UNIT-1 UNIT 1 Transformers

Harshita Sharma Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering JIIT, Sec-128, Noida. JIIT Sec 128 Noida

Introduction
A transformer is a highly efficient (about 99.5 %) static (non-moving) device. It transfers electrical energy form one circuit to another gy through magnetic coupling (usually from one ac voltage level to another), without any change in its frequency. No simple device can accomplish such changes in d.c. p p g voltages. It raises or lowers the voltage in a circuit but with a g corresponding decrease or increase in current. The product of voltage and current i e power remains i.e. constant.

 It has two windings, insulated from each other, and wound on a core made up of a magnetic material, because magnetic field can store energy 25000 times more as compared to electric field. Transformation of voltage is necessary at different stages of the electrical network consisting of generation, transmission h l i l k i i f i i i and distribution. A li ti Applications:
Transmission and distribution: Converts generated voltage of about 11 kV to higher voltages of 132 kV, 220 kV, 400 KV for transmission and to lower voltages up to 440 V for distribution. Small-sized transformers: used in communication circuits, radio and TV circuits, telephone circuits, i d i i l h i i instrumentation and control i d l systems. Audio transformers

Principle of Operation
It operates on the principle of mutual induction between two coils. When two coils are inductively coupled and if current in one coil is changed uniformly then uniformly, an EMF gets induced in the other coil. This EMF can drive a current, when a closed path is provided to it.

 Constr ction: Construction:

 The main parts are: A i An iron core th t provides a magnetic circuit. that id ti i it Two inductive coils wound on the core. They are suitably insulated from each other and also from the core core. A suitable container for assembled core and windings. A suitable medium for insulating the core and winding from the container and cooling windings and core ( (transformer oil). ) Suitable brushings (porcelain, oil-filled or capacitor type) for insulating and bringing out the terminals of the g g g windings from the tank. The vertical portions of steel core are called Limbs and top and bottom portions are called Yokes. Coils P and S (Primary and Secondary) are wound on the two limbs. li b

 T main parts: Core and Winding( coils) Two i C d Wi di ( il )

Magneticcore
Yoke

Windingorcoil

Limb

 Circuit Symbol:

E2

N1 : Number of turns in the Primary N2 : Number of turns in the Secondary E1 : EMF Induced in the Primary E2 : EMF Induced in the Secondary I1: Current through the Primary I2: Current through the Secondary

 Working:
There are 2 principles involved:
An electric current produces a magnetic field (Electromagnetism). A changing magnetic field within a coil induces an EMF across the ends of the coil (Electromagnetic Induction).

In primary circuit a changing current produces a circuit, changing magnetic field. In secondar circ it voltage is ind ced b the secondary circuit, oltage induced by changing magnetic field produced. There i transfer of energy f h is f f from one circuit to i i other.

 EMF Equation:
Due to the sinusoidally varying voltage V1 applied to the primary the magnetic flux set up in the core primary, is: = m sin t = m sin 2 ft According to law of EMI, the resulting induced EMF in a winding of N turns: d d e = N = N (m sin t )
dt ) = N m cos t = Nm sin (t / 2) dt

The peak value of the induced EMF is: Em = Nm

 The RMS value of the induced EMF E:

E = Em Nm 2 fN m = = = 4 .4 4 fN m 2 2 2

or

E = 4.44 fNm

This equation is known as EMF equation of transformer. f

 Effect of Frequency: q y
At a given flux, EMF of a transformer increases with frequency frequency. By operating at higher frequencies, transformers can be made physically more compact compact. Because a given core is able to transfer more power without reaching saturation. ih hi i Fewer turns are needed to achieve same impedance. At higher frequencies, core losses and skin effect increases, hence, it cannot be increased indefinitely. , , y E.g.: Aircraft and military equipments employ 400Hz power supplies which reduces size and weight weight.

Ideal Transformer
Has no losses and stores no energy. Has no physical existence but is useful in understanding working of actual transformer. g Conditions:
The permeability () of the core is infinite, (i.e., the magnetic circuit has zero reluctance so that no MMF is needed to set up the flux in the core). The core of the transformer has no losses. The resistance of its windings is zero, hence no I2R losses in the windings. windings Entire flux in the core links both the windings, i.e., there is no leakage flux. g

 Circuit Diagram:

The primary and secondary windings have zero impedance for ideal transformer. As reluctance of the magnetic circuit is zero the zero, required magnetizing current to produce is also zero. zero

 Phasor Diagram: We take flux as reference phasor, as it is common to p y y both the primary and secondary. V1 = -E1 and E2 = V2 EMF E1 and E2 lag flux by 90. g y EMF E1 in the primary exactly counter balances the applied voltage V1. Hence, E1 is called counter emf or back emf. EMF E2 is called mutually induced emf.

Transformation Ratio

Volt-Amperes Volt Amperes

Output power depends on cos2 (power factor of p p p (p secondary). As pf can change depending on the load,, the rating is not g p g g specified in watts or kilowatts. But is indicated as a product of voltage and current called VA RATING. For ideal transformer : V1 I1 = V2 I 2

V1 I 1 V2 I 2 kVA rating of a transformer = g f f = 1000 1000

I1

(full load)

kVA rating 1000 g = V1

kVA rating 1000 g I 2 (full load) = V2

 Wh is transformer rating in kVA? Why i t f ti i

Transformers are rated in VA, because the manufacturer does not know the power factor of the load which you are going to connect. So the customer should not exceed the VA rating of the transformer. In case of motors, the manufacturer knows exactly the power factor at full load. That is why motors are rated in kW.

Impedance Transformation
The concept of impedance transformation is used for impedance matching.

V1 V1 (V2 I 2 ) V1 I 2 V2 1 Z eq = = = = I1 I1 (V2 I 2 ) V2 I1 I 2 K

1 K

ZL

or

Zeq = ZL / K 2

Example 1: A single-phase, 50-Hz transformer p y y has 30 primary turns and 350 secondary turns. The net cross-sectional area of the core is 250 cm2. If the primary winding is connected to a 230-V, 50-Hz supply, calculate (a) the peak value of flux density in the core, (b) the voltage induced in the secondary winding, and (c) h ( ) the primary current when the secondary i h h d current is 100 A. (Neglect losses.)

Solution : (a) The peak value of the flux,

m =

E1 230 = = 0 034534 Wb 0.034534 4.44 fN1 4.44 50 30

Bm =

m
A

0.034534 = 1 3814 T 1.3814 4 250 10

( ) (b) The voltage induced in the secondary, g y, 350 N2 E2 = E1 = 230 = 2683.33 V 2.683 kV 30 N1 (c) The primary current,
N2 350 I1 = I 2 = 100 = 1166.67 A 1.167 kA 30 N1

Example 2: Determine the load current IL in the ac circuit shown:

Solution :

Transforming the load impedance into the primary:

300 Ip = = 0.87235.53 A 2 20 + j 20 + 2 (2 j10)

I L = 2 I p = 2 0.87235.53 = 1.7435.53 A

Practical Transformer at no Load

Let primary be connected to a sinusoidal alternating voltage V1. Let I0 be the no-load primary current (also called exciting current) i.e. i e is the resultant of two components:
Magnetizing current component (Im) due to effect of Magnetisation. Iron loss component (Iw) due to the effect of Core Losses. p (

 Effect of Magnetisation:
No magnetic material can have infinite permeability permeability. A finite mmf is needed to establish magnetic flux in the core. An in-phase magnetizing current Im in the primary is needed to set in phase up flux in the core. Im is purely reactive (current Im lags voltage V1 by 90). This effect is modeled by putting reactance X0 in parallel with the ideal transformer.

Effect of C ff f Core Losses :

There exist hysteresis and eddy current losses for the energy loss in the core core. The source must supply enough power to the primary to meet the core losses. These can be represented by putting a resistance R0 in parallel with the ideal transformer. The core-loss current Iw flowing through R0 is in phase with the applied voltage V1.

 Equivalent Circuit:

Ph Phasor Di Diagram:

 Angle 0is called no-load phase angle. From phasor diagram:

I0 = I + I ;
2 w 2 m

0 = tan ( I m / I w );
1

and Input power = Iron loss = V1 I w = V1 I 0 cos 0

The R0-X0 circuit is called exciting circuit.

a) Hysteresis Loss: When alternating current flows through the windings, the core material undergoes cyclic process of magnetization and demagnetization. It is found that there is a tendency of the fl densit B to l b hi d the field strength H It flux density lag behind H. is called hysteresis.
Total energy loss (per cubic metre) is represented by the area abcea of the hysteresis loop. The hysteresis loss (usually expressed in watts) is given as : n Ph = K h Bm f V

where: o Kh = hysteresis coefficient whose value depends upon the ( , material (Kh = 0.025 for cast steel, Kh = 0.001 for silicon steel) o Bm = maximum flux density (in tesla) o n = a constant, depending upon the material = Stein Metz's constant o f = frequency (in hertz) o V= volume of the core material (in m3) Remedy: This loss can be minimized by selecting suitable ferromagnetic material for the core (Cold Rolled Grain Oriented Steel-CRGOS).

b) Edd C Eddy-Current L t Losses: The eddy currents are the circulating currents set up in the core d t alternating magnetic fl due to lt ti ti flux. Th These currents may t be quite high since the resistance of the iron is quite low. This results in unnecessary heating of the core and loss of power. The eddy-current loss (in watts) is given by:
2 Pe = K e Bm f 2t 2V

where: o Ke = a constant dependent upon the material o t = thickness of laminations (in meters) Remedy: To reduce Eddy current losses laminated sheets of CRGO steel are used to make the transformer core core.

