Chapter 4 Geometric Modelling

CAD/CAM Principles and Applications
Ch 4 Geometric Modelling
CAD/CAM Principles and Applications by P N Rao, 2nd Ed
Objectives
Understand the various requirements for the information that is generated during the geometric modeling stage. Study various types of geometric models possible and their applications Develop various methodologies used for geometric construction such as sweep, surface models, solid models, etc. Recognize the various types of surfaces and their application as used in geometric modelling Appreciate the concept of parametric modeling which is the current mainstay of most of the 3D modeling systems Develop the various mathematical representations of the curves used in the geometric construction Discuss the various CAD system requirements that need to be considered while selecting a system for a given application Understand the concept of rapid prototyping and the various methods available for the purpose.
4.1 Requirements of Geometric Modelling
Fig. 4.1
Total product cycle in a
manufacturing environment
Geometric Modelling
Ideas
Design Analysis
Production
Functions of Geometric Modelling

Design analysis:
Evaluation of areas and volumes. Evaluation of mass and inertia properties. Interference checking in assemblies. Analysis of tolerance build-up in assemblies. Analysis of kinematics mechanics, robotics. Automatic mesh generation for finite element analysis.

Drafting
Automatic planar cross sectioning. Automatic hidden line and surface removal. Automatic production of shaded images. Automatic dimensioning. Automatic creation of exploded views for technical illustrations.
CAD/CAM Principles and Applications by P N Rao, 2nd Ed 6

Manufacturing
Parts classification. Process planning. Numerical control data generation and verification. Robot program generation.

Production Engineering
Bill of materials. Material requirement. Manufacturing resource requirement. Scheduling.
Inspection and Quality Control:

Program generation for inspection machines. Comparison of produced part with design.
Requicha and Voelker [1981] specified the following properties to be desired of in any geometric modelling (solids) system.
The configuration of solid (geometric model) must stay invariant with regard to its location and orientation. The solid must have an interior and must not have isolated parts. The solid must be finite and occupy only a finite shape. The application of a transformation or other operation that adds or removes parts must produce another solid. The model of the solid in E3 (Euler space) may contain infinite number of points. However, it must have a finite number of surfaces, which can be described. The boundary of the solid must uniquely identify which part of the solid is exterior and which is interior.
4.2
Geometric Models
Two-dimensional, and Three-dimensional. The three principal classifications can be

The line model, The surface model, and The solid or volume model
Fig. 4.2 3D geometric representation techniques

P2 P1 P10 S6 P4 P9 P11 P12 P8 P5 S1 S7 S2 P3 S5 S4 S3 S8
P6 P7
(a) LINE MODEL
(b) SURFACE MODEL
V1 V2
(c) VOLUME MODEL
11
Fig. 4.3 A geometric model represented in wire-frame model
12
Fig. 4.4 Ambiguities present in the wire-frame model
13
Fig. 4.5 Impossible objects that can be modelled using a wire-frame model
14
Fig. 4.6 Generation of 3D geometry using planar surfaces

S5
S3 S6 S6
S5 S4
S8
S8
S3 S1 S7 S2 S4
S1 S7
S2
(b) SURFACE MODEL
15
4.3 Geometric Construction Methods

The three-dimensional geometric construction methods which extend from the 2D that is normally used are:
Linear extrusion or translational sweep, and Rotational sweep.
16
Fig. 4.8
Component model produced using
translational (linear) sweep (extrusion)
17
Fig. 4.9
translational (linear) sweep with taper in sweep direction
18
Fig. 4.10
Component model produced using linear
sweep with the sweep direction along a 3D curve
19
Fig. 4.11
translational (linear) sweep with an overhanging edge
20
Fig. 4.12 Component produced by the rotational sweep technique
21
Fig. 4.13 Various solid modelling primitives
22
Fig. 4.14 The Boolean operators and their effect on model construction
23
Fig. 4.15 The Boolean operators and their effect on model construction
24
Fig. 4.16 Creating a solid with the 3D primitives in solid modelling and the model shown in the form of Constructive Solid Geometry (CSG)
25
Fig. 4.17 Model generated using the sculptured surfaces (Image

appears with the permission of IBM World Trade Corporation/Dassault Systems - Model generated using CATIA)
26
Fig. 4.18 The various types of surfaces used in geometric modelling

