Journal of Materials Processing Technology 113 (2001) 416423

Applications of virtual manufacturing in materials processing

W.B. Lee*, C.F. Cheung, J.G. Li
Department of Manufacturing Engineering, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hung Hom, Kowloon, Hong Kong

Abstract Virtual manufacturing (VM) is an emerging technology that mimics real manufacturing operations with models, simulations and articial intelligence. VM is a knowledge and information-based technique developed in recent years. With the use of the VM technologies, many aspects of the activities can be integrated and realised into one system. The manufacturing cost and time-to-market can be reduced. The associated technologies of VM and their key techniques related to materials processing and current research work are highlighted. Emphases are placed on the social and technological aspects in the development of VM systems. Some practical application examples of VM in materials processing are presented. # 2001 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Virtual manufacturing; Virtual reality; Materials processing

1. Introduction The industrial world is undergoing profound changes as the information age unfolds [1]. The competitive advantage in manufacturing has shifted from the mass production paradigm to one that is based on fast responsiveness and exibility [2]. One of the major issues in manufacturing is how to integrate engineering and production activities. This integration has to be performed interactively by developers, suppliers and customers through the entire product life cycle, such as design, production, testing, servicing and marketing. To achieve the integration, a model that covers all the engineering functions, the information ow and the precise characteristics of a manufacturing system is needed. Manufacturing rms are now forced to digitise manufacturing information and accelerate their manufacturing innovation in order to enhance their competitive edge in the global market. Virtual manufacturing (VM) is a kind of knowledge and computer-based system technology that integrates manufacturing activities dealing with models and simulations instead of objects and their operations in the real world. This provides a digital tool for the optimisation of the production efciency through simulations prior to the start of actual production. The concept, signicance and related key techniques of VM have been addressed by Lawerence Associate [3], while the contribution and achievements of VM have been reviewed by Shukla et al. [4].
* Corresponding author. Tel.: 852-2766-6594; fax: 852-23659248. E-mail address: mfwblee@inet.polyu.edu.hk (W.B. Lee).

A typical VM system consists of a manufacturing resource model, a manufacturing environment model, a product model and a virtual prototyping model [5]. There is a lot of active research in both conceptual and constructive VM systems. Onosato and Iwata [6] developed the concept of a VM system and Kimura [7] described the product and process model of a VM system. Based on the concept and the model, Iwata et al. [8] proposed a general modelling and simulation architecture for a VM system. Recently, Gausemeier et al. [9] developed a Cyberbike VM system for realtime simulation of an enterprise that produces bicycles. Using the VM system, various manufacturing processes can be integrated and realised into one system. The manufacturing cost and time-to-market can be reduced and hence there is improved productivity. This paper summarises the state-of-art of the research of VM in recent years. The concept, classication and benets of VM are presented and discussed in detail. The associated technologies, their key techniques and current research work related to materials processing are highlighted. In addition, the social and technological obstacles in the development of a VM system and some practical application examples of VM on materials processing are discussed at the end of the text. 2. The concepts of VM and its development 2.1. Denitions of VM VM is dened as a computer system which is capable of generating information about the structure, states, and