Laminations
The core of a transformer is usually laminated to reduce the eddy currents. These laminations may be different sections of E,I,T,F. They are stacked finally to get the complete core of the transformer. transformer

Types of transformers (based on construction)

Core Type Transformer
The windings surround a considerable part of the core. Both the windings are h h i di divided into two parts and half of each winding is placed on each limb, side by side. This is done to reduce the leakage of the magnetic flux.

 To minimize the cost of insulation, the low voltage (LV) winding is placed adjacent to the core and high voltage (HV) winding is placed around the LV winding. The flux has a single path. More space for insulation so preferred for high vo ges. voltages.

 Shell Type Transformer:

It has three limbs. B h the windings are placed on the central li b Both h i di l d h l limb. The flux divides equally in the central limb and returns through the outer two legs. Preferred for low voltages. g

A) Core type

B) Shell type

Shell-type construction

Transformer on Load
Before connecting the load, there exists a flux requiring current I0 in the primary. Secondary is connected to an impedance (or load). On connecting the load, a current I2 flows in the secondary. The magnitude and phase of I2 with respect to V2 depends upon the nature of the l d h f h load. The current I2 sets up a flux , which opposes the main flux . Hence, Hence it is called demagnetizing flux flux. This momentarily weakens , and back emf E1 gets reduced. Th diff The difference b t between th applied voltage and th b k emf V1 the li d lt d the back f - E1 increases and more current is drawn from supply. Thi again i This i increases E1 t b l to balance th applied voltage V1. the li d lt


I0 +I1

I2

V1

E1

N1

N2

E2

V2

 In this process, the primary current increases by I1. This current is known as primary balancing current, or load component of primary current. Under such a condition, the secondary ampere-turns must be counterbalanced by the primary ampere-turns ampere-turns.
N2 I = I 2 = KI 2 N1
' 1

N I = N2 I 2
' 1 1

The net primary current is the vector sum of no-load current and the balancing current.
' I1 = I 0 + I1

 Phasor Diagrams:
Resistive Load:
V1 = -E1 I1 I1

1 0
I0 Flux, I2

E1 E2= V2

 Inductive Load:
V1 = -E1 I1 I1

1 0
I0 O

2
I2 E1 E2 = V2

Flux,

 Capacitive Load:
V1 = -E1 I1 I1

0
I0 O Flux,

2
E1

I2

E2 = V2

Example 3: A single-phase, 230-V/110-V, 50p Hz transformer takes an input of 350 volt amperes at no load while working at rated voltage. voltage The core loss is 110 W Find W. (a) the no-load power factor, (b) the loss component of no-load current, and (c)the ( ) h magnetizing component of no-load i i f l d current.

Solution : (a) Given :

V1 I 0 = 350 VA VA 350 I0 = = = 1.52 A V1 230

Pi = V1 I 0 cos 0

The core loss = Input power at no load,

Pi 110 W pf = cos 0 = = = 0.314 V1 I 0 350 VA

(b) The loss component of no-load current,

I w = I 0 cos 0 = 1.52 0.314 = 0 478 A 1 52 0 314 0.478

(c) The magnetizing component of no-load current,
2 I m = I 02 I w = (1.52) 2 (0.478) 2 = 1.44 A

Example 4 A 100 kVA 4000 V/200 V 50 E l 4: 100-kVA, 4000-V/200-V, 50Hz, single-phase transformer has 100 secondary turns. Determine: (a) the i ( ) th primary and secondary currents, d d t (b) the number of primary turns, and (c) the maximum value of the flux.

Solution :
(a) The kVA rating = V1I1 = V2I2 = 100 kVA.
I1 = I2 = kVA rating 100 000 = = 25 A V1 4000 kVA rating 100 000 = = 500 A V2 200

(b)

Since

N1 V1 = N 2 V2 V 4000 N1 = 1 N 2 = 100 = 2000 200 V2

E2 = 4 44 f m N 2 4.44

(c)

E2 200 m = = 4.44 4 44 fN 2 4.44 50 100 4 44 = 9.01 mWb

Example 5: A single-phase, 440-V/110-V, 50single phase, 440 V/110 V, 50 Hz transformer takes a no-load current of 5 A at 0 2 power factor lagging If the secondary 0.2 lagging. supplies a current of 120 A at a power factor of 0.8 lagging 0 8 l i to a l d d load, determine the primary i h i current and the primary power factor. Also, draw the phasor diagram.

