ROAD TUNNELS MANUAL

3. HUMAN FACTORS REGARDING TUNNEL SAFETY

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3. Human factors regarding tunnel safety

The PIARC Technical Committee on Road Tunnel 0peration has felt the need to provide a better understanding of human behaviour in tunnels in both normal and critical situations and to provide recommendations for tunnel design and operation based on this understanding. This knowledge of human behavior is decisive to act accordingly towards:
the user himself and the infrastructure (in particular so as to optimize the communication

devices and design of safety facilities including those dedicated to self evacuation),
the tunnel operating body and emergency services who must be able at all times to coordinate to

ensure optimal management of the event. An adequate knowledge of human factors in the context of road tunnels optimises safety by acting in the direction of the user, the tunnel design and more generally, the organisation (tunnel operating body and emergency services). The whole tunnel system, including the organisation of tunnel management, plays an important role in tunnel safety as it determines what the tunnel users see or have to respond to, in both normal and critical situations. The nature of the traffic regulations, motorists' compliance with them and the degree to which they are enforced contribute significantly to the level of tunnel safety. The properties of the vehicles using the tunnel and the loads they carry also play an important role. Additional measures (with respect to the minimum requirements set by the EU-Directive) could be considered when focussing on human factors and human behaviour in terms of tunnel safety. At this stage, the focus of this chapter is on the interaction between the tunnel system and tunnel users; additional information is provided regarding the interaction with tunnel staff and emergency teams. The main conclusions regarding tunnel users are that (see details in Section 3.1.):
the design of tunnels and their operation should take account of human factors; drivers need to be more aware of how they should behave in tunnels; a fairly long stretch of road (if possible 150 - 200 m) before the tunnel portal should not contain

too many signs and signals; the necessary signs and signals at the point of entry into the tunnel should be strictly limited in number; the tunnel safety facilities should be easily recognisable even in normal traffic; alarm signals should be provided by multiple-redundant sources. Regarding tunnel operators and emergency teams it can also be concluded that it is of utmost importance for operator's staff (see details in Section 3.2.) and emergency services (see details in Section 3.3.):
to organize consultation and cooperation during the tunnel design process, to construct contingency plans in order to prepare for tunnel user protection and fire fighting

operations, and to keep these plans up-to-date,

to organize familiarisation visits to tunnels and arrange exercises to test operational training, to define the measures necessary to minimise the time required to mobilise the emergency

services,
to organize post accident analysis, including events of limited importance.

Designing for optimal human use should include assessment of human abilities and limitations and ensuring that the resulting systems and processes that involve human interaction are designed to be consistent with the human abilities and limitations that have been identified. Human abilities and limitations refer to those physical, cognitive and psychological processes that deal with perception, information processing, motivation, decision-making and taking action. General recommendations are presented in Section 3.4.

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Contributors This chapter of the manual was written by Marc Tesson, associate member of C4 committee and leader of working group n 3 "Influence users' behaviour". The previous leader of this working group, Evert Worm, contributed to the production of the English version. Didier Lacroix, the former Committee Chairman, re-read the French version.

