ARTICLE IN PRESS

Journal for Nature Conservation ] (]]]]) ]]]—]]]

www.elsevier.de/jnc

Ecological restoration, carbon sequestration and

biodiversity conservation: The experience of the
Society for Wildlife Research and Environmental
Education (SPVS) in the Atlantic Rain Forest of
Southern Brazil
André Rocha Ferretti, Ricardo Miranda de Britez

Sociedade de Pesquisa em Vida Selvagem e Educac-ão Ambiental, Rua Gutemberg, n. 296, Batel,
Curitiba-PR CEP 80420-030, Brazil

Received 20 December 2005; accepted 27 April 2006

KEYWORDS Summary
Biomass;
Since 1999, SPVS has been involved in three projects that combine two fundamental
Forest restoration;
goals over the course of 40 years: the conservation of one of Brazil’s most important
GIS;
remnants of Atlantic Forest and the implementation of projects for carbon
Native species;
sequestration. In addition, there is an interest in replicating these projects in order
Nature conservation;
to restore other degraded areas, protect the Brazilian biomes, and help to diminish
Private reserve;
deforestation and forest fire, therefore reducing carbon emissions. The acquisition
Tropical forest
of 19,000 ha of degraded areas of high biological importance in southern Brazil was
the first step towards the implementation of the projects. These areas are owned by
SPVS, a Brazilian NGO, and are being restored, conserved and transformed into
Private Natural Reserves, in partnership with the NGO – The Nature Conservancy, and
financed by the companies – American Electric Power, General Motors and Chevron
Texaco. The process of forest restoration involves several stages: soil studies,
surveying the region’s native plants, planning for restoration by means of a
Geographical Information System, production of seedlings, application of different
techniques for planting (such as manual or mechanised planting with seedlings and
stakes), and biomass and biodiversity monitoring. To guarantee the survival of the
seedlings on the planted areas, during the first three years, there is a continuous and

Corresponding author. Tel./fax: +55 41 3242 0280.

E-mail address: andreferretti@yahoo.com (A.R. Ferretti).

1617-1381/$ - see front matter & 2006 Elsevier GmbH. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.jnc.2006.04.006
 ARTICLE IN PRESS
2 A.R. Ferretti, R.M. de Britez

systematic maintenance programme including weeding of undergrowth, crowing and

organic fertilisation. The three projects already planted around 500,000 seedlings of
native species until September 2004, and aim to plant a further 300,000 until 2008.
& 2006 Elsevier GmbH. All rights reserved.

