterion:
No. of encirclements made by Nyquist plot about ( 1 +j0) = N
-1+j0
= Z P
P = No. of poles lying in the right half of S plane
90
S= +j
S= -j
Real
Section IV
r 0
Real
Img
G(S) H(S) Plane
(-1+j0)
j0
j
-j0
-j
For the function
) (
) ( ) (
a S S
K
S H S G
+
, the Poles are: S = 0, S = - a = 0, which lie on the

left half of S-plane
Therefore P = 0: Number of poles on the right half of S-plane
N
-1+j=0

= 0 as counted from the Nyquist plot
N
-1+j0
= Z P
0 = Z 0
Therefore Z = 0
Number of zeros lying on the right half of S-plane is 0 and hence the system is stable
Illustration 2: Obtain the Nyquist diagram for the system represented by the block diagram
given below and comment on its stability
) 1 (
) (
2
+
S S
K
S G
S S H ) (
,
) 1 (
*
) 1 (
) ( ) (
2
+
+

S S
K
S
S S
K
S H S G

Poles are S = 0, -1/ P = 0
Solution is same as that of Illustration 1
91
R (S) +
C (S)
) 1 (
2
+ S S
K
S
-
ROOT LOCUS
Part 1
INTRODUCTION
The characteristics of the transient response of a closed loop control system is related to
location of the closed loop poles. If the system has a variable loop gain, then the location of
the closed loop poles depends on the value of the loop gain chosen. It is important, that the
designer knows how the closed loop poles move in the s-plane as the loop gain is varied.
W. R. Evans introduced a graphical method for finding the roots of the characteristic
equation known as root locus method. The root locus is used to study the location of the
poles of the closed loop transfer function of a given linear system as a function of its
parameters, usually a loop gain, given its open loop transfer function. The roots
corresponding to a particular value of the system parameter can then be located on the
locus or the value of the parameter for a desired root location can be determined from the
locus. It is a powerful technique, as an approximate root locus sketch can be made quickly
and the designer can visualize the effects of varying system parameters on root locations or
vice versa. It is applicable for single loop as well as multiple loop system.
ROOT LOCUS CONCEPT
To understand the concepts underlying the root locus technique, consider the
second order system shown in Fig. 1.

Fig. 28 Second order control system
The open loop transfer function of this system is
) 1 (
a) s(s
K
G(s)
+
Where, K and a are constants. The open loop transfer function has two poles one at origin s
= 0 and the other at s = -a. The closed loop transfer function of the system shown in Fig.1
is
92
R(s)
E(s)
+
+
a) s(s
K
+
C(s)
(2)
K as s
K
G(s)H(s) 1
G(s)
R(s)
C(s)
2
+ +
The characteristic equation for the closed loop system is obtained by setting the
denominator of the right hand side of Eqn.(2) equal to zero. That is,
(3) 0 K as s G(s)H(s) 1
2
+ + +
The second order system under consideration is always stable for positive values of
a and K but its dynamic behavior is controlled by the roots of Eqn.(3) and hence, in turn by
the magnitudes of a and K, since the roots are given by
(4) K
2
a
2
a
2a
4K) (a
2
a
s , s
2
2
2 1
1
1
]
1

