Professional Documents
Culture Documents
By Jonathan Curtis
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Contents
As level Biology notes........................................................................................................1 Contents...............................................................................................................................2 Section 1.1: Causes of Disease - Pathogens......................................................................4 Section 1.2: Epidemiology..................................................................................................6 Section 1.3: Lifestyle and Health........................................................................................7 Section 2.1: Enzymes and Digestion................................................................................10 Section 2.2: Carbohydrates Monosaccharides..............................................................11 Section 2.3: Carbohydrates disaccharides and polysaccharides. .................................13 Section 2.4 Carbohydrate digestion...............................................................................14 Section 2.5 Proteins.......................................................................................................15 Section 2.6 Enzyme action............................................................................................17 Section 2.7 Factors affecting enzyme action.................................................................18 Section 2.8 Enzyme inhabitation...................................................................................19 Section 3.1 Investigating the structure of cells.............................................................20 Section 3.2 The electron microscope.............................................................................22 Section 3.3 Structure of epithelial cells.........................................................................23 Section 3.4 - Lipids...........................................................................................................25 Section 3.5 The cell surface membrane.........................................................................26 Section 3.6 - Diffusion.....................................................................................................28 Section 3.7 Osmosis.......................................................................................................29 Section 3.8 Active transport .........................................................................................30 Section 3.9 Absorption in the small intestine................................................................31 Section 3.10 Cholera .....................................................................................................32 Section 3.11- Oral rehydration therapy ...........................................................................33 Section 4.1 Structure of the human gas-exchange system............................................34 Section 4.2 The mechanism of breathing......................................................................36 Section 4.3 Exchange of gas in the lungs .....................................................................37 Section 4.4 Pulmonary tuberculosis..............................................................................39 Section 4.5 Fibrosis, asthma and Emphysema .............................................................42 Section 5.1 The heart and heart disease.........................................................................44 Section 5.2 The cardiac Cycle ......................................................................................47 Section 5.3 Heart Disease..............................................................................................51 Section 6.1 Defence mechanisms .................................................................................53 Section 6.2 Phagocytosis...............................................................................................54 Section 6.3 T cells and cell-mediated immunity...........................................................55 Section 6.4 B cells and humoral immunity ..................................................................56 Section 6.5 Antibodies...................................................................................................57 Section 6.6 Vaccination ................................................................................................58 Section 7.1 Investigating Variation...............................................................................60 Section 7.2 Types of variation ......................................................................................62 Section 8.1 Structure of DNA........................................................................................63 Section 8.2 The triplet code ..........................................................................................66 Section 8.3 DNA and Chromosomes.............................................................................68 Section 8.4 Meiosis and Genetic Variation ..................................................................71 Section 9.1 Genetic Diversity........................................................................................73 Section 10.1 Haemoglobin.............................................................................................74 Section 10.2 Oxygen dissociation curves .....................................................................75 Section 10.3 Starch, glycogen and cellulose ................................................................76 Section 10.4 - Plant cell structure.....................................................................................77 Page 2 of 114
Section 11.1 Replication of DNA..................................................................................78 Section 11.2 Mitosis......................................................................................................80 Section 11.3 The cell cycle............................................................................................83 Section 12.1 Cellular organisms....................................................................................85 Section 13.1 Exchange between organisms and their Environment ............................87 Section 13.2 Gas exchange in single celled organisms and insects .............................88 Section 13.3 Gas exchange in Fish................................................................................89 Section 13.4 Gas exchange in the leaf of a plant .........................................................90 Section 13.5 Circulatory system of a mammal ............................................................91 Section 13.6 Blood vessels and their functions ............................................................93 Section 13.7 Movement of water through roots ...........................................................95 Section 13.8 Movement of water up stems ..................................................................97 Section 13.9 Transpiration and factors affecting it.......................................................98 Section 13.10 Limiting water loss in plants .................................................................99 Section 14.1 Classification .........................................................................................100 Section 15.1 - Genetic comparisons using DNA and proteins ......................................104 Section 15.2- Courtship behaviour ................................................................................105 Section 16.1 Genetic variation in bacteria ..................................................................106 Section 16.2+16.3 Antibiotics/Antibiotic use and resistance.....................................109 Section 17.1 Species diversity ....................................................................................112 Section 17.2 Species diversity and Human activities .................................................113
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Note: many diseases can be caused by multiple factors. Most microbes are harmless Pathogen disease causing microbe. Infection process by which a pathogen enters and establishes its self. Communicable disease spread via close proximity or contact. Non-Communicable disease caused by food/drink or animal vectors e.g. mosquitoes. Interface where internal and an external environment meet. Skin Difficult to penetrate, thick and water proof. Platelets quickly produce scabs.
Interfaces are adapted for absorption but also make it easier for pathogens to pass through. Gas exchange airborne pathogens
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Defences
Gas exchange thick/sticky mucus traps pathogens. Celia that is on the epithelial cells work together to remove microbes. Digestive system concentrated HCl kills microbes. Protease also kills microbes. Fungi Opportunistic pathogens. Fungal toxins are called mycotoxins. Viruses Invade bodily cells in order to reproduce thus preventing the host cell functioning as normal. It kills bodily cells and rarely produces toxins. Bacteria reproduction is called binary fusion. Endemic a disease that is always present in the population. Epidemic when a new disease spreads rapidly through the population. Pandemic when an outbreak occurs on a global basic.
Robert Koch
1. