CM121A, Abstract Algebra

Solution Sheet 6

1. Suppose that G is a group and g G. Prove that g and g 1 have the same order. Solution: Suppose rst that g has nite order n. So n is the least positive integer n such that g n = e. We have to show that n is also the least positive integer such that (g 1 )n = e. We will show that if k is any integer, then g k = e if and only if (g 1 )k = e. Since (g 1 )k = g k = (g k )1 , and (g k )1 = e if and only if g k = e1 = e, it follows that g k = e if and only if (g 1 )k = e. It follows that if g has order n, then so does g 1 . Moreover if g has innite order, then there is no positive integer k such that g k = e, so there is no positive integer k such that (g 1 )k = e, and therefore g 1 also has innite order. 2. Find the order of every element of each of the following groups: (a) Z8 under addition; Solution: [0] has order 1 since 1[0] = [0] (just writing [a] for [a]8 ). [1] has order 8 (n[1] = [n] = [0] if 0 < n < 8, but 8[1] = [0]). Similarly, [2] has order 4; [3] has order 8; [4] has order 2; [5] has order 8 (note that for n = 1, 2, . . . , 8, the multiples n[5] = [5n] are [5], [2], [7], [4], [1], [6], [3], [0]); [6] has order 4; [7] has order 8. (b) Z under multiplication; 15 Solution: Recall that Z = {[1], [2], [4], [7], [8], [11], [13], [14]}. 15 [1] has order 1 (now writing [a] for [a]15 ). [2] has order 4 (for n = 1, 2, . . . , 4, the powers [2]n = [2n ] are [2], [4], [8], [1]). Similarly, [4] has order 2; [7] has order 4; [8] has order 4; [11] has order 2; [13] has order 4; [14] has order 2. (c) D4 . Solution: Recall that D4 has 4 rotation elements (counting the identity e) and 4 reections. Writing for clockwise rotation by 90 , we have e has order 1; has order 4; 2 has order 2; 3 has order 4; every reection has order 2.

3. Express each of the following elements of S5 in cycle notation and nd its order. 1 2 3 4 5 (a) = ; 2 1 4 5 3 Solution: We have = (12)(345), which has order 6 since its powers are 2 = (354), 3 = (12), 4 = (345), 5 = (12)(354) and 6 = e. (b) = 1 2 3 4 5 . 2 4 3 5 1 Solution: We have = (1245), which has order 4 since it is a 4-cycle (or by computing its powers 2 = (14)(25), 3 = (1542), 4 = e).

4. Which of the following are subgroups of the indicated group? (a) The subset {1, 2, 4, 8, 16, . . .} of R under multiplication. Solution: No. The inverse of 2 is 1/2, which is not in the subset. (b) The subset {[0], [3], [6], [9]} of Z12 under +. Solution: Yes. The identity element [0] is in the subset, and the following table shows that if [a] and [b] are in the subset, then so is [a] + [b]: + [0] [3] [6] [9] [0] [0] [3] [6] [9] [3] [3] [6] [9] [0] [6] [6] [9] [0] [3] [9] [9] [0] [3] [6] Finally note that if [a] is in the subset, then so is [a] (since [0] are their own iverses, and [3] and [9] are inverses of each other). (c) The subset {[1], [3], [9]} of Z under . 13 Solution: Yes. The identity element [1] is in the subset, and the following table shows that if [a] and [b] are in the subset, then so is [a][b]: + [1] [3] [9] [1] [1] [3] [9] [3] [3] [9] [1] [9] [9] [1] [3] Finally note that [1] is its own inverse, and [3] and [9] are inverses of each other. (d) The subset {[1], [2], [4], [8]} of Z under . 13 Solution: No. For example, [2] and [8] are in the subset, but [2][8] = [3] is not. (e) The subset a a, b Z, b odd of Q under +. b Solution: Yes. 1) If a and a are in the subset, then so is a + a = b b b b ab +ba 0 . 2) The identity 0 = 1 is in the subset. 3) If a is in the bb b subset, then so is its additive inverse a . b (f) The subset {e, 2 , 4 } of D4 , where 2 and 4 are the reections in diagonal axes. Solution: No, since 2 4 is a 180 rotation, which is not in the subset.