,
_
From Eqn.(4), it is seen that as the system parameters a or K varies, the roots
change. Consider a to be constant and gain K to be variable. As K is varied from zero to
infinity, the two roots s
1
and s
2
describe loci in the s-plane. Root locations for various
ranges of K are:
1) K= 0, the two roots are real and coincide with open loop poles of the system
s
1
= 0, s
2
= -a.
2) 0 K < a
2
/4, the roots are real and distinct.
3) K= a
2
/4, roots are real and equal.
4) a
2
/4 < K < , the rots are complex conjugates.
The root locus plot is shown in Fig.2
Fig. 29 Root loci of s
2
+as+K as a function of K
93
Figure 2 has been drawn by the direct solution of the characteristic equation. This
procedure becomes tedious. Evans graphical procedure helps in sketching the root locus
quickly. The characteristic equation of any system is given by
(5) 0 (s)
Where, (s) is the determinant of the signal flow graph of the system given by Eqn.(5).
Or
(6) P P P 1 (s)
m
m3
m
m2
m
m1
+ +
Where, P
mr
is gain product of m
th
possible combination of r nontouching loops of the graph.
The characteristic equation can be written in the form
(7) 0
B(s)
KA(s)
1
0 P(s) 1
+
+
For single loop system shown in Fig.3
(8) G(s)H(s) P(s)
Where, G(s)H(s) is open loop transfer function in block diagram terminology or
transmittance in signal flow graph terminology.
Fig. 30 Single loop feedback system
From Eqn.(7) it can be seen that the roots of the characteristic equation (closed loop
poles)occur only for those values of s where
(9) 1 P(s)
Since, s is a complex variable, Eqn.(9) can be converted into the two Evans
conditions given below.
94
R(s)
E(s)
+
+
G(s)
C(s)
H(s)
) 10 ( 1 ) ( s P
) 11 ( 2 , 1 , 0 ); 1 2 ( 180 ) (
+ t q q s P
Roots of 1+P(s) = 0 are those values of s at which the magnitude and angle
condition given by Eqn.(10) and Eqn.(11). A plot of points in the complex plane satisfying
the angle criterion is the root locus. The value of gain corresponding to a root can be
determined from the magnitude criterion.
To make the root locus sketching certain rules have been developed which helps in
visualizing the effects of variation of system gain K ( K > 0 corresponds to the negative
feed back and K < 0 corresponds to positive feedback control system) and the effects of
shifting pole-zero locations and adding in anew set of poles and zeros.
GENERAL RULES FOR CONSTRUCTING ROOT LOCUS
1) The root locus is symmetrical about real axis. The roots of the characteristic
equation are either real or complex conjugate or combination of both. Therefore
their locus must be symmetrical about the real axis.
2) As K increases from zero to infinity, each branch of the root locus originates
from an open loop pole (n nos.) with K= 0 and terminates either on an open loop
zero (m nos.) with K = along the asymptotes or on infinity (zero at ). The
number of branches terminating on infinity is equal to (n m).
3) Determine the root locus on the real axis. Root loci on the real axis are
determined by open loop poles and zeros lying on it. In constructing the root loci
on the real axis choose a test point on it. If the total number of real poles and real
zeros to the right of this point is odd, then the point lies on root locus. The
complex conjugate poles and zeros of the open loop transfer function have no
effect on the location of the root loci on the real axis.
95
4) Determine the asymptotes of root loci. The root loci for very large values of s
must be asymptotic to straight lines whose angles are given by
) 12 ( 1 - m n 0,1,2, ;
m n
1) (2q 180
asymptotes of Angle
A

+ t

q
5) All the asymptotes intersect on the real axis. It is denoted by
a ,
given by
) 13 (
m n
) z z (z ) p p (p
m n
zeros of sum poles of sum
m 2 1 n 2 1
a
+ + + +

6) Find breakaway and breakin points. The breakaway and breakin points either lie on
the real axis or occur in complex conjugate pairs. On real axis, breakaway points
exist between two adjacent poles and breakin in points exist between two adjacent
zeros. To calculate these polynomial 0
ds
dK
must be solved. The resulting roots
are the breakaway / breakin points. The characteristic equation given by Eqn.(7),
can be rearranged as
) z (s ) z )(s z K(s A(s)
and ) p (s ) p )(s p (s B(s) where,
(14) 0 KA(s) B(s)
m 2 1
n 2 1
+ + +
+ + +
+
The breakaway and breakin points are given by