Solution:
0 = cos 1 0.2 = 78.46 and 2 = cos 1 0.8 = 36.87
V2 110 1 K= = = V1 440 4
' I1' = K I 2 = (1/ 4) 120 = 30 A; I1 = 30 36.87 A
' I1 = I1 + I 0 = 30 36.87 + 5 78.46 = 33.9 42.49 A

Primary power factor:

pf = cos 1 = cos 42.49 = 0.737 (lagging)

Practical Transformer on Load

We now consider the deviations from the last two ideality conditions : 1. The resistance of its windings is zero. 2. There is no leakage flux. All the flux produced by the primary links with the secondary. y p y y The effects of these deviations become more prominent when a practical transformer is put on load. load

 Effect of Winding Resistance

Current flow through the windings causes a power loss called I2R loss or copper loss loss. This effect is accounted for by including a resistance R1 i the primary and resistance R2 i i in h i d i in the secondary.

 Effect of Flux Leakage

The difference between the total flux linking with the primary and the useful mutual flux u linking with both the windings is called the primary leakage flux, L1. Similarly, L2 represents the secondary leakage flux. y p y g Flux leakage results in energy being alternately stored in and discharged from the magnetic fields with each cycle g g y of the power supply. It is not directly a power loss, but causes the secondary y p , y voltage to fail to be directly proportional to the primary voltage, particularly under heavy loads. The useful mutual flux u is responsible for the transformer action.

 The leakage flux L1 induces an emf EL1 in the primary winding. Similarly, Similarly flux L2 induces an emf EL2 in the secondary secondary. Hence, we include reactances X1 and X2 in the primary and secondary windings, in the equivalent circuit. y g, q The paths of leakage fluxes L1 and L2 are almost entirely due to the long air paths and are therefore practically constant. The reluctance of the paths being very high, L1 and L2 are relatively small even on full load. H However, th useful fl u remains almost i d the f l flux i l t independent of th d t f the load.

 Equivalent Circuit of a Transformer The equivalent circuit is merely a circuit representation of the equations that describe the behavior of the device.
V1 = I1 R1 + jI1 X 1 E1 = I1 ( R1 + jX 1 ) E1
E2 = I 2 R2 + jI 2 X 2 + V2 = I 2 ( R2 + jX 2 ) + V2

 Points to draw phasor diagram: p g

1. Resistive voltage drop in phase with current p aso . phasor. 2. Inductive voltage drop in quadrature with current. 3. To get V1, add I1Z1 to E1. 4. 4 Add V2 and I2Z2 , to get E2. 5. Current I1 is vector sum of I0 and I1. 6. 6 Angle between V1 and I1 gives the power factor angle of the transformer 1. 7. 7 Relation between V2 and I2 depends on the load load. 8. I1 and I2 are in inverse proportion to the number of turns in primary and secondary secondary.

Phas Di sor iagram msfor: P Practic calTra ansfor rmero on R Resisti iveLo oad

I2R2 V1 V2 I2 I2Z2 I1Z1 O I1X1

I2X2 E2

-E1

E1 I0

I1R1 I1' I1

P Practic calTra ansformeron In nducti iveLo oad

P Practic calTra ansfor rmero on Ca apacit tive Lo oad

 Simplified equivalent circuit: p q

The no-load current I0 is only about 3-5 % percent of the full-load current so not much error will be full load current, introduced if exciting circuit R0-X0 in is shifted to the left of impedance R1-X1. X

1. 1 Referred to primary side:

using impedance transformation, we get:

Equivalent resistance and reactance referred to the primary side: id

Re1 = R1 + ( R2 / K 2 )

and

X e1 = X 1 + ( X 2 / K 2 )

Approximate equivalent circuit referred to primary side: i id

2. Referred to secondary side:

Example 6: A single-phase, 50-kVA, 4400-V/220-V, 50-Hz 50 Hz transformer has R1 = 3 45 R2 = 0 009 X1 = 3.45 , 0.009 , 5.2 and X2 = 0.015 . Calculate (a) the ( ) th Re as referred t th primary, f d to the i (b) the Re as referred to the secondary, (c) the Xe as referred to the primary, ( ) (d) the Xe as referred to the secondary, y, (e) the Ze as referred to the primary, (f) the Ze as referred to the secondary and secondary, (g) the total copper loss.