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behaviour of a manufacturing system as can be observed in a real manufacturing environment [10]. In other words, a VM system produces no output such as materials and physical products, but it can produce information about them. VM is an integrated computer-based model which represents the physical and logical schema and the behaviour of a real manufacturing system [11]. The manufacturing activities and processes are modelled before and sometimes in parallel with the real manufacturing operations in the real world. Always comparison of models with reality and various model maintenance operations are necessary. An interaction between the virtual and real worlds is accomplished by continuous monitoring of the performance of the VM system. In such circumstances as realised by VM, it becomes possible to adopt various methods to organise engineering activities from product design to production management. 2.2. Signicance and applications of VM The attractive applications of VM include: analysis of the manufacturability of a part and a product; evaluating and validating the feasibility of the production and process plans; optimisation of the production process and the performance of the manufacturing system. Since a VM model is established based on real manufacturing facilities and processes, it does not only provide realistic information about the product and its manufacturing processes, but also allows for the evaluation and the validation of them. Many iterations can be carried out to arrive at an optimal solution. The modelling and simulation technologies in VM enhance the production exibility and reduce the ``xed costs'' since no physical conversion of materials to products is involved. Apart from these, VM can be used to reliably predict the business risks and this will support the management in decision making and strategic management of an enterprise. Some typical applications of VM are as follows: 1. VM can be used in the evaluation of the feasibility of a product design, validation of a production plan, and optimisation of the product design and processes. These reduce the cost in product life cycle. 2. VM can be used to test and validate the accuracy of the product and process designs. For example, the outlook of a product design, dynamic characteristics analysis, checking for the tool path during machining process, NC program validation, checking for the collision problems in machining and assembly, etc. 3. With the use of VM on the Internet, it is possible to conduct training under a distributed virtual environment for the operators, technicians and management people on the use of manufacturing facilities. The costs of training and production can thus be reduced. 4. As a knowledge acquisition vehicle, VM can be used to acquire continuously the manufacturing know-how, traditional manufacturing processes, production data,

etc. This can help to upgrade the level of intelligence of a manufacturing system. The benets derived from VM are as follows: 1. Enhancing the capability of risk measures and control. VM can be used to predict the costs of product development and production as well as provide the information related to the production processes and the process capability. The information is useful for improving the accuracy of the decisions made by the designer and the management. The problems in product development and manufacturing processes can also be predicted and resolved prior to the actual production. 2. Shrinking the product development cycle. VM will allow more computer-based product models to be developed and prototyped upstream in the product development process. This will reduce the need for the number of downstream physical prototypes traditionally made to validate the product models and new designs. Thus, the company can reduce its product development time. 3. Enhancing the competitive edge of an enterprise in the market. VM can reduce the cycle time and costs in product development. With the virtual environment provided by VM, the customers can take part in the product development process. The design engineers can response more quickly to the customer queries and hence provide the optimal solution to the customers. The competitive edge of an enterprise in the market can thus be enhanced. 3. Classication of a VM system 3.1. Classication based on type of system integration According to the denitions proposed by Onosato and Iwata [6], every manufacturing system can be decomposed into two different sub-systems: a real and physical system (RPS); and a real informational system (RIS). An RPS is composed of substantial entities such as materials, parts and machines, that exist in the real world. An RIS involves the activities of information processing and decision making. A computer system that simulates the responses of the RPS is called a ``virtual-physical system'' (VPS), whereas that simulates a RIS and generates control commands for the RPS is called a ``virtual-informational system'' (VIS) [8,10]. 3.2. Classication based on types of product and process design According to the product design and process design functions, VM can be sub-divided into product designcentred VM, production-centred VM and control-centred VM [12]. Product design-centred VM makes use of different virtual designs to produce the production prototype. The related information of a new product (e.g. product features,

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tooling, etc.) is provided to the designer and the manufacturing system designers for supporting the decision making in the product design process. Production-centred VM simulates the activities in process development and alternative process plans. It aims at the rapid evaluation of a production plan, the operational status of a manufacturing system and even the objectives of the design of the physical system. Control-centred VM makes use of the VM technology on the dynamic control of the production processes. It aims at the optimisation of the production cycles based on the dynamic control of the process parameters. 3.3. Classication based on functional usage VM is used in the interactive simulation of various manufacturing processes such as virtual prototyping, virtual machining, virtual inspection, virtual assembly and virtual operational system, etc. 1. Virtual prototyping (VP) mainly deals with the processes, tooling and equipment in casting, blanking, extrusion, injection moulding, etc. VP makes use of modelling and simulation techniques to analyse the factors affecting the process, product quality and hence the material properties, processing time and manufacturing costs. The virtue of VP lies not only in the reduction of the fabrication of physical prototypes, shortening the product development time and cost, but also in supporting product design and presentation through qualitative simulation and analysis [13]. These facilitate the discussion, manipulation and modication of the product data model directly among personnel with different technical backgrounds. 2. Virtual machining mainly deals with cutting processes such as turning, milling, drilling and grinding, etc. The VM technology is used to study the factors affecting the quality, machining time and costs based on modelling and simulation of the material removal process as well as the relative motion between the tool and the workpiece. It can be used to evaluate the feasibility of a part design and the selection of processing equipment, etc. 3. Virtual inspection makes use of the VM technology to model and simulate the inspection process, and the physical and mechanical properties of the inspection equipment. This aims at studying the inspection methodologies, collision check [14], inspection plan, factors affecting the accuracy of the inspection process, etc. 4. In assembly work [15], VM is mainly used to investigate the assembly processes, the mechanical and physical characteristics of the equipment and tooling, the interrelationship among different parts and the factors affecting the quality based on modelling and simulation. It can also be used to predict the quality of an assembly,