) 15 ( 0 B
ds
d
A B A
ds
d
ds
dK

,
_

,
_
Note that the breakaway points and breakin points must be the roots of Eqn.(15),
but not all roots of Eqn.(15) are breakaway or breakin points. If the root is not on
the root locus portion of the real axis, then this root neither corresponds to
breakaway or breakin point. If the roots of Eqn.(15) are complex conjugate pair,
96
to ascertain that they lie on root loci, check the corresponding K value. If K is
positive, then root is a breakaway or breakin point.
7) Determine the angle of departure of the root locus from a complex pole
) 16 ( ) zeros other from question in pole complex a to vectors of angles of (sum
poles) other from question in pole complex a to vectors of angles of (sum
180 p complex a from departure of Angle
+

8) Determine the angle of arrival of the root locus at a complex zero
(17) poles) other from question in zero complex a to vectors of angles of (sum
zeros) other from question in zero complex a to vectors of angles of (sum
180 zero complex at arrival of Angle
+

9) Find the points where the root loci may cross the imaginary axis. The points where
the root loci intersect the j axis can be found by
a) use of Rouths stability criterion or
b) letting s = j in the characteristic equation , equating both the real part and
imaginary part to zero, and solving for and K. The values of thus found
give the frequencies at which root loci cross the imaginary axis. The
corresponding K value is the gain at each crossing frequency.

10) The value of K corresponding to any point s on a root locus can be obtained using
the magnitude condition, or
97
) 18 (
zeros to points between length of product
poles to points between lengths of product
K
PHASE MARGIN AND GAIN MARGIN OF ROOT LOCUS
Gaim Margin
It is a factor by which the design value of the gain can be multiplied before the
closed loop system becomes unstable.
(19)
K of value Design
over cross imaginary at K of Value
Margin Gain
The Phase Margin
Find the point j
1
on the imaginary axis for which

( ) ( ) 1 j H j G
for the design
value of K i.e.

( ) ( )
design
K j /A j B
.
The phase margin

is

( ) (20) ) H(j j argG 180
1 1
+

98
ROOT LOCUS
Part 2
Problem No 1
Sketch the root locus of a unity negative feedback system whose forward path transfer
function is
s
K
G(s) .
Solution:

1) Root locus is symmetrical about real axis.

2) There are no open loop zeros(m = 0). Open loop pole is at s = 0 (n = 1). One branch
of root locus starts from the open loop pole when K = 0 and goes to
asymptotically when K .
3) Root locus lies on the entire negative real axis as there is one pole towards right of
any point on the negative real axis.
4) The asymptote angle is
A
= . 0 1 ,
) 1 2 ( 180

+ t
m n q
m n
q

Angle of asymptote is
A
=

t 180.
5) Centroid of the asymptote is
m n
zeros) of (sum poles) of (sum
0 . 0
1
0

6) The root locus does not branch. Hence, there is no need to calculate the break
points.
7) The root locus departs at an angle of -180 from the open loop pole at s = 0.
8) The root locus does not cross the imaginary axis. Hence there is no imaginary axis
cross over.
99
Figure 31 Root locus plot of K/s
Comments on stability:
The system is stable for all the values of K > 0. Th system is over damped.
Problem No 2
The open loop transfer function is
2
1) (s
2) K(s
G(s)
+
+
. Sketch the root locus plot

Solution:
2) There is one open loop zero at s=-2.0(m=1). There are two open loop poles at
s=-1, -1(n=2). Two branches of root loci start from the open loop pole when
K= 0. One branch goes to open loop zero at s =-2.0 when K and other goes to
(open loop zero) asymptotically when K .
3) Root locus lies on negative real axis for s -2.0 as the number of open loop poles
plus number of open loop zeros to the right of s=-0.2 are odd in number.
A
= . 0 1 ,
) 1 2 ( 180

+ t
m n q
m n
q

A
= t 180.
100
m n
0 . 0
1
) 2 ( ) 1 1 (
6) The root locus has break points.