Classification of Surfaces Planar surfaces Plane Curved surfaces Single curved Double curved Free form surfaces Coons surface
Polygon Polyhedra
Cylinders Cones
Spheres Ellipsoids Paraboloid Torus
B-spline Bezier surface NURBS Fractals
Ruled surfaces
Lofted surfaces
27
Fig. 4.19
Ruled surface on the left is shown the curves
from which the ruled surface on the right is formed.
28
Fig. 4.20 Coons surface generation
29
Fig. 4.21 The Bzier curve and the associated control polygon
Y
Control points
Control Polygon
Curve
O
X
30
Fig. 4.22 The various examples of Bzier curves depending on the associated control polygons
p2 p1 p3 p0 p0 p1 p1 p3 p2
p3 p0 p2
31
Fig. 4.23 The modification of Bezier curve by tweaking the control points
Y
Control points
Control Polygon
Control points
Control Polygon
Curve
Curve
32
Fig. 4.24 The spline curve
Y
Control points
Control Polygon Curve
O
X
33
Fig. 4.25 The lofted surface
34
Fig. 4.26 Example of filleting or blend method for model generation
35
Fig. 4.27 Example of tweaking method for surface modification ((Image appears with the permission of IBM World Trade
Corporation/Dassault Systems - Model generated using CATIA))
36
4.4 Constraint Based Modelling
37
Fig. 4.28 Example of initial sketch without any dimensions
38
Fig. 4.29 The sketch shown above which is fully constrained and dimensioned
39
Fig. 4.30 The sketch in Fig. 4.29 when swept along a linear path produces the solid
40
Fig. 4.31 The sketch for the new feature (a cut)
41
Fig. 4.32 The solid after executing an extruded cut of the geometry in Fig. 4.31
42
Fig. 4.33 The final solid
43
Fig. 4.34 The model tree of the part showing the modelling process
44
Fig. 4.35 A geometric model created following the sequence of features as Box Hole Shell
45
Fig. 4.36 A geometric model created following the sequence of features as Box Shell Hole
46
Fig. 4.37 Feature based model and its modified form

Base feature Holes - 3 Slots - 2
(A) Original model
Base feature Holes - 5
Slots - 2
(B) Modified model

Fig. 4.38 Typical drawing for the variant method of modelling
48
Fig. 4.39 Part model produced using the symbolic programming

T C R G N COMPOSED PART SYMBOL KEYS G
KEY SEQUENCE
49
Fig. 4.40 Examples of form elements used for model generation in the case of axi-symmetric components
Thread Arc Groove Taper Turn Fillet Knurl Chamfer Face
Blank
50
Fig. 4.41 Examples of form features for modelling axi-symmetric components with milled features
Turn
Taper
Face
Fillet
Chamfer
Groove
Thread
Knurl
Step
Axial hole
Keyway
Radial hole
Splines
Axial slot
Concentric slot
Radial slot
51
Fig. 4.42 Example component modelled using the features shown in Fig. 4.41
3.2 Straight Knurl Pitch 1mm 1.6 M36x1
All chamfers 1x45
45
60
90 42
-0.015 -0.040
0.01 A
R1.5
32 75 187
+ 0.50 0.75
42 76
52
Fig. 4.43 Example component modelled using the features shown in Fig. 4.41
Chamfer 2X2 @45 10 dia 4 holes M8X1 LHT
12.5
2X2 Groove
75
50
25
Chamfer angle 45 12.5 25 80
4 holes on pcd 37.5
Sectional Elevation
End view
53
4.6 Curve representation