Solution : Full-load primary current:

I1 =

Full load Full-load secondary current:

kVA 50 000 = = 11.36 A V1 4400

kVA 50 000 I2 = = = 227 27 A 227.27 V2 220

Transformer ratio:
V2 220 1 K= = = = 0.05 V1 4400 20

(a) Re1 = R1 + ( R2 / K 2 ) = 3.45 + [0.009 /(0.05)2 ] = 7.05 1 Re2 = K 2 R1 + R2 = (0.05) 2 3.45 + 0.009 = 0.0176 (b) X e1 = X 1 + ( X 2 / K 2 ) = 5.2 + [0.015 /(0.05) 2 ] = 11.2 (c) X e2 = K 2 X 1 + X 2 = (0.05) 2 5.2 + 0.015 = 0.028 ( ) (d) Z = R + X = (7.05) + (11.2) = 13.23 (e) 2 2 Z e2 = Re2 + X e2 = (0.0176) 2 + (0.028) 2 = 0.0331 (f) (g) Total copper loss:
e1 2 e1 2 e1 2 2

2 = I12 R1 + I 2 R2 = (11.36) 2 3.45 + (227) 2 0.009 = 909 W

Alternatively, b considering equivalent resistances, t t l Alt ti l by id i i l t it total copper loss: = I12 Re1 = (11 36) 2 7.05 = 909 8 W (11.36) 7 05 909.8
2 = I 2 Re2 = (227.27) 2 0.0176 = 909 W

Voltage Regulation of transformer

The voltage regulation of a transformer is defined as the change in its secondary terminal voltage from no load to full load, the primary voltage being assumed constant. g g V2(0) = secondary terminal voltage at no load and V2 = secondary terminal voltage at full load. The voltage drop V2(0)-V2 is called the inherent g regulation.

(i ) Per unit regulation down =

% regulation down =

V2(0) V2 V2(0)
100

V2(0) V2 V2(0)

(ii ) Per unit regulation up =

% regulation up =

V2(0) V2 V2
100

V2(0) V2 V2

Normally, when nothing is specified, regulation means regulation down.

 Approximate Voltage Drop:

The secondary terminal voltage at no load:
V2 ( 0 ) = E 2 = KE1 = KV1

Exact voltage drop:

V2(0) V2 = OC OA = OG OA = AG = AF FG AF+FG

Approximate voltage drop, AF = AE + EF = AE + BD A i l d = I 2 Re2 cos + I 2 X e2 sin

-For leading power factor:

Approximate voltage drop, AF = AE EF = AE BD = I 2 Re2 cos I 2 X e2 sin

-In general: l

Approximate voltage drop = I 2 Re2 cos I 2 X e2 sin

I 2 Re 2 cos I 2 X e 2 sin % R l ti = Regulation 100 V2(0) = Vr cos Vx sin

Use + sign for lagging power factor and for leading power factor.

sign

Condition for zero regulation:

Possible only if the load has leading power factor.

I 2 Re 2 cos I 2 X e 2 sin = 0

Re 2 tan = X e2

 Note that for leading power factor if the factor, magnitude of the phase angle is high, we may h have

I 2 X e2 sin > I 2 Re2 cos i

The regulation then becomes negative. It means that on increasing the load, the terminal voltage i t i l lt increases.

 The complete variation of % variation with pf is: p p

% Reg O O O

< leading pf

O
lagging pf l i f

% regulation is zero at leading pf. At zero pf the % regulation is positive.

 C di i f M i Condition for Maximum R Regulation: l i Maximum regulation can occur only for u egu o c occu o y o lagging pf (inductive load) . The voltage drop is maximum when:

d ( I 2 Re 2 cos + I 2 X e 2 sin ) = 0 i d

( I 2 Re 2 sin + I 2 X e 2 cos ) = 0
X e2 tan = Re 2

Example 7 :

Solution:

Example 8:

Solution:

th l d voltage, V2 = 240 6 = 234 V the load lt

Example 9: A single-phase, 40-kVA, 6600V/250-V, transformer h primary and secondary V/250 V t f has i d d resistances R1 = 10 and R2 = 0.02 , respectively. The equivalent leakage reactance as referred to the primary is 35 . Find the full-load e e ed o e p y s . d e u o d regulation for the load power factor of (a) i ( ) unity, ( ) (b) 0.8 lagging, and gg g, (c) 0.8 leading.