product cycle and costs as well as to evaluate the feasibility of the assembly process plan and the selection of assembly equipment, etc. 5. Virtual operational control [16] makes use of VM technology to investigate the material ow and information ow as well as the factors affecting the operation of a manufacturing system. It can be used to evaluate the design and operational performance of the material ow and information ow system. 4. The current and prospective research areas 4.1. Key technologies involved in VM The development of VM demands multi-disciplinary knowledge and technologies related to the hardware and software of the computer, information technology, microelectronics, manufacturing and mathematical computation. Some of these technologies are comparatively mature. However, most of them have to be further developed to form an integrated VM platform. 4.2. Establishment of virtual physical units The establishment of a virtual physical unit (e.g. a material processing unit, machining unit, inspection unit, assembly unit, robot, and material delivery devices, etc.), which mimics the operation of a real physical unit, forms the crucial bases for the development of a VM system. The performance of a VM system could be seriously affected by the accuracy, precision and reliability of the information outputs from an individual virtual physical unit. The establishment of the virtual physical units includes the integration and management of 3D solid models, and models for the simulation of motion and the mechanical properties of the virtual physical units. 3D geometrical solid models and simulation are comparatively mature. There is a number of CAD/CAM software and object-orientated programming languages, and image processing software that are available for performing the tasks. 4.3. Virtual product model and representation A product model is a generic model used to representing all types of artefacts that appear in the course of manufacturing. It represents target products, their materials and intermediate products, tools and machines, and any other manufacturing resources and environmental objects. Those objects have many aspects or views. Due to the rapid development and application of CAD/CAM technologies and object-orientated computer programming languages, the technologies for product modelling, computer representation, product data management (PDM) and engineering data management (EDM) have advanced rapidly. The success of these technologies allows their applications in virtual

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product modelling, computer representation and virtual PDM. However, the traditional product modelling and representation methods cannot meet the needs for quantitative analysis of VM process design. For example, non-manifold boundary representation (B-Rep), constructive solid geometry (CSG) [17], state space, features model, Nerbis synthetic curved surface are widely adopted in model simulation [18]. Even under the consideration of the manufacturing tolerance, they make use of ideal surfaces, regular curved surfaces and synthetic curved surfaces to represent the product surfaces. These representation methods do not take into consideration the surface roughness of the machined surfaces. Since there are various errors introduced by the machine, the surfaces of the actual workpiece are not similar to at surfaces, regular curved surfaces or synthetic surfaces during design. In order to mimic the machining errors and surface quality of the workpiece, there is a need for developing geometrical representation methods which are capable of representing the machining errors and surface roughness of the workpiece and deliver this information to the CAE and virtual assembly system. 4.4. Performance evaluation technologies for VM Product design validation is vital to the verication of the functional, reliability, and durability requirements of a given design, whereas process validation is critical to verify what production processes can best meet the cost and quality goals of a given design. The evaluation of a kind of VM system can be divided into two main streams, which are the evaluation of the performance of the system and the validation of the related information generated by the VM system for a particular product development. The former determines the functional capability of the VM system. This include the validation of the accuracy of the models, system architecture and the quality of user interfaces, etc. The latter evaluates the standard of the product design, manufacturability and associated investment risks during the course of product development by the user. The evaluation methods developed so far mainly include: product manufacturability validation, manufacturing quality analysis, analyses for production cycle, production costs, and business risks, etc. Nowadays, most of the research has been found to be limited to a single process. If the whole manufacturing system is taken into consideration, including integrated analysis of the product life cycle and costs, the difculties will be large. The current methods might not be mature enough, since numerous factors are present in the processes. The manufacturability of a product includes the feasibility of processing as well as the feasibility of assembling of the parts and product assemblies. It is not only a difcult problem for VM but also for real manufacturing (RM). Although extensive research work has been devoted to investigating this issue, the problems have not yet resolved