Implicit form, and Parametric form. In parametric form, the curve is represented as X = x(t) Y = y(t) Z = z(t)
Fig. 4.44 Circle

Y
(X, Y)
55
Fig. 4.45 Ellipse

Y
x y + 2 =1 2 a b
(X, Y) b
a X
56
Fig. 4.46 Parametric curve representation in Cartesian space

p3 z y u x p0
p2 p1
Fig. 4.47 Two cubic Bzier curves joined at p3

p2 p1 u p0 z y p6 x p5 p3 p4
58
4.7 Surface Representation Methods
59
Fig. 4.48 Typical surface display with the parametric variables u and v
v u y
x
Fig. 4.49 A bi-cubic Bzier surface patch

p(0,v), u=0 curve p12 p22 v p14=p(0,1) p(u,1), v=1 curve p13 p23 p24 p21 p33 p44=p(1,1) p21 p11=p(0,0) u p32 p31 p42 p43
z y
p(1,v), u=1 curve
p(u,0), v=0 curve
x
p41=p(1,0)
61
4.8 Modelling Facilities Desired

The geometric modelling features. The editing or manipulation features. The display control facilities. The drafting features. The programming facility. The analysis features. The connecting features.
Fig. 4.50 Elimination of hidden lines in display
63
Fig. 4.51
Shaded image of a CAD geometric model ((Image

Model generated using CATIA))
appears with the permission of IBM World Trade Corporation/Dassault Systems -
64
Fig. 4.52 Orthographic views from a geometric model (Image

appears with the permission of IBM World Trade Corporation/Dassault Systems Model generated using CATIA)
65
Fig. 4.53 Section view generation from a geometric model
66
Fig. 4.54 Exploded view and bill of materials of an assembly modelled
67
4.9 Rapid Prototyping (RP)
68
Figure 4.55 Schematic of Stereolithography device

Scanning mirror Laser
Cured resin (to form model) Liquid resin
Recoating bar
Platform
69
Figure 4.56 Schematic of selective laser sintering device

Powder feed roller
Platform
Build powder Sintered powder (to form parts)
70
Figure 4.57 Schematic of Three-dimensional printing device

Binder solution Powder feed roller Printing head Nozzle
Platform
Build powder Glued powder (to form parts)
71
Fig. 4.58 Schematic of Fused deposition modelling device

Filament from a coil
Feeder
Melter
Extrusion nozzle Solidified plaster (to form model)
Platform
72
Fig. 4.59 Schematic of Laminated Object Manufacturing device

Top view Splits in excess material (for ease of removal)
Laminating roller
Contour of actual cross section of the model
Band of build material
Laminating roller
Laminate model
Band of build material
Excess laminate material
Take-up roll
Platform
Material supply roll
73
Summary
Information entered through geometric modeling is utilized in a number of downstream applications such as drafting, manufacturing, inspection and planning. Geometric models are three types, viz line model, surface model and solid model. Line model though simple is rarely used because of the ambiguity present. Surface and solid models are extensively used in industrial applications. Among the geometric construction methods sweep or extrusion is most widely used, because of its simplicity and elegance in developing 3D models. Solid modeling provides the most unambiguous representation of the solid model, but is more computing intensive. However to get the correct geometric model, it is essential to utilize solid modeling approach.
Summary
Surfaces are more widely used and it is necessary to use different types of surfaces such as b-splines, Bezier, NURB, lofted, to get the user requirements fulfilled. Constraint or parametric based modeling is the main methodology used by most of the 3D CAD systems. This system helps in grasping the designers intent and would greatly facilitate the modification and reuse of the existing designs. Some variant modeling systems are used based on tabular data for specific applications. Form features is another form of modeling system that helps in designing CAD systems with more intelligence built into the geometric entities that is possible by purely geometric systems discussed thus far.
75
Summary
The mathematical representation of the geometric entities can be in implicit or parametric form, the latter being the preferred method used in CAD systems because of its easier adaptation in software development. The curve representation methods can be extended for surface representations such as used in free form surfaces. A number of modeling facilities need to be considered while selecting a CAD/CAM system for any given application. Rapid prototyping is used to generate the product directly from the 3D CAD model data. A number of different processes such as stereo lithography, selective laser sintering, 3D printing, fused deposition modeling, laminated object manufacturing, are used for this purpose.
76