Solution : Given : R1 = 10 ; R2 = 0.02 ; Xe1 = 35

250 the turns-ratio, K = = 0.0379 6600 40 000 = 160 A the full-load current, I 2 = 250

Re2 = K 2 R1 + R2 = (0.0379) 2 10 + 0.02 = 0.0343

and X e2 = K 2 X e1 = (0.0379) 2 35 = 0.0502

(a) F ( ) For power f t cos = 1 sin = 0 Hence, factor, 1; i 0. H

% Regulation = R l ti I 2 Re 2 cos + I 2 X e 2 sin 100 V2(0)

160 0.0343 1 + 0 = 100 = 2.195 % 250

(b) For power factor, cos = 0.8 (lagging, positive):

sin = 1 cos 2 = 0.6

I 2 Re2 cos + I 2 X e2 sin 100 % Regulation = V2(0) 160 0.0343 0.8 + 160 0.0502 0.6 = 100 = 3.68 % 250

(c) For power factor, cos = 0.8 (leading, negative):

sin = 0 6 0.6
I 2 Re2 cos I 2 X e2 sin 100 % Regulation = V2(0) = 160 0.0343 0.8 160 0.0502 0.6 100 = 0.172 % 250

Efficiency of a transformer
Like any other machine, the efficiency of a transformer is defined as:
=
Po Power output Power output = = p Power output +Power loss Po + Pl p Power input
Power lost

Input power

Output p power

Ideal transformer is 100% efficient. Large-size transformers are designed to be more efficient ( > 98 %) B t the efficiency of small transformers ( d in power adapters But, th ffi i f ll t f (used i d t for charging mobile phones) is not more than 85 %.

 Power losses in transformer: 1. Copper losses or I2R losses : I the primary and secondary windings, given as: In h i d d i di i
2 2 Pc = I12 R1 + I 2 R2 = I12 Re1 = I 2 Re 2

The copper losses are variable with current (square of current). Pc I2 Copper losses for a given load (and hence for given pp g ( g VA) can be calculated as (assuming voltage to be constant):
VA Pc = Pc (FL) VA FL
2

2. Iron losses or core losses :

Due to hysteresis and eddy-currents. Given by: Pi = Ph + Pe Since the flux m does not vary more than about 2 % between no load and full load, it is usual to assume the core losses constant at all loads.

The efficiency of a transformer can thus be written as:

Po Po V2 I 2 cos 2 = = = 2 Po + Pl Po + Pc + Pi V2 I 2 cos 2 + I 2 Re 2 + Pi

 C di i Conditions f maximum efficiency: for i ffi i

Assuming the operation at a constant voltage and a constant power factor, for what load (i.e., what value of I2) the efficiency becomes maximum ? L us fi di id the numerator and d Let first divide h d denominator b I2, to i by get V2 cos 2 = V2 cos 2 + I 2 Re2 + Pi / I 2 Th efficiency will b maximum when th d The ffi i ill be i h the denominator of i t f the above equation is minimum:
d (V2 cos 2 + I 2 Re2 + Pi / I 2 ) = 0 dI 2 or
2 I 2 Re2 = Pi

or Pc = Pi

Pi Re2 2 = 0 I2

or

 Thus the efficiency at a given terminal voltage and Thus, load power factor is maximum when the variable losses (copper losses) equal to the constant losses (iron losses).
Max.efficiencywhenCopperloss=Ironloss

 All day Efficiency: All-day

The efficiency defined above is called commercial efficiency. efficiency In a distribution transformer, the primary remains energized all th ti i d ll the time. B t th l d on th secondary i But the load the d is intermittent and variable during the day. Th core l The losses occur th throughout th d h t the day, b t th but the copper losses occur only when the transformer is loaded. loaded Such transformers, therefore, are designed to have minimum core losses This gives them better all day losses. all-day efficiency, defined below.
all-day
Output O t t energy (in kW h) in a cycle of 24 h (i i l f hours = Total input energy (in kW h)

Example 10: For a single phase 50 Hz 150 kVA single-phase, 50-Hz, 150-kVA transformer, the required no-load voltage ratio is 5000-V/250-V d the full-load 5000 V/250 V and th f ll l d copper l losses are 1800 W and core losses are 1500 W. Find (a) the number of turns in each winding for a maximum core flux of 0.06 Wb, , (b) the efficiency at half rated kVA, and unity power factor factor, (c) the efficiency at full load, and 0.8 power factor lagging, and ( ) (d) the kVA load for maximum efficiency. y

Solution: (a) Using the emf equation, we have: S l i

E2 = 4.44 fN 2 m N2 = E2 250 = = 18.8(say, 19 turns) 4.44 f m 4.44 50 0.06

and

(b) At half rated-kVA, the current is half the full-load current, and hence the output power too reduces by 0.5. Thus:
Po = 0.5 (kVA) (power factor) = 0.5 150 1 = 75 kW
Pc = (0.5) 2 (full-load copper loss) = (0.5)2 1800 W = 0.45 kW
Iron losses (fixed) Pi = 1500 W = 1.5 kW (fixed), 15