satisfactorily. Up to the present, most of the proposed methodologies of manufacturability evaluation include the logical determination method for manufacturability or nonmanufacturability, the grading method based on the level of difculties of various process, manufacturing cycle and costing methods, as well as the integrated method based on the manufacturing costs, manufacturing cycle and difculties of the processes, etc. Most of these methods focus on a single process or a specic product. However, VM demands the development of common methods, which are appropriate for the evaluation of the whole manufacturing process. The modelling and simulation techniques for production quality analysis and business risk analysis also form a crucial part in the development of evaluation technologies for VM. Although some successful research studies have been found in these areas, the development is still far from perfect to meet future demands. 5. The major obstacles in the development of VM Although the development of VM originated from the evolution of information technologies and business environment, there exist many social and technical problems which obstruct the development of VM systems. 5.1. Technical obstacles 5.1.1. Operational speed of the system AVM system is required to handle a large amount of work on complex mathematical computation, graphical image processing, data exchange and remote communications. These include the construction of 3D solid models, 3D animation, virtual reality (VR), graphical image processing, manufacturing resources planning, product features processing, acquisition of manufacturing know-how and processing, etc. Even with the rapid advancement of the computational power of the computer system and information technology, it is still far from being sufcient to meet the further demanding technology for VM. On the other hand, the external interface and the speed of I/O of the computer have to be enhanced to meet future needs. 5.1.2. Manufacturing know-how, modelling and representation The rapid development of digital network communication and computer sciences provides indispensable tools for the development of VM applications. However, VM is developed based on human know-how and understanding of the manufacturing processes. The successful development of VM depends much on present knowledge and capabilities of applying modern mathematical tools to describe and to present the knowledge in a systematic manner. Although some research work has been devoted in researching the core theories of the manufacturing processes, a large

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number of problems has not yet been solved and is still dependent on human judgement by experience. For example, present understanding on the selection of optimal cutting conditions for metal removal processes, factors affecting the successful draw of a sheet metal product, etc., is still far from perfect. 5.1.3. Articial intelligence (AI) for knowledge acquisition Apart from technological know-how on the manufacturing process and modelling, a VM system is needed to absorb and acquire a large amount of information for it to operate. This demands a better learning and knowledge acquisition capability of the RM facilities so as to facilitate the monitoring of the operational performance of the RM system by the VM system as well as to make better and more accurate predictions and decisions. There are many studies on the application of AI tools such as neural networks [19], fuzzy theory [20], and generic algorithms [21], etc., in process control. The applications of AI technologies on VM have to be sought. 5.1.4. Unify the data standards A complete VM system is a large system. It does not only perform the task of data exchange with various software systems (e.g. CAD/CAM/CAE, databases for resources and knowledge, etc.), but also needs to exchange information among different hardware facilities of different manufacturers. In order to ensure efcient operation of a VM system, there is a need for establishing a unied data standard or data conversion software for facilitating the data exchanging among the VM, CAD/CAM/CAE and RM systems. Although many related standards have been built by the ISO organisation, the data standards used in production facilities and software of different manufacturers might be different. Since the development and the launch of standards are usually lag far behind the real production needs, different countries and manufacturers have developed less compatible standards for their own use. This introduces problems for the development of VM to be used over the Internet. 5.1.5. Database management A VM system is not only required to integrate different dispersed and independent databases for information and knowledge bases within an enterprise but also the databases from the suppliers, customers and other enterprises. There is a need to establish a complete database for supporting the VM operation. Nowadays, the theoretical bases and technologies for database management have achieved a substantial success. However, the knowledge bases for the manufacturing technologies are expanding enormously. Only a very small portion of these resources has been converted to computer databases. The successful conversion of the know-how of the manufacturing technologies to computer databases demands the investment of a huge amount of manpower, money and capital. In addition, further