The root loci brakesout at the open loop poles at s=-1, when K =0 and breaks in
onto the real axis at s=-3, when K=4. One branch goes to open loop zero at s=-2
and other goes to along the asymptotically.
7) The branches of the root locus at s=-1, -1 break at K=0 and are tangential to a line
s=-1+j0 hence depart at t 90.
8) The locus arrives at open loop zero at t 180.
9) The root locus does not cross the imaginary axis, hence there is no need to find the
imaginary axis cross over.
The root locus plot is shown in Fig.2.
101
4 K 3, s 0; K 1, s
0
2) (s
1) (s 2) 1)(s 2(s
0
ds
dK
by given is point Break
2) (s
1) (s
K
2 1
2
2
2

+
+ + +
+
+

Figure 32 Root locus plot of K(s+2)/(s+1)
2
System is stable for all values of K > 0. The system is over damped for K > 4. It is
critically damped at K = 0, 4.
Problem No 3
2) s(s
4) K(s
G(s)
+
+
. Sketch the root locus.

Solution:
2) There are is one open loop zero at s=-4(m=1). There are two open loop poles at
s=0, -2(n=2). Two branches of root loci start from the open loop poles when K= 0.
One branch goes to open loop zero when K and other goes to infinity
asymptotically when K .
3) Entire negative real axis except the segment between s=-4 to s=-2 lies on the root
locus.
A
= . 0 1 , 1 , 0 ,
) 1 2 ( 180

+ t
m n q
m n
q

Angle of asymptote are
A
= t 180.
m n
102
0 . 2
1
) 4 ( ) 2 (
6) The brake points are given by dK/ds =0.

7) Angle of departure from open loop pole at s =0 is t 180. Angle of departure from
pole at s=-2.0 is 0.
8) The angle of arrival at open loop zero at s=-4 is t 180
9) The root locus does not cross the imaginary axis. Hence there is no imaginary cross
over.
The root locus plot is shown in fig.3.
Figure 3 Root locus plot of K(s+4)/s(s+2)
System is stable for all values of K.
103
11.7 K 6.828, s
0.343; K 1.172, s
0
4) (s
2s) (s 4) 2)(s (2s
ds
dK
4) (s
2) s(s
K
2
1
2
2

+
+ + +
+
+

0 > K > 0.343 : > 1 over damped
K = 0.343 : = 1 critically damped
0.343 > K > 11.7 : < 1 under damped
K = 11.7 : = 1 critically damped
K > 11.7 : >1 over damped.
Problem No 4
3.6) (s s
0.2) K(s
G(s)
2
+
+

Solution:
2) There is one open loop zero at s = -0.2(m=1). There are three open loop poles at
s = 0, 0, -3.6(n=3). Three branches of root loci start from the three open loop poles
when K= 0 and one branch goes to open loop zero at s = -0.2 when K and
other two go to asymptotically when K .
3) Root locus lies on negative real axis between -3.6 to -0.2 as the number of open
loop poles plus open zeros to the right of any point on the real axis in this range is
odd.
A
= 1 , 0 1 ,
) 1 2 ( 180

+ t
m n q
m n
q

A
= t 90, t 270.
m n
7 . 1
2
) 2 . 0 ( ) 6 . 3 (

6) The root locus does branch out, which are given by dK/ds =0.
104
ly. respective 3.66 2.55, 0, K and 1.67 0.432, 0, s
0 1.44s 4.8s 2s
0.2) (s
) 3.6s (s 0.2) 7.2s)(s (3s
ds
dK
0.2 s
) 3.6s (s
- K
2 3
2
2 3 2
2 3