E1 5000 N1 = N2 = 19 = 380 turns E2 250

Po 75 = 100 = 100 = 97.47 % Po + Pc + Pi 75 + 0.45 + 1.5

(c) At full load and 0.8 power factor:

Po = (kVA) (power factor) = 150 0.8 = 120 kW Pc = 1800 W = 1 8 kW; and Pi = 1500 W = 1.5 kW 1.8 15 Po 120 = 100 = 100 = 97.3 % 120 + 1.8 + 1.5 Po + Pc + Pi 0 .8 .5
(d) Let x be the fraction of full-load kVA at which the efficiency becomes maximum

Pc = Pi

or

x 2 1800 = 1500

x = 1500 /1800 = 0.913

Therefore, Therefore the load kVA under the condition of maximum efficiency efficiency,

= (Full-load kVA) x = 150 0.913 = 137 kVA ( )

Example E ample 11: F a single-phase, 200 kVA For i l h 200-kVA, distribution transformer has full-load copper losses of 3.02 kW and iron losses of 1.6 kW. It g has following load distribution over a 24-hour day : (i) 80 kW at unity power factor for 6 hours factor, hours. (ii) 160 kW at 0.8 power factor (lagging), for 8 hours. (iii) No load for the remaining 10 hours load, hours. Determine its all-day efficiency.

Solution: (i) For 80 kW load at unity power factor (for 6 hours) : h ) Output energy = 80 6 = 480 kW h
Po 80 kVA = = = 80 kVA 1 pf
kVA 80 Pc = Pc(FL) = (3.02) = 0.4832 kW 200 kVA FL
2 2

Iron losses, Pi = 1.6 kW Total losses, Pl = Pc + Pi = 0.4832 kW + 1.6 kW = 2.0832 kW

Total energy losses in 6 hours = 2.0832 6 = 12.50 kWh

(ii) For 160-kW load at 0.8 power factor (for 8 F 160 kW l d 0 8 f (f hours) :
Output energy = 160 8 = 1280 kW h
Po 160 kVA = = = 200 kVA = kVA FL pf 0 8 0.8

Copper losses, Pc = Pc(FL) = 3.02 kW

Iron losses, Pi = 1.6 kW Total losses Pl = Pc + Pi = 3 02 kW + 1 6 kW = 4 62 kW losses, 3.02 1.6 4.62

Total energy losses in 8 hours = 4.62 8 = 36.96 kW h

(iii) For h ( ) F the no-load period of 10 hours : l d i d f h

Output energy p gy Copper losses, Iron l I losses, Total losses, Po = 0 Pc = 0 Pi = 1 6 kW 1.6 Pl = Pc + Pi = 0 + 1.6 = 1.6 kW

Total energy losses in 10 hours = 1.6 10 = 16 kW h

Thus, for 24-hour period :

Total output energy, Wo = 480 + 1280 = 1760 kW h Total energy losses, Wl = 12.50 + 36.96 +16 = 65.46 kW h
A ll-d ay efficien cy, y y, Wo 1760 all-d ay = 100 = 1 0 0 = 9 6 .4 1 % Wo + Wl 1 7 6 0 + 6 5 .4 6

Autotransformers
It is a special transformer that is useful in power systems, motor starters, variable ac sources, etc. It h a part of it winding common t th primary has t f its i di to the i and secondary circuits.

 Types:

(a)Stepdown ( )St d

(b)Stepup (b)St

The portion YZ of the winding is called common winding. The portion XY is called series winding. I variacs (variable autotransformers) point Y i In i i bl f ), i is made a sliding contact so as to give a variable output voltage.

 Saving of Copper:
For the same voltage ratio and capacity (voltampere rating) an autotransformer needs much rating), less copper compared to a two-winding transformer. transformer The cross-sectional area of a conductor is proportional t th current carried b it and it ti l to the t i d by it, d its length is proportional to the number of turns. Therefore, Th f

Weight of copper NI = kNI

 For a two-winding transformer :

Weight of copper in p g pp primary = kN1 I1 y Weight of copper in secondary = kN 2 I 2 Total weight of copper = k ( N1 I1 + N 2 I 2 )
For a step-up autotransformer :
Weight of copper in portion XY = k ( N1 N 2 ) I1 Weight of copper in portion YZ = kN 2 ( I 2 I1 ) Total weight of copper = k ( N1 N 2 ) I1 + kN 2 ( I 2 I1 ) = k[( N1 2 N 2 ) I1 + N 2 I 2 ]

 Therefore, the ratio of copper- weights for the two pp g cases is:
N 2 I1 N 2 1 2 + N1 I 2 N1 [1 2 K ]K + K k[( N1 2 N 2 ) I1 + N 2 I 2 ] = = = 1 K k ( N1 I1 + N 2 I 2 ) K+K I1 N 2 + I 2 N1

Evidently the saving is large if K is close to unity Evidently, unity. A unity transformation ratio means that no copper is i needed at all f the autotransformer. d d ll for h f The winding can be removed all together. g g The volt-amperes are conductively transformed directly to the load !