Introduction Area, the largest continuous piece of Atlantic

Forest that remains today. The Guaraquec-aba
In 1992, 185 countries signed the United Nations Environmental Protection Area, or ‘‘APA’’, is a
Framework Convention on Climatic Change, aiming 314,000 ha area zoned by the federal and state
at mitigating the effects of global warming. The governments for conservation and sustainable use.
signatory countries of this Convention have been Approximately 12% of the APA’s area is publicly
holding annual meetings, the Conferences of the held, however, enforcement of restrictions on the
Parties (COP), aiming at defining mechanisms to many private farms and ranches inside the APA is
implement the decisions of the convention since inconsistent. The APA spans four municipalities,
1995. The Kyoto Protocol was established in the Antonina, Guaraquec-aba, Campina Grande do Sul,
1997 Convention, with the objective of reaching and Paranaguá, although most of the project area is
specific goals to reduce the emission of gases that located within the municipalities of Antonina and
cause the greenhouse effect, including carbon Guaraquec-aba.
dioxide (CO2). Reduction targets were established
where 5.2% of the emissions registered, on aver-
age, in 1990, must be reduced between 2008 and Atlantic forest
2012. Various market instruments for ‘‘commercia-
lising the emissions’’ were established and one of The Atlantic Forest is one of seven neotropical
them, the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM), moist forests. Covering most of the coast, in Brazil
grants developed countries limited use of carbon it is second in extension to the Amazon forest only.
credits to reach their emission reduction goals. The Atlantic Forest contains eight vegetation
Among the many project modalities of the CDM types: mangroves, restinga (the Brazilian term for
are the projects based on activities of Land Use, vegetation on marine sands), wetlands, high alti-
Change in Land Use and Forests. Through a partner- tude grasslands, upper-montane, montane, sub-
ship between the Society for Wildlife Research and montane and seasonally flooded lowland forests.
Environmental Education (SPVS) and The Nature
Conservancy (TNC) it was possible to implement
three projects on the coast of Paraná State in
southern Brazil (Fig. 1). General Motors, American
Electric Power and ChevronTexaco financed the
three projects. The forest projects, besides miti-
gating the greenhouse effect by fixing carbon
within the plant biomass and therefore, mitigating
the effects of global warming, also protect biodi-
versity, soil and water and help to promote the
sustainable development of local communities.
Thus, the projects may generate significant and
measurable environmental and economical benefits
for developing countries such as Brazil.
For the implementation of the projects,
19,000 ha were acquired, almost 80% of which were
considered degraded areas with different stages of
succession, and pasture areas that will be restored.
In order to ensure the permanent protection of the
areas, the three reserves will be converted into
Private Reserves of the Natural Heritage, an official
category of Brazilian private protected areas Figure 1. Location of the three carbon sequestration
(acronym RPPNS). Most of this area is located projects, in Antonina and Guaraquec-aba, State of
within the Guaraquec-aba Environmental Protection Paraná.
 ARTICLE IN PRESS
Ecological restoration in the Atlantic Rain Forest
Deforestation of the Atlantic Forest dates back to
colonial times, when large-scale exportation of
commercially valuable neotropical timber species
began. Brazil’s development has primarily taken
place along its eastern coast, and today the
country’s largest cities and industrial centres,
accounting for 50% of its population and 80% of its
Gross National Product (GNP), are concentrated in
former Atlantic Forest areas.
The Atlantic Forest originally covered an area of
1,000,000 km2, or 12% of Brazil’s national territory.
Today, only 7% of the original vegetative cover
remains, making the Atlantic Forest one of the
most threatened tropical forests in the world. An
amazing 53% of the trees and 77% of other plant
species found in the Atlantic Forest are endemic.
Among vertebrates, 50 species of mammals –
including 17 primates – and 158 species of birds
are found nowhere else on the planet, along with
168 species of amphibians and 88 species of
reptiles. Amongst Brazil’s 202 officially recognised
endangered species, 171 depend on the Atlantic
Forest to survive (Consórcio Mata Atlântica, 1992;
Dixon, 1979; Haffer, 1974; Lynch, 1979; Stotz,
Fitzpatrick, Parker, & Moskovits, 1996).
Despite the Atlantic Forest’s great biological
importance and highly endangered state, many
areas of Atlantic Forest are largely unstudied. Very
few studies of fauna exist, demonstrating the
urgent need for research on the area’s biological
resources.
Climate
The climate in Paraná’s coastal region is classi-
fied as Cfa (in Köppen’s classification), or me-
sothermic subtropical humid. The average annual
temperature is between 20.8 and 22 1C, and the
average annual rainfall is 2545 mm. Average tem-
perature is above 22 1C in the hottest month.
Marked seasonal variation in rainfall is a regional
characteristic. Data collected by SIMEPAR (Meteor-
ological Agency of Paraná State) for 19 years in the