+ +
+
+ + +

+
+
The root loci brakeout at the open loop poles at s = 0, when K =0 and breakin onto
the real axis at s=-0.432, when K=2.55 One branch goes to open loop zero at s=-0.2
and other goes breaksout with the another locus starting from open loop ploe at s=
-3.6. The break point is at s=-1.67 with K=3.66. The loci go to infinity in the
complex plane with constant real part s= -1.67.
7) The branches of the root locus at s=0,0 break at K=0 and are tangential to
imaginary axis or depart at t 90. The locus departs from open loop pole at s=-3.6
at 0.
8) The locus arrives at open loop zero at s=-0.2 at t 180.
9) The root locus does not cross the imaginary axis, hence there is no imaginary axis
cross over.
Figure 4 Root locus plot of K(s+0.2)/s
2
(s+3.6)
System is stable for all values of K. System is critically damped at K= 2.55, 3.66. It is
under damped for 2.55 > K > 0 and K >3.66. It is over damped for 3.66 > K >2.55.
Problem No 5
25) 6s s(s
K
G(s)
+ +

Solution:
105
2) There are no open loop zeros (m=0). There are three open loop poles at s=-0,
-3t j4(n=3). Three branches of root loci start from the open loop poles when K= 0
and all the three branches go asymptotically when K .
3) Entire negative real axis lies on the root locus as there is a single pole at s=0 on the
real axis.
A
= . 2 , 1 , 0 1 , 1 , 0 ,
) 1 2 ( 180

+ t
m n q
m n
q

A
= t 60, t 180,t 300.
m n
0 . 2
3
) 3 3 (

6) The brake points are given by dK/ds =0.

j18.04 34 K
j2.0817and 2 s
0 25 12s 3s
ds
dK
25s) 6s (s 25) 6s s(s K
1,2
1,2
2
2 3 2
t
t
+ +
+ + + +
For a point to be break point, the corresponding value of K is a real number greater
than or equal to zero. Hence, S
1,2
are not break points.
7) Angle of departure from the open loop pole at s=0 is t 180. Angle of departure
from complex pole s= -3+j4 is
zeros) from inquestion pole complex a to vectors of angles the of (sum
poles) other from question in pole complex a to vectors of angles the of (sum
180
p
+

87 . 36 ) 90
3
4
tan 180 ( 180
1
p
+

Similarly, Angle of departure from complex pole s= -3-j4 is

36.87 or 323.13 ) 270 (233.13 180
p
+
8) The root locus does cross the imaginary axis. The cross over point and the gain at
the cross over can be obtained by
Rouths criterion
106
The characteristic equation is 0 K 25s 6s s
2 3
+ + + . The Rouths array is
For the system to be stable K < 150. At K=150 the auxillary equation is 6s
2
+150=0.
s = j5.
or
substitute s= j in the characteristic equation. Equate real and imaginary parts to zero.
Solve for and K.
The plot of root locus is shown in Fig.5.
Figure 5 Root locus plot of K/s(s
2
+6s+25)
System is stable for all values of 150 > K > 0. At K=150, it has sustained oscillation of
5rad/sec. The system is unstable for K >150.
107
6 s
6
K 150
s
K 6 s
25 1 s
0
1
2
3
( ) ( ) ( )
( )
150 0, K j5 0,
0 25 j K) 6 (
0 K j 25 j 6 j
0 K 25s 6s s
2 2
2 3
2 3
t
+ + +
+ + +
+ + +
ROOT LOCUS
Part 3
Problem No 1
Sketch the root locus of a unity negative feedback system whose forward path transfer
function is
j) 3 j)(s 3 1)(s (s
2) K(s
G(s)H(s)
+ + + +
+
. Comment on the stability of the

system.
Solution:


10) There is one open loop zero at s = -2 (m = 1). There are three open loop poles at
s = -1, -3 j (n=3). All the three branches of root locus start from the open loop
poles when K = 0. One locus starting from s = -1 goes to zero at s = -2 when
K , and other two branches go to asymptotically (zeros at ) when K .
11) Root locus lies on the negative real axis in the range s=-1 to s= -2 as there is one
pole to the right of any point s on the real axis in this range.
A
= . 0,1 1 m n q ,
m n
1) (2q 180