 Advantages of Autotransformers:
A saving in cost since less copper is needed. Less volume, hence less weight. A higher efficiency, resulting from lower I2R g y, g losses. A continuously variable output voltage is achievable if a sliding contact is used. A smaller percentage voltage regulation regulation. Higher VA Rating.

 Disadvantages of Autotransformers:
The primary and secondary windings are not electrically separate hence if an open circuit occurs separate, open-circuit in the secondary winding the full primary voltage appears across the secondary secondary. Low impedance hence high short circuit currents for short circuits on secondary side in a two winding two-winding transformer. No l t i l N electrical separation b t ti between primary and i d secondary which is risky in case of high voltage levels. levels Economical only when the voltage ratio is less than 2.

 Applications of Autotransformers:
Power Systems: Boosting or buckling of supply voltage by a small amount amount. Motor Starters: Starting of ac machines, where the voltage is raised in two or more steps steps. Variable ac sources: Continuously varying ac supply as in variacs variacs.

Transformer Testing
There are two simple tests to determine the equivalent-circuit parameters and its efficiency and regulation: Open-circuit test (OC Test) p ( ) Short-circuit test (SC Test) Advantage of these tests is without actually loading the transformers, we can d t th t f determine th L i the Losses and d Regulation, for full-load.

 Open Circ it Test: Circuit

This test determines the no-load current and the parameters of the exciting circuit of the t f th iti i it f th transformer. G Generally, the low voltage (LV) side is supplied ll th l lt id i li d rated voltage through a variac. Th high voltage (HV) side is left open. The hi h lt id i l ft
OpenCircuit

 The I2R loss on no load is negligibly small compared with the core loss. Hence the wattmeter reading, Wo, can be assumed to give the core loss of the transformer. Calculations:
Pi = Wo ; Wo Iw = ; V1 V1 R0 = ; Iw I0 = Io ; V2 K= V1

2 I m = I 02 I w ;

V1 X0 = Im

 Short Circuit Test: Short-Circuit

This test determines the equivalent resistance and leakage reactance. reactance Generally, the LV side of the transformer is short-circuited through a suitable ammeter A2. A low voltage is applied to the primary (HV) side. This voltage is adjusted with the help of a variac so as to circulate full-load currents in the primary and secondary circuits.
ShortCircuit

 The reading of ammeter A1, Isc, gives the full-load g g current in the primary winding. Since the applied voltage (and hence the flux) is small, the core loss is negligibly small. Hence the wattmeter reading Wsc, gives the Hence, reading, copper loss (Pc). C l l i Calculations:

Wsc Re1 = 2 ; I sc

Vsc Z e1 = ; I sc

2 2 X e1 = Z e1 Re1

Example 12 A single-phase, 50 H 12 kVA 200 E l 12: i l h 50-Hz, 12-kVA, 200V/400-V transformer gives the following test results : (i) Open-circuit test (with HV winding open) : 200 V, 1.3 A, 120 W (ii) Short-circuit test (with LV winding shortcircuited) : 22 V, 30 A, 200 W Calculate : ( ) (a) the magnetizing current and the core-loss current, g g , and (b) the parameters of equivalent circuit as referred to the low voltage winding.

Solution :
(a) The wattmeter reading, 120 W, in the open-circuit test gives the core losses. Therefore, the core-loss current is given as

Wo 120 W Iw = = = 0.6 A V1 200 V

2 I m = I 02 I w = (1.3) 2 (0.6) 2 = 1.15 A

(b) The parameters of the exciting circuit are given by the open-circuit p g g y p test, as

V1 200 V = = 333 and I w 0.6 A V2 200 V 1 Now, K = = = and V1 400 V 2 R0 =

X0 =

V1 200 V = = 174 I m 1.15 A

I FL

12 kVA = = 30 A 400 V

This confirms that the short-circuit test has been done at the rated fullload .

Wsc 200 W Re1 = 2 = = 0.222 2 I sc (30 A)

and

Vsc 22 V Z e1 = = = 0.733 I sc 30 A

The equivalent resistance and reactance as referred to the secondary side (low voltage winding):

1 Re2 = K Re1 = 0 222 = 0 055 0.222 0.055 2

2

and d

1 X e2 = K X e1 = 0 699 = 0 175 0.699 0.175 2

2