municipality of Antonina indicate a concentration
Figure 2. Average monthly precipitation for Antonina from 1980 to 1999.
3
of approximately 40% of annual rainfall in the
summer (January through March) and only 15% in
the driest months (June through August) (Fig. 2).
In the summer, average daily rainfall is three
times as high as in the winter, and the occurrence
of rainless days is much lower (40% of total summer
days are rainless versus 60% of winter days).
Because of the orographic effect, significant
variations in average annual rainfall occur across
the area’s varied topography. The lowest values
occur in the plain regions (1800 mm), while in the
frontal part of the mountain region they remain
between 2000 and 2500 mm, a variability that is
more pronounced in the summer (Superintendência
de Recursos Hı́dricos e Saneamento Ambiental
(SUDERSA), 1998). Average annual rainfall above
3400 mm (for 1975–1994) was reported for the
region surrounding Marumbi Peak (Mantovanelli,
1999).
Average annual evaporation and rainfall, whose
ratio (E/Rm) determines the hydric balance of a
region, are respectively, 405 and 2545 mm in
Antonina (for 1978–1997); 576 and 1924 mm
in Morretes (for 1966–1997), and 787 and 2033 in
Paranaguá (for 1931–1988). The greatest direct
evaporation occurs in the warmest months, from
November through March and is lower in winter
months.
The lowest E/Rm ratios (average monthly eva-
poration/precipitation) derived from historical
data occur in summer months and increase
2.8–4.5 times in the winter (Fig. 3).
The marked seasonal variation in rainfall results
in a similar pattern in the flow of streams in the
project’s area of influence. Rain intensity is one of
several factors determining flow variability, which
also depends on interception, evapotranspiration,
infiltration, percolation, and storage in the drai-
nage area upstream of the measuring point.
Conservation of biodiversity
The Atlantic Forest is recognised as one of the
top five priority areas on the planet with regard to
 ARTICLE IN PRESS
4 A.R. Ferretti, R.M. de Britez
Figure 3. Monthly Evaporation/Precipitation Ratio for
Antonina from 1986 to 1999. According to data by
Mantovanelli (1999), in the rainiest months (January–
March), average evaporation represents 10–40% of
average rainfall, while in the driest months it accounts
for 60–150% of average rainfall. Thus, the relative
importance of evaporation in reducing surface outflow
is higher in the drier months.
conservation of biological diversity: less than 7% of
its original forest cover is still intact. This area’s
high biodiversity is a reflection of the wide range of
environments present along the Brazilian coast as a
result of climatic and geological differences and
influences of the sea.
The coast of Paraná has one of the most
representative remnants of the Atlantic Forest. It
encloses a mosaic of environments varying from
areas in direct contact with the sea to mountains
over 1000 m high. The differences between the
vegetation types and plant communities are basi-
cally related to physical factors such as geological
and pedological composition and terrain altitude
and topography. As a consequence of this variation
the Dense Ombrophilous Forest (Veloso, Rangel
Filho, & Lima, 1991) can be divided in four sub-
formations (Lowland, Alluvial, Sub-montane and
Montane forest) that present distinct floral and
structural characteristics. Two pioneer formation
types (restingas and mangroves) are limited to
unstable substrates under direct influence of sea
and river waters.
This wealth of environments and their character-
istics have been mapped with regard to certain
physical and biological aspects. The historical
dynamics of land use were also evaluated. So far,
about 1000 plant species have been recorded at the
project site. Preliminary fauna surveys revealed
the occurrence of new species for science, as well
as species considered vulnerable or threatened by
extinction (15 species of fish, 5 amphibians, 2
reptiles, 18 birds and 18 mammals). Preliminary
research demonstrated the presence in these areas
of more than 400 bird species, 31 amphibians, 30
reptiles (15 additional species expected to occur),
52 mammals and 61 fish.
Initial fieldwork unearthed more than 68 archae-
ological sites with the possibility of many more to
be found. More than 30 experiments and studies,
already finished or still in execution, are resulting
in a better comprehension of the area’s biological
diversity and ecology and are contributing signifi-
cantly to the enrichment of information on the
biome. These studies are performed in partnership
with several public and private research institu-
tions and allow the education of students through
traineeships, field classes and workshops.
In order to reach the conservation goals it is
necessary that these areas are handled following
technical criteria planned as a result of several
socio-environmental diagnoses. The Geographical
Information System (GIS) is one of the tools used in
the planning regime. The cartographic basis was
built from sources originating from remote sensing,
such as orthophotos and satellite images and
includes maps of geological and environmental
vulnerability, soils, vegetation, etc., which con-
tribute to the management, research and restora-
tion activities.
A network of approximately 400 km of trails has
been mapped and field marked. These trails are