(g) The subset

a b 0 1

a R , b R

of GL2 (R). a 0 b 1 are in the

Solution: Yes. 1) If A = subset, then so is AA = 2) The identity I = 3) If A = a b 0 1 1 0 0 1

a b and A = 0 1 aa ab + b . 0 1 is in the subset.

is in the subset, then so is A1 =

a1 0

ba1 1

5. Recall that if z = x + iy is a complex number, then the modulus (or absolute value) of z is |z| = x2 + y 2 . (a) Prove that if z1 , z2 C, then |z1 z2 | = |z1 ||z2 |. Solution: If z1 = x1 +iy1 and z2 = x2 +iy2 , then |z1 z2 | is the square root of (x1 x2 y1 y2 )2 + (x1 y1 + x2 y2 )2 = =
2 2 2 2 x2 x2 + y1 y2 + x2 y1 + x2 y2 1 2 1 2 . 2 2 2 2 (x1 + y1 )(x2 + y2 )

2 2 Therefore |z1 z2 | = (x2 + y1 )1/2 (x2 + y2 )1/2 = |z1 ||z2 |. 1 2

(b) Prove that { z C | |z| = 1 } is a subgroup of C . Solution: 1) If z1 and z2 are in the subset, then |z1 | = |z2 | = 1, so |z1 z2 | = |z1 ||z2 | = 1 (by part (a)). It follows that z1 z2 is in the subset. 2) The identity 1 = 1 + i 0 is in the subset since |1| = 1. 3) If |z| = 1, then |z||z 1 | = |zz 1 | = |1| by (a). Therefore |z 1 | = 1 and z 1 is in the subset. 6. Suppose that H and K are subgroups of a group G. (a) Show that H K is also a subgroup of G. Solution: 1) Suppose that g, g H K. Then g, g H gg H (since H is a subgroup), and g, g H gg K (since K is a subgroup), so gg H K. 2) e H and e K since H and K are subgroups, so e H K. 3) Suppose that g H K. Then g H g 1 H and g K g 1 K (since H and K are subgroups), so g 1 H K. Therefore H K is a subgroup. (b) Given an example to show that H K need not be. Solution: Let G = D4 , H = {e, 2 }, K = {e, 4 } (in the notation of Exercise 1f) above). Then H and K are subgroups of G, but H K = {e, 2 , 4 } is not.

7. Suppose that H is a subgroup of a group G, and g is an element of G. Prove that the following subset of G { ghg 1 | h H } (denoted gHg 1 ) is a subgroup of G. Solution: 1) Suppose that k and k are elements of gHg 1 . This means that k = ghg 1 and k = gh g 1 for some h, h H. Therefore kk = (ghg 1 )(gh g 1 ) = gh(g 1 g)h g 1 = ghh g 1 , which is in gHg 1 since hh H (as H is a subgroup of G). 2) Since e H, we have e = gg 1 = geg 1 gHg 1 . 3) Let k = ghg 1 be an element of gHg 1 (with h H, so h1 H). Then k 1 = (ghg 1 )1 = (g 1 )1 h1 g 1 = gh1 g 1 gHg 1 . Therefore gHg 1 is a subgroup of G. 8. Let H be a non-empty subset of a group G. (a) Suppose that H has the property that if g, h H, then gh1 H. Prove that H is a subgroup of G. Solution: Let g be any element of H. Then applying the property with g = h gives e = gg 1 H. So we can apply the property as well with e in place of g, giving g 1 = eg 1 H. Finally if g and h are any elements of H, then we now know that h1 H, so we can apply the property with h1 in place of h, giving gh = g(h1 )1 H. (b) Suppose that G is nite, and H has the property that if g, h H, then gh H. Prove that H is a subgroup of G. Solution: Let h be any element of H. Then hn H for every positive integer n. (This is clear by induction on n. For n = 1 it is obvious. If n > 1 and hn1 H, then hn = hhn1 H as well.) By Cor. 4.6.5, h has nite order, so hd = e for some positive integer d. Therefore e H. Furthermore, h1 = hd1 H. Therefore H is a subgroup of G.