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Fig. 3.0-1: Emergency exit

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3.1. Users
The following aspects are emphasized in Technical Report 2008R17 "Human factors and road tunnel safety regarding users". models that describe the human decision-making process: these are intended to give tunnel professionals a brief theoretical background giving insight into human behaviour: Chapter 1 "General aspects of human factors" of report 2008R17 observations of the behaviour of tunnel users in both normal and critical situations and Fig. 3.1-1: User approaching a tunnel discussion, in general terms, of the main human factors that influence this behaviour: Chapter 2 "Human behaviour in road tunnels in normal situations" of report 2008R17 and Chapter 3 "Human behaviour in road tunnels in critical situations" of report 2008R17 general aims of safety features, followed by a description of the minimum measures required by the EU directive: these measures are examined in the light of results of psychological research and recommendations from other sources to finally formulate recommended additional measures: Chapter 4 "Recommended additional measures to improve road tunnel safety in normal traffic conditions" of report 2008R17 and Chapter 5 "Recommended additional measures to prevent escalation of critical traffic conditions in road tunnels" of report 2008R17 models that describe the human decision-making process: this is of interest for the interface between tunnels and tunnel users: Chapter 6 "Future development of ITS and tunnel safety" of report 2008R17. When carrying out these investigations the Working Group members involved in these studies often had to answer the following question: "should we adapt the tunnel to the user or the user to the tunnel?" Obviously both strategies should be made use of, and in order to put the existing recommendations into perspective the Working Group decided to investigate the subject of driver education and information for drivers. The following aspects will be emphasized in the planned report "Recommendations regarding road tunnel drivers' education and information". The goal of this report will be to provide recommendations to all those in charge of education and information actions: national organisations and agencies, owners, operators, and consultants in the field of communication. In the first chapter this report will provide general information for the target readers who it is assumed have little if any knowledge of the details of the tunnel context. The second will deal with general recommendations valid for all target readers and/or institutions. Chapters 3 and 4 will propose recommendations for the attention of organisations and agencies, and specific owners.

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3.2. Operators
The term "operator" describes the body representing the owner on site and responsible for operating the tunnel. This key player for tunnel safety works in close relation with the other players concerned (owner, public authorities, emergency services, sub contractors, other operators, users, etc). Its main task is to manage traffic, civil engineering aspects and tunnel equipment, together with crisis and administrative management related with its missions. It plays a crucial role for optimum implementation of the tunnel safety managament system: this is demonstrated by its Fig. 3.2-1: Road tunnel command post involvement in design studies (including risk analyses) and definition of operating principles, not forgetting the day-to-day monitoring of tunnel operation (event management, carrying out safety exercises, implementing experience feedback, regular updating of operating documents, staff training, coordination with other bodies involved, etc). With respect to this player, the following aspects are highlighted in the existing Technical Report 2008R03 "Management of the operator-emergency teams interface in road tunnels" :
most relevant lessons learnt from the most serious tunnel fires of the last decades: Chapter 1

"Lessons learnt" of report 2008R03

information and recommendations for best practice. These are based on experience and lessons

learnt: Chapter 2 "Detailed recommendations" of report 2008R03. More generally the lessons learnt from exercises and real events have shown that the behaviour of all those in charge of operating the tunnel is a decisive factor in ensuring the safety of people during an incident. One of the key issues regarding this topic is appropriate reaction of the operating staff responsible for monitoring and controlling tunnels. They are the very first to be involved in road tunnel crisis management and as such carry very considerable responsibilities on behalf of the operator in terms of daily tunnel management. Their task is all the more difficult in that they may at any time be required to manage potentially serious events for which the probability they will happen is extremely low. To react in the appropriate manner, tunnel operators must be able to understand and control sometimes complex situations, meaning they must be very good at stress management. Specific and appropriate training is thus essential. European regulations require the personnel involved in operating tunnels to receive "appropriate initial and continuing training" (European Directive 2004/54/CE - Annex 1 3.1 "Operating means").

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3.3. Emergency teams

Rescue teams liable to be called on to intervene in road tunnels obviously need to have the general training required to help people and combat fires in any type of infrastructure. Tunnels are confined spaces in which a crisis or fire can very quickly render rescue operation conditions more complicated. Over and above their technical skills, firemen therefore need to be trained specifically for this type of intervention. This training must develop their behavioural knowhow and enable them to deal appropriately with the complex situations they may be confronted with in a tunnel. This knowhow is particularly Fig. 3.3-1: Tunnel safety exercise with fire brigade crucial for the supervisory staff who must be capable under all circumstances of adapting the operational methods initially envisaged, if needed. In order to fulfill this mission, good coordination with the tunnel staff is decisive, requiring meticulous preparation, followup and implementation of intervention plans, safety exercises, and training based on feedback of experience. In the case of cross-border tunnels, attention needs to be drawn to the collaboration required between the countries concerned in order to ensure perfect coordination between the rescue teams in crisis situations. With respect to the rescue teams, the following aspects are emphasized in Technical Report 2008R03 "Management of the operatoremergency teams interface in road tunnels" :
the most relevant lessons learnt from the