used for vigilance, environmental education, re-
search and management. Around 65 workers from
the region have been employed and were divided
over the following teams: vigilance (these indivi-
duals receive park ranger training), maintenance,
restoration, handling of buffaloes and administra-
tion. This quantity of employees is more than twice
the number of workers that lived in the areas
before SPVS acquired them. Thus, the SPVS
projects represent a significant gain for the region
in terms of potential employment.
Aiming at interaction between the communities
located around the protected areas, development
strategies compatible with environmental conser-
vation are implemented. These strategies, based
upon the principle that the social, human and
economic welfare of the communities must be
improved, include the promotion of association and
human growth capacity through empowerment
activities and the development of income alter-
natives. One of the methods used to achieve this is
the development of agro-forestry systems, so far
mainly involving banana and palm heart (Euterpe
edulis) and the keeping of native stingless bees
(Meliponinae). The focus is upon technical prepara-
tion for the production, transformation of the
product and its certification. This should result in
better prices for the products and environmental
improvement of the region. The latter criterion
includes a decrease of pesticide use and burnings
and of forest destruction for banana plantation. It
 ARTICLE IN PRESS
Ecological restoration in the Atlantic Rain Forest
also includes the adoption of biological control, the
recovery of areas of permanent preservation, the
collecting and sorting of garbage, and some other
facets.
An Environmental Education Centre was built
where project activities are presented and activ-
ities for environmental educational, training and
other events are developed. The Centre receives
visitors from the surrounding communities and from
local schools.
Carbon sequestration
The world’s climate has always shown a natural
variation. Scientists believe, however, that a
new kind of climate change is under way and its
impacts on people and ecosystems are to be
drastic. Levels of carbon dioxide and other
‘greenhouse gases’ in the atmosphere have risen
steeply since the industrial revolution. Concen-
trations have increased mainly because of the
use of fossil fuels, deforestation and other
human activities, spurred on by economic and
population growth. Like a blanket around the
planet, greenhouse gases stop energy escaping
from the Earth’s surface and atmosphere. If
levels rise too high, excessive warming can
distort natural patterns of climate (UNFCCC,
2003).
The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
(IPCC) confirmed in its Third Assessment Report
that there was ‘‘new and stronger evidence that
most of the warming observed over the last 50
years is attributable to human activities’’. Although
uncertainties in the process of projecting future
trends create wide margins for error in the
estimates, the IPCC predicted a rise of 1.4–5.8 1C
in global mean surface temperatures over the next
100 years. The impact of warming, even at the
lower end of this range is likely to be dramatic. The
impacts on humans will be unavoidable and – in
places – extreme (UNFCCC, 2003).
Carbon dioxide is absorbed from the atmosphere
by growing trees and other vegetation through
the process of photosynthesis. Using the energy
of sunlight, plants produce carbohydrates from
CO2 and water. However, as well as absorb-
ing CO2 through photosynthesis, CO2 is also
emitted by forests through plant respiration
and through the processes of death and decay.
The net balance of CO2 uptake and release
will determine whether an ecosystem is acting
as a sink or source of carbon. Carbon sequestra-
tion, where carbon from the atmosphere is
5
absorbed by growing vegetation and stored
in wood, other biomass and soil organic matter,
is highest in young forests and will tend
to reduce as forests reach maturity (The
Edinburgh Centre for Carbon Management
(ECCM), 2002).
Brazil was the first country to sign the United
Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change
(UNFCCC) on 4 June 1992 and the Brazilian National
Congress ratified it on 28 February 1994. The
Convention entered into force for Brazil on 29
May 1994, 90 days after its ratification by the
National Congress. In the Third Conference of
the Parties (COP3), held in Kyoto, Japan, in 1997,
the Kyoto Protocol was adopted. In this Protocol,
the developed countries accepted differentiated
emissions limitations or reduction commitments
between 2008 and 2012 (representing, for the
developed countries as a whole, a reduction of at
least 5% in relation to the combined emissions of
greenhouse gases in 1990). The economic effort
needed to comply with the goals established in the
Protocol is perceived by some as resulting in
significant costs to the economies of each indus-
trialised country. As a result, three mechanisms
were established to help developed countries
comply with their greenhouse gas emission reduc-
tions or limitation targets. One of these mechan-
isms, defined as the CDM, emerged from a proposal
originally presented by Brazil in the work of
preparing for Kyoto, and involves both developed
and developing countries. Its implementation is of
particular interest to Brazil, because it will allow