work is still required to upgrade the database technologies to meet the future growing demand. 5.1.6. Evaluation techniques and standard The contribution and signicance of the VM system are on its capabilities of providing compatible and equivalent results to a RM system so as to allow for the improvement of the product design and manufacturing processes. Under various environments, especially for new product development without the presence of standard evaluation techniques, the development of VM applications presents problems on verifying the compatibility and accuracy of a VM system with a RM system as well as the measure of the effectiveness of a VM system in improving the product quality and manufacturing process. This demands for the development of related evaluation methods and tools. 5.2. Social obstacles In addition to the technical obstacles presented during the development and application of VM technologies, there exist some social problems that include the following. 1. The development of a VM system and its applications is a large establishment. From a long-term point of view, VM offers an attractive solution for an enterprise to improve its efciency and productivity. However, VM might not be a turnkey solution to improve the current status of an enterprise from a short-term point of view. The development of a VM system also demands the investment of a large amount of capital and management effort. Active support from research organisations, enterprises and government are vital to the successful development of a VM system. 2. The development of VM applications includes many enterprises, business sectors and technological eras. However, different standards are adopted by different enterprises and a large difference is usually found among sectors. Even within the same business sectors, difference still exists. The way to develop a unied standard and regulations is a social problem which needs further work. 3. Although, the concepts of open resource sharing and risk sharing are highlighted in VM, it is inevitable for an enterprise to consider keeping their information condential. Since the scope of VM is bound together with the emphases on resource sharing, this also forms a social obstacle in the development of VM.

6. Practical applications of VM in materials processing 6.1. VM for sheet metal processing Sheet metal processing contains processes such as punching, shearing/laser cutting, bending and welding of thin

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metal sheets. In a job shop type of production, in which sheet metal processing is included, the optimisation of work sequence is important for cost saving. Endo et al. [22] used IGRIP to accurately estimate the processing time and optimise the sequence of processing various sheet metal parts for minimising the total processing time prior to actual production. Nakayasu et al. [23] made use of the VM technique in the design of die geometry for sheet metal forming. In their system, the designer is able to dene the analysis procedure for the design process using a parameterised evaluation function and examine the production results based on these design strategies in a virtual space by means of CAD/CAE. The VM technique is also found useful in the simulation and the analysis of the mechanical behaviour of the sheet metal in the forming processes. The VM system developed in Osaka Institute of Technology [24] is an example which incorporated nite element simulation for the inspection and heuristic optimisation of the design scheme for automotive panel forming. 6.2. Virtual machine tools With regard to a virtual machine tool or virtual machining cell, Iqbal and Hashmi [25] have developed a machine tool simulator for training purposes. Supported by the NSF of USA, the MT-AMRI project is being undertaken by eight universities to investigate the common and fundamental issues related to virtual machining and the development of virtual machine tool models [26]. Fig. 1 shows a virtual machine model proposed by the MT-AMRI research program. At present, the National Institute of Standards Technology (NIST) of USA is conducting a research program on virtual machine tools to develop the next generation standards and measurement tools needed for information-based machine tool industry. The above research programs, however, are aimed at general machine tool systems. Research work has also been found in the applications of VM techniques to other machining processes such as milling [25,27] and sawing [14]. Most of these studies aim at