+ t

A
=

t 90, 270.
m n
2.5
1
2) ( 3) 3 1 (

14) The root locus does not branch. Hence, there is no need to calculate break points.
15) The angle of departure at real pole at s=-1 is 180. The angle of departure at the
complex pole at s=-3+j is 71.57.
180
p
+
108
The angle of departure at the complex pole at s=-3-j is -71.57.
16) The root locus does not cross the imaginary axis. Hence there is no imaginary axis
cross over.
Figure 1 Root locus plot of K(s+2)/(s+1)(s+3+j)(s+3-j)
The system is stable for all the values of K > 0.
Problem No 2
10) 0.6s 0.5)(s s(s
K
G(s)H(s)
2
+ + +
Sketch the root

locus plot. Comment on the stability of the system. .
109

57 . 71 135 ) 90 (153.43 180
90
0
2
tan , 135 or -45
1 -
1
tan
153.43 ) atan2(-2,1
153.43 or 57 . 26
2 -
1
tan
p
1
3
1
1
1
1
+ +

57 . 71 5 22 ) 270 (206.57 180
p
+ +
Solution:
11) There are no open loop zeros (m=0). There are four open loop poles (n=4) at s=0,
-0.5, -0.3 j3.1480. Four branches of root loci start from the four open loop poles
when K= 0 and go to (open loop zero at infinity) asymptotically when K .
12) Root locus lies on negative real axis between s = 0 to s = -0.5 as there is one pole to
the right of any point s on the real axis in this range.
A
= . 3 , 2 , 1 , 0 1 ,
) 1 2 ( 180

+ t
m n q
m n
q

A
= t 45, t 135,t 225, 315.
m n
275 . 0
4
) 3 . 0 3 . 0 5 . 0 (

The value of K at s=-0.275 is 0.6137.

15) The root locus has break points.
K = -s(s+0.5)(s
2
+0.6s+10) = -(s
4
+1.1s
3
+10.3s
2
+5s)
Break points are given by dK/ds = 0
0 5 20.6s 3.3s 4s
ds
dK
2 3
+ + +
s= -0.2497, -0.2877t j 2.2189
There is only one break point at -0.2497. Value of K at s = -0.2497 is 0.6195.
16) The angle of departure at real pole at s=0 is t 180 and at s=-0.5 is 0. The angle of
departure at the complex pole at s = -0.3 + j3.148 is -91.8

180
p
+
110

8 . 91 ) 90 86.4 (95.4 180
90
0
6.296
tan , 4 . 6 8
0.2
3.148
tan
4 . 95 or 6 . 84
0.3 -
3.148
tan
p
1
3
1
2
1
1
+ +

The angle of departure at the complex pole at s = -0.3 - j3.148 is 91.8

17) The root locus does cross the imaginary axis, The cross over frequency and gain is
obtained from Rouths criterion.
The characteristic equation is
s(s+0.5)(s2+0.6s+10)+K =0 or s4+1.1s3+10.3s2+5s+K=0
The Rouths array is
The system is stable if 0 < K < 26.13
The auxiliary equation at K 26.13 is 5.75s
2
+26.13 = 0 which gives s = j2.13 at
imaginary axis crossover.
Figure 33 Root locus plot of K/s(s+0.5)(s
2
+0.6s+10)
111
K s
5.75
1.1K - 28.75
s
K 5.75 s
5 1.1 s
K 10.3 1 s
0
1
2
3
4

91.8 ) 270 273.6 (264.6 180
p
+ +
System is stable for all values of 26.13 >K > 0. The system has sustained oscillation at
= 2.13 rad/sec at K=26.13. The system is unstable for K > 26.13.
Problem No 3
20) 4s )(s 4 s(s
K
G(s)
2
+ + +

Solution:
11) There are no open loop zeros (m=0). There are three open loop poles (n=3) at s =
-0, -4, -2 t j4. Three branches of root loci start from the three open loop poles
when K= 0 and to infinity asymptotically when K .
12) Root locus lies on negative real axis between s = 0 to s = -4.0 as there is one pole to
the right of any point s on the real axis in this range.
A
= 3 , 2 , 1 , 0 1 ,
) 1 2 ( 180