the transference of resources and technologies for
the reduction of the country’s greenhouse gas
emissions (UNIDO, 2003).
UNFCCC in its Article 4(d) – ‘‘Commitments’’ –
decides that all Parties shall ‘‘promote sustainable
management, and promote and co-operate in the
conservation and enhancement, as appropriate, of
sinks and reservoirs (y) including biomass, forests
and oceans as well as other terrestrial, coastal and
marine ecosystems’’. In consequence, the Kyoto
Protocol – adopted in 1997 by the Conference of
the Parties at its third session – included various
references to sinks, most notably in its Articles 3.3
and 3.4. However, sinks have always been ‘‘a bone
of contention’’ not only in terms of what sinks could
be used to offset greenhouse gas emissions of other
sources (existing forests, new forests, agriculture,
etc.), but also to what extent they could be used
(in relation to targets and caps), and how they
could be used (under which rules, modalities and
guidelines). For example, rules, modalities and
guidelines for the use of sinks under the CDM have
 ARTICLE IN PRESS
6 A.R. Ferretti, R.M. de Britez
only recently been adopted at COP9 in December
2003 in Milan, Italy (Trines, 2004).
There are ample reasons why sinks are so
controversial, two of which will be mentioned
here. The first one is permanence or rather the
‘‘non-permanence’’ of carbon sequestration. End-
less debates have been going on related to the
usefulness of the temporary storage of carbon in
biomass and wood products. But it is clear that any
regime that includes sinks must be able to deal with
the non-permanence issue. In the currently
adopted COP decisions, an adequate format and
politically acceptable solution has been laid out to
deal with the accounting of non-permanent emis-
sion reductions: the temporary Certified Emission
Reduction (Trines, 2004).
The second reason for controversy over sinks is
more complicated and relates to the role of sinks in
the terrestrial biosphere in the context of the
global carbon budget. To put it plainly: science
does not know exactly how much carbon is located
where in the terrestrial biosphere component of
the global carbon cycle. Despite the fact that
emissions from land-use change (principally defor-
estation in the tropics) were 1.7 Gt carbon (+0.8 Gt
C yr 1) in the period 1980–1989, the total global
carbon uptake in terrestrial ecosystems led to a
sink over that same period of time. This was due to
land-use practices and natural regrowth in middle
and high latitudes, the indirect effects of human
activities (e.g. atmospheric CO2 fertilisation and
nutrient deposition), and changing climate (both
natural and anthropogenic), but it is unknown how
much is due to which aspect of that list. In other
words: science cannot determine hitherto what
proportion of biomass growth is resulting from
natural processes and which ones from human-
induced influences. Crediting existing forests in
particular involves a high degree of uncertainty in
this context (Trines, 2004).
One of the most important aspects in the
implementation of carbon sequestration projects,
whether they are forest carbon sequestration or
other types of changes in the use of the land, is the
capacity to quantify, with a high degree of
precision, the quantity of carbon existing in the
area and whether it is going to be captured by the
forest restoration process. The methods must be
well-known and must also have been tested in
various forest projects and other uses of the land.
The MacDicken (1997) and Brown, Calmon, and
Delaney (1999) approach was adopted in the SPVS
projects. The measuring was carried out prior to
the beginning of the projects, evaluating the stock
of carbon in the area, thus defining the base line.
The amount of emissions avoided in case the
vegetation had been destroyed is estimated in the
different existing environments and in the capture
of carbon in the restoration areas and in the
increment of biomass during the secondary succes-
sion of different vegetation typologies.
With a view to evaluating the avoided deforesta-
tion and the capture of carbon in the forests, 364
permanent monitoring parcels were installed in
12,278 ha of forests, for the quantifying of stock
and carbon increment. Besides the biomass data
gathered for the forests, the species included in the
samples were identified, aiming at relating the
biomass and the diversity of the tropical forests.
For the carbon inventory a stratified sampling
was used, which helped to make the estimates
more precise and cost-effective. The prelimi-
nary average carbon stock estimated for the
six forest strata measured were: 135.9 t C ha 1 for
the submontane forest; 106.8 t C ha 1 for the
lowland forest; 64.12 t C ha 1 for the flood-
plain forest; 106.1 t C ha 1 for the advanced/
medium forest; 101.96 t C ha 1 for the medium
secondary forest; 42.89 t C ha 1 for the young
secondary forest. The above ground carbon for
the pasture strata was 2.4 t C ha 1 and for the
shrubbery 7.4 t C ha 1 (Tiepolo, Calmon, & Ferretti,
2002).
In the same way, in the old buffalo grazing areas,
now under restoration, monitoring parcels, which
besides quantifying the increment of biomass,
evaluate the increment of the vegetation diversity
of the succession processes of the areas, are being
installed.
Ecological restoration
The region’s most degraded rainforest environ-
ments are the river plains and the mountain feet.