most serious tunnel fires of the last decades : Chapter 1 "Lessons learnt" of report 2008R03
information and recommendations for

best practice. These are based on experience and lessons learnt: Chapter 2 "Detailed recommendations" of report 2008R03.

Fig. 3.3-2: Helping users in a shelter

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3.4. General recommendations

This paragraph provides general recommendations to those who intend to pay particular attention to human factors when designing a new tunnel or refurbishing an existing one. Its objective is not to sum up the fundamental technical recommendations developed in the PIARC reports regarding inclusion of the human factors when considering safety. It aims above all at summing up the main methodological recommendations to be implemented when it is desired to pay particular attention to these aspects. Three main points deserve to be underlined from this viewpoint: 1. the need to intervene as far upstream as possible in the framework of studies, 2. the crucial importance of taking account of the work carried out in the field of integration of human and organisational factors in safety, 3. the advantages of tests to validate innovative solutions liable to be implemented. The first point particularly concerns the design of new tunnels for which it is fundamental to intervene as far upstream as possible during the studies. This should allow better account to be taken of the main factors which govern the behaviour of users in road tunnels. Among these main factors, the following can be notably mentioned:
data related to the local context, for example, the type of traffic and thus the users concerned

(locals, professionals, subscribers, etc.),

contextual items related to the existing infrastructures upstream and downstream from the

planned tunnel (route continuity logic),

other tunnels on the route or in the neighbourhood of the tunnel, cross-border tunnels for which particular attention must be given to the strategies and means

implemented to communicate with the users. The second point concerns consideration of the work carried out in the field of integration of human and organisational factors with respect to safety, notably aiming to make best use of knowledge accumulated to date in the field of general road safety, and evacuation in crisis situations in particular. This can take shape in two ways: either by referring to general lessons learnt from work carried out in this field (PIARC recommendations for example), or by involving human science specialists (psychologists, experts) in the project. The advisability of involving human science specialists deserves to be considered both for the design of new tunnels and for the refurbishing of existing ones. Obviously it applies only for the most important projects with particular issues (cross-border and/or particularly long tunnels, tunnels of limited dimensions, etc.) In this field and as is already the case for open-air infrastructures, it is necessary to remain very prudent before implementing a technical solution which appears at first sight to be satisfactory. The lessons learnt from real events or from the numerous exercises held in tunnels do indeed show that the technical choices made by engineers specialised in the fields of equipment and safety in tunnels are not always the most appropriate from the viewpoint of user behaviour. Independently of the possible implication of human science specialists, it is obviously necessary to take care to ensure a wide consultation of all the actors concerned at all times. In particular, the intervention services must be closely associated with the design of the safety equipment (particular attention must be given to features provided for self-help for evacuation of users). The third recommendation concerns the tests and trials necessary to validate innovative choices when the latter prove to be desirable. Much has already been learnt in terms of taking human behaviour in tunnels into account. Designers are invited to pay attention to these factors when finalising all the safety measures in tunnels. When it proves to be necessary to develop innovative means, the preliminary test phases must not be neglected (indoor testing for example), nor trials on site. These trials could be usefully performed with support from experts in the field of human sciences. Their objective will be to validate the innovative measures proposed before deployment in tunnels. As a conclusion and in general, we cannot but recall the need to show much pragmatism and humility in this field. A basic principle consists in preferring simple and intuitive solutions whenever possible,

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in line with what is currently in practice in non-confined conditions. These types of approach guarantee that the measures implemented are liable to be well understood and adopted by the users.

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