+ t
m n q
m n
q

A
= t 45, t 135, t 225, t 315.
m n
0 . 2
4
) 0 . 4 0 . 2 0 . 2 (

15) The root locus does branch out, which are given by dK/ds =0.
112
100 K j2.45, 2.0 s
64; K 2.0, s
40) 16s 2)(4s (s
0 80 40s 32s 16s 8s 4s
0 80 72s 24s 4s
0
ds
dK
by given is point Break
80s) 36s 8s (s
20) 4s 4)(s s(s K
2
1
2
2 2 3
2 3
2 3 4
2
t

+ + +
+ + + + +
+ + +
+ + +
+ + +
The root loci brakeout at the open loop poles at s = -2.0, when K = 64 and breakin
and breakout at s=-2+j2.45, when K=100
16) The angle of departure at real pole at s=0 is t 180 and at s=-4 is 0. The angle of
departure at the complex pole at s = -2 + j4 is -90.

180
p
+
The angle of departure at the complex pole at s = -2 j4 is 90

17) The root locus does cross the imaginary axis, The cross over point and gain at
cross over is obtained by either Rouths array or substitute s= j in the
characteristic equation and solve for and gain K by equating the real and
imaginary parts to zero.
Rouths array
The characteristic equation is 0 K 80s 36s 8s s
2 3 4
+ + + +
For the system to be stable K > 0 and 2080-8K > 0. The imaginary crossover is
given by 2080-8K=0 or K = 260.
113
K s
26
8K 2080
s
K 26 s
80 8 s
K 36 1 s
is array Rouths The
0
1
2
3
4

90 ) 90 .4 63 (116.6 - 180
90
0
8
tan , 4 . 3 6
2
4
tan
116.6 ) atan2(4,-2
116.6 or 63.4
2 -
4
tan
p
1
3
1
2
1
1
1
+ +

90 270
) 270 296.6 (243.4 - 180
p

+ +
At K = 260, the auxiliary equation is 26s
2
+260 = 0. The imaginary cross over
occurs at s= t j10.
or
Figure 34 Root locus plot of K/s(s+4)(s
2
+4s+20)
For 260 > K > 0 system is stable
K = 260 system has stained oscillations of 10 rad/sec.
K > 260 system is unstable.
114
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( )
260 K 0 K 36
10 j s ; 10 j 0, 0 80 8
zero to parts imaginary and real Equate
0 80 8 j K 36
0 K j 80 j 36 j 8 j
j s put
0 K 80s 36s 8s s
2 4
3
3 2 4
2 3 4
2 3 4
+
t +
+ + +
+ + + +
+ + + +

Controlengg Compiled Pillai (Session 1 7)

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Description:

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Controlengg Compiled Pillai (Session 1 7)

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

ME55 CONTROL ENGINEERING

It involves the term s

The static position error constant K

For a type 0 system,

For a type 1 or higher system

Given = 0.1 sec

To obtain the polar plot (i.e., frequency response data) replace S by j.

equation of a circle in exponential form

G(S) H(S) = R.e

Equation in circle in exponential form

, the Poles are: S = 0, S = - a = 0, which lie on the

The breakaway and breakin points are given by

. Sketch the root locus plot

6) The root locus has break points.

. Sketch the root locus.

6) The brake points are given by dK/ds =0.

. Sketch the root locus.

. Sketch the root locus.

6) The brake points are given by dK/ds =0.

Similarly, Angle of departure from complex pole s= -3-j4 is

. Comment on the stability of the

Sketch the root

The value of K at s=-0.275 is 0.6137.

The angle of departure at the complex pole at s = -0.3 - j3.148 is 91.8

. Sketch the root locus.

The angle of departure at the complex pole at s = -2 j4 is 90

You might also like