developing an effective collision detection scheme so as to avoid fatal damage of the machine tools due to accidental collision during the actual machining processes. 6.3. Virtual machining and inspection system (VMIS) The conventional approach to the design and the manufacture of precision optical products is based on a trialand-error method. The optical product is designed using computer aided optics design software. Then a lens prototype is made by either direct machining or injection moulding from a test mould insert machined by single-point diamond turning (SPDT). Quality tests will then be conducted on the prototype lenses. It should be noted that the design, prototyping and evaluation processes are iterative until a satisfactory mock-up is found. This is not only expensive but is also time consuming. A VMIS [28] has been developed by the Department of Manufacturing Engineering of The Hong Kong Polytechnic University. The project aims at creating a VM environment by electronically representing the activities of optic design, prototyping, ultra-precision machining and inspection in the design and the manufacture of precision optical products. As shown in Fig. 2, the VMIS is composed of six building blocks which are the information module (IM), the product design and optimisation module (PDOM), the virtual machining module (VMM), the virtual inspection module (VIM), the analysis and decision making module (ADMM) as well as the performance evaluation and monitoring module (PEMM). The IM incorporates the databases for customers, products, tooling, optics design parameters, material information, production schedules, and the kinematics and dynamics characteristics of the machine and inspection equipment. In the PDOM, optics design works are conducted with the aids of a CAD package named ZEMAX. The software package allows for the simulation and the optimisation of an optics design under a pre-conditioned

Fig. 1. Virtual machine model proposed in MT-AMRI research.

Fig. 2. An architecture of the virtual machining and inspection system (from [27]).

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Fig. 3. A 3D solid model of the conceptual virtual machine.

Fig. 5. A 3D solid model of the virtual inspection machine.

computer environment. The VMM makes use of the optics design parameters together with the machine characteristics data to simulate the tool path [29] and the surface topography of the workpiece [30]. Furthermore, the selection of optimum cutting process parameters and machine capability evaluation can also be done in this module. Figs. 3 and 4 show the conceptual virtual machine tools and the virtual surface topography simulated by the VMM. The quality of the workpiece is inspected by a VIM which simulates the measured surface roughness prole and hence determines the surface roughness and form error of the workpiece. Figs. 5 and 6 show the virtual Form Talysurf machine and the simulated results of surface roughness measurement. Based on the simulation results together with the resource availability information from the production schedule database, the ADMM evaluates the feasibility of a production plan as well as recommending the resources allocation. The successful development of the VMIS will allow precision optics manufacturers to evaluate the feasibility of an optical product design and a manufacturing process plan prior to the actual production. This will avoid conducting expensive trial production and physical prototyping. The development of the VM package will also provide an interactive computer-simulated environment for conducting

Fig. 6. Simulated result of surface roughness measurement.

training on the use of the ultra-precision machining and inspection facilities. 7. Concluding remarks In this paper, the development of VM techniques has been presented. The technique of VM can be applied to different levels and activities of a manufacturing enterprise from basic production activities, materials processing, plant and facilities layout to high-order activities of co-ordination and control strategy. The successful launching of a VM system requires multidisciplinary know-how that cuts across a wide spectrum of disciplines in computer and engineering sciences and is more than the traditional simulation of a particular process and operation. However, a sound physical understanding of the process and operation to be simulated is essential and becomes an integral part of any successful VM system to be useful. The future for VM is exciting. The continuous quest for high quality products, lower manufacturing costs, and faster time-to-market will force many manufacturing enterprises to change the manufacturing strategies, processes, and practices for product development. VM techniques provide

Fig. 4. A virtual surface topography of a diamond turned surface.

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the most versatile tools for manufacturers to cope with the impending changes. Acknowledgements The authors would like to express their sincere thanks to the Area of Strategic Development (ASD) Management Committee of The Hong Kong Polytechnic University under the project code: A056 for the support of the research work. References
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