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CAD/CAM Principles and Applications

CAD/CAM Principles and Applications by P N Rao, 2nd Ed

4.1 Requirements of Geometric Modelling

CAD/CAM Principles and Applications by P N Rao, 2nd Ed

Total product cycle in a

CAD/CAM Principles and Applications by P N Rao, 2nd Ed

Functions of Geometric Modelling

CAD/CAM Principles and Applications by P N Rao, 2nd Ed

Functions of Geometric Modelling

Functions of Geometric Modelling

CAD/CAM Principles and Applications by P N Rao, 2nd Ed

Functions of Geometric Modelling

Inspection and Quality Control:

Two-dimensional, and Three-dimensional. The three principal classifications can be

Fig. 4.2 3D geometric representation techniques

(a) LINE MODEL

(b) SURFACE MODEL

(c) VOLUME MODEL

CAD/CAM Principles and Applications by P N Rao, 2nd Ed

Fig. 4.3 A geometric model represented in wire-frame model

CAD/CAM Principles and Applications by P N Rao, 2nd Ed

Fig. 4.4 Ambiguities present in the wire-frame model

CAD/CAM Principles and Applications by P N Rao, 2nd Ed

CAD/CAM Principles and Applications by P N Rao, 2nd Ed

Fig. 4.6 Generation of 3D geometry using planar surfaces

(b) SURFACE MODEL

CAD/CAM Principles and Applications by P N Rao, 2nd Ed

4.3 Geometric Construction Methods

CAD/CAM Principles and Applications by P N Rao, 2nd Ed

Component model produced using

translational (linear) sweep (extrusion)

CAD/CAM Principles and Applications by P N Rao, 2nd Ed

Component model produced using

translational (linear) sweep with taper in sweep direction

CAD/CAM Principles and Applications by P N Rao, 2nd Ed

Component model produced using linear

sweep with the sweep direction along a 3D curve

CAD/CAM Principles and Applications by P N Rao, 2nd Ed

Component model produced using

translational (linear) sweep with an overhanging edge

CAD/CAM Principles and Applications by P N Rao, 2nd Ed

Fig. 4.12 Component produced by the rotational sweep technique

CAD/CAM Principles and Applications by P N Rao, 2nd Ed

Fig. 4.13 Various solid modelling primitives

CAD/CAM Principles and Applications by P N Rao, 2nd Ed

CAD/CAM Principles and Applications by P N Rao, 2nd Ed

CAD/CAM Principles and Applications by P N Rao, 2nd Ed

CAD/CAM Principles and Applications by P N Rao, 2nd Ed

Fig. 4.17 Model generated using the sculptured surfaces (Image

CAD/CAM Principles and Applications by P N Rao, 2nd Ed

Fig. 4.18 The various types of surfaces used in geometric modelling

Spheres Ellipsoids Paraboloid Torus

B-spline Bezier surface NURBS Fractals

CAD/CAM Principles and Applications by P N Rao, 2nd Ed

Ruled surface on the left is shown the curves

from which the ruled surface on the right is formed.

CAD/CAM Principles and Applications by P N Rao, 2nd Ed

Fig. 4.20 Coons surface generation

CAD/CAM Principles and Applications by P N Rao, 2nd Ed

CAD/CAM Principles and Applications by P N Rao, 2nd Ed

CAD/CAM Principles and Applications by P N Rao, 2nd Ed

Fig. 4.24 The spline curve

Control Polygon Curve

Fig. 4.25 The lofted surface