Through history people have more intensively used
such areas, since the flatness of the terrain made
land-use easier and the presence of rivers made
them more accessible. Nowadays these lands are
used for agriculture and for the raising of water
buffaloes. Their soils come from the adjacent
slopes or from river deposits. Because of the
flatness and an altitude near sea level extensive
parts accumulate water and are flooded for most of
the year (Fig. 4).
A restoration programme was set up for the
region, based upon five years of local experience
with restoration work. The programme aims to
restore 1500 ha of buffalo grazing areas. This should
generate a restoration model that can be repli-
cated and/or adapted to other degraded areas in
similar rainforest environments.
 ARTICLE IN PRESS
Ecological restoration in the Atlantic Rain Forest
Figure 4. Flat land under restoration (Antonina, State of
Paraná, Brazil).
Species are chosen according to their natural
occurrence, soil preferences, succession stage and
coverage. Such information is obtained through the
analysis of data from permanent plots established
in different succession stages of each vegetation
type found in the reserve.
Promising species occurring in abundance in
forest formations in initial and medium stages of
succession are tested. The survival and growth
rates of the selected species and the easiness to
produce their seedlings in plant nurseries and their
development in the field is also taken into
consideration. All these data are obtained from
experiments carried out by SPVS since 1997. It
should be emphasised that the speed of growth of
the species in the field is of utmost importance.
The reason being that maintenance is abandoned
between the first and the second year (according to
environmental characteristics of the place con-
cerned), a period in which the fast-growing tree
species have reached a height of more than 2 m and
no longer suffer from the competition by grasses.
SPVS has two plant nurseries for the production
of native trees, with an annual production capacity
of approximately 300,000 seedlings. Seedlings of
more than 40 trees are produced at these nurseries.
The principal species are: Annona glabra L.
(Annonaceae), Euterpe edulis Mart. (Arecaceae),
Jacaranda puberula Cham. (Bignoniaceae), Tabe-
buia cassinoides DC. (Bignoniaceae), Tabebuia
umbellata (Sond.) Sandwith (Bignoniaceae), Pseu-
dobombax grandiflorum (Bombacaceae), Cordia
sellowiana Cham. (Boraginaceae), Bauhinia forfi-
cata Link (Caesalpiniaceae), Schizolobium parahy-
ba Blake (Caesalpiniaceae), Senna multijuga
(Rich.) H.S. Irwin & Barneby (Caesalpiniaceae),
Jacaratia spinosa (Aubl.) A. DC. (Caricaceae),
7
Cecropia pachystachya Trécul (Cecropiaceae), Ca-
lophyllum brasiliense Camb. (Clusiaceae), Alchor-
nea glandulosa Poepp. (Euphorbiaceae), Alchornea
triplinervia (Spreng.) Müll.Arg. (Euphorbiaceae),
Hyeronima alchorneoides Allemão (Euphorbia-
ceae), Sapium glandulatum (Vell.) Pax (Euphorbia-
ceae), Andira anthelmia (Vell.) J.F. Macbr.
(Fabaceae), Erytrina speciosa Andrews (Fabaceae),
Machaerium brasiliense Vogel (Fabaceae), Ptero-
carpus violaceus Vogel (Fabaceae), Casearia sylves-
tris Sw. (Flacourtiaceae), Talauma ovata A. St.-Hil.
(Magnoliaceae), Miconia cinnamomifolia (DC.)
Naud. (Melastomataceae), Miconia dodecandra
Cogn. (Melastomataceae), Tibouchina pulchra
(Cham.) Cogn. (Melastomataceae), Cabralea can-
jerana (Vell.) Mart. (Meliaceae), Cedrella fissilis
Vell. (Meliaceae), Inga affinis DC. (Mimosaceae),
Inga edulis Mart. (Mimosaceae), Inga marginata
Willd (Mimosaceae), Inga sessilis (Vell.) Mart.
(Mimosaceae), Mimosa bimucronata (DC.) Kuntze
(Mimosaceae), Myrsine coriacea (Sw.) R. Br. ex
Roem. & Schult. (Myrsinaceae), Campomanesia
xanthocarpa Berg (Myrtaceae), Psidium cattleia-
num Sabine (Myrtaceae), Virola bicuhyba Schott
(Mirysticaceae), Acnistus arborescens (L.) Schltdl
(Solanaceae), Trema micrantha (L.) Blume (Ulma-
ceae), Cytharexylum myrianthum Cham. (Verbena-
ceae).
Circa 90% of the production in the nurseries is
done in 50 cm3 polypropylene tubes. Plastic trays
that can hold 96 seedlings are used to support these
tubes. In the system of use the seedlings are taken
to the planting site when they have reached a
height of 20–30 cm. This stage is reached in 3–4
months of development. A small part of the nursery
production uses larger tubes, of 250 cm3, laid in
metal trays that can hold 536 seedlings. The larger
tubes are used for the direct sowing of species with
larger seeds. They also allow the production of
taller seedlings (30–50 cm high).
Two different sowing techniques are used in
winter: sowing in beds for the majority of species,
and direct sowing in tubes for species with large
seeds and high and regular germination rate (e.g. S.
parahyba and C. myrianthum). The seedlings
produced in the sowing beds are transplanted to
tubes after having emitted their first pair of
definitive leaves.
The SPVS reserves are situated in Brazil’s largest
remainder of Coastal Atlantic Forest. Although this
area has been occupied for more than 400 years – it
is Paraná State’s oldest area of colonisation – it still
has the largest cover of native vegetation of the
entire state. Areas of primary forest are few and
occur mainly on the mountain slopes. The plains are
mainly used for farming activities, such as the
 ARTICLE IN PRESS
8 A.R. Ferretti, R.M. de Britez

growing of banana, rice, ginger and vegetables, as

well as the raising of Asian water buffaloes. The
degraded areas are concentrated along the few
existing roads and close to navigable rivers. In this
context the SPVS works with restoration models
based on the use of ‘facilitating land’ with centres
of diversity situated between ‘islands’ of pioneer
plants and in the process of natural regeneration
(Ferretti, 2002). The planted land is not fertilised,
except in certain conditions on highly degraded
land. There, buffalo excrement is added to the soil
around seedlings.
A total of 1500 ha of mainly abandoned areas is
being restored. Protected against human interven-
tion are those areas that are less degraded and not
very extensive and still have a seed bank in the soil,
or that are close to fragments that can supply this
bank through seed rain. Thus, some of these areas
have become spontaneously colonised by pioneer
species. Periodically the natural regeneration is
monitored to evaluate if the area must be ‘en-
riched’. The most degraded areas intensely occu-
pied by exotic grasses are being restored through
the planting of seedlings. These parts correspond
with 30% of the total area in restoration.
The restoration activities began with a spatial
evaluation of the area. For setting up the carto-
graphic base orthophotos (scale 1:5000) and a
plain-altimetrical map (scale 1:25,000) of vegeta-
tion and soils were used. Areas for mechanical
planting, for direct manual planting, for using
stakes, and for natural regeneration were selected
in the field (Fig. 5). In a period of five years more
than 500,000 seedlings were planted on ca. 300 ha
of land. The three projects aim to plant 300,000
additional seedlings in the next three years.
The areas where machines can be used are
defined and delimited on the orthophotos. This
depends upon how accessible by tractor the area to
be planted is (the presence of roads and bridges).
At very steep places operational difficulties exist
for the use of machines. Susceptibility to erosion,
existence of natural regeneration, soil humidity
and infestation with exotic Brachiaria mutica are
also taken into consideration. This grass penetrates Figure 5. (a) Area of mechanical soil preparation, and
the machines attached to the tractor and manages the planting of seedlings from tubes; (b) area of manual
to impede their functioning. soil preparation, and the planting of bigger seedlings
Mechanical planting is the most commonly used from plastic bags and (c) planting of stakes in the
method, as it permits intervention in a larger area, wetlands.
allows mechanical planting as well as maintenance,
and reduces costs. An additional advantage is that Planting is carried out in lines with 2.5 m of space
as a result of more crumbled soil it promotes a between the lines and 1.6 m between the plants,
better development of the seedlings and of natural thus enabling the tractor to drive between the lines
regeneration through the establishment of a larger during the mowing. Three procedures are adopted
number of tree species and individuals springing in these areas: mowing (when necessary), weeding
from natural regeneration. the undergrowth and use of the rotary blade. The
 ARTICLE IN PRESS
Ecological restoration in the Atlantic Rain Forest 9

small seedlings produced in tubes are planted

manually. Tube-produced seedlings are generally
taken out of their recipient when brought to the
field and wrapped in a plastic strip. Thus they may
be stored for a week, provided that they are
frequently wetted and kept in the shade (Fig. 6).
The average productivity of the clearing, of the
work with the cultivator and the rotary blade is,
respectively, 0.37, 0.60 and 0.4 ha/h. The average
productivity in the planting activities is 56 seed-
lings per man-hour.
Manual planting is carried out in areas that do not
permit mechanical methods. In particular, these
are the steeper slopes and the wetter plots infested
with Brachiaria species. Manual planting is carried
out where the use of mechanical methods is
impossible. At such places larger seedlings 1 m high
on average and produced in plastic bags
(18  30 cm) are used. The latter method has the
advantage of being the most efficient manner to
combat B. mutica and B. humidicula; bigger
seedlings are able to surpass the height of these
grasses and overshadow them, thus impeding their
development. Later on they also reduce the efforts
needed for maintenance. Planting is carried out in
lines with 2.0 or 3.0 m of space between the lines
and 1.5 or 2.0 m between the plants. The average
productivity through manual planting is 19 seed-
lings planted per man-hour.
Planting is done directly with stakes in soils that
remain humid or soggy for most of the year. This
environment is invaded by B. mutica and the stakes
are able to outgrow this grass. For this method only
a few species are used, all having in common a
vegetative reproduction capacity through pieces of
stems and branches. Stakes of ca. 1 m length are
used in order to surpass the dense grass cover.
Initially the following species are being tested:
Tabebuia cassinoides DC. (Bignoniaceae), Acnistus
arborescens (L.) Schltdl (Solanaceae), Erytrina
speciosa Andrews (Fabaceae), Myrcia insularis
Gardner (Myrtaceae), Alchornea glandulosa Poepp.
(Euphorbiaceae) and Tabebuia umbellata (Sond.)
Sandwith (Bignoniaceae). Two of these species are
presenting good results (T. cassinoides and E. Figure 6. (a) Use of the cultivator in the preparation of
speciosa) and show that this method can be the soil; (b) use of the rotary blade; and (c) transport of
efficient but requires much care in the selection the seedlings to the field.
of species, preparation of stakes, and planting. The
stake should be planted immediately after having
been cut (Ferretti & Britez, 2005).
Maintenance is one of the most important maintenance activities are intensified. Grass is
processes within the restoration practise and is mown between the planting lines using a tractor
influenced by seasonal climatic conditions. With in areas where the soil was mechanically prepared.
the increase of rainfall and temperatures during Around the seedlings mulching is done manually by
summer a more intense growth of plants competing adding dead material resulting from the mowing.
with the seedlings takes place. So in that period the Depending on the planting site such activities are
 ARTICLE IN PRESS
10
repeated two or three times, until the seedlings
reach a height of 2 m. In manual planting the
maintenance is carried out through a manual
crowning of the seedlings. The average productivity
of planting through stakes is 43 stakes planted per
man-hour.
The data related to the restoration activities,
such as the production of seedlings, planting,
cultivation methods and monitoring are stored in
a GIS, which allows for constant analysis of the
restoration programme. The database gathers all
the information related to the planting, such as soil
type, data of planting, spacing, area planted per
used technique, number of planted individuals,
plant species, death rate and cultivation methods
(mowing, fertilising, crowning). The system gen-
erates information about the gain and expenses of
all activities carried out. Through the information
stored in the system a constant updating and
reporting is made possible, whether spatially
through images or through numerically processed
stored data. Photographic monitoring is another
form of evaluation used. Geo-referenced points
were fixed at well-visible places in areas that must
be restored. Digital photographs are taken there
each year. These data provide the GIS a view upon
the evolution of the vegetation cover of areas
under restoration. These data provide complement
the GIS by showing the evolution of the vegetation
cover of areas under restoration.
Conclusion
The largest impediments for the restoration of
Atlantic Forest have been the high costs, the lack of
financial encouragement and mechanisms, and the
non-existence of machines and implements devel-
oped for, or adapted to, the soil preparation and
the planting of seedlings and maintenance of
the plantings. An additional problem has been the
scantiness of technical information about the pro-
duction and planting of seedlings of native species
from this biome.
The projects developed by the SPVS exemplify
that a financial mechanism like the CDM of the
Kyoto Protocol can stimulate the ecological re-
storation of tropical forests. Thus, they can
generate benefits for the global climate and
biodiversity and for the communities that work in
these projects. SPVS has adapted and developed
machines, implements and techniques for the
restoration of one of the most threatened biomes
of Brazil and of the entire world. This experience
has been spread in congresses, meetings and
lectures, papers and field visits for landowners,
A.R. Ferretti, R.M. de Britez
other NGOs, and institutions for research and rural
extension. The objective is to spread the work and
search for new partners, so that this experience
can be replicated and improved.
Acknowledgement
We thank American Electric Power, General
Motors, ChevronTexaco for supporting the project,
and also The Nature Conservancy for the partner-
ship. This work could not be done without the help
and the assistance of Carlinhos, Paulo, Nersio,
Amantino, Lourival, Reginaldo, Reinaldo, Luı́s Car-
los, Antonio, Flávio, Marcos, and many others that
spent several days in the field, and also Eros
Amaral, Marı́lia Borgo, Denilson, Igor, Ricardo
Wodzinski, Cláudio, Alceu Fernandes, Clóvis
Borges, Sueli Ota, André de Meijer, Gilberto
Tiepolo, Miguel Calmon, Paulo Galvão and many
others that shared with us the beauties of the
Atlantic Rain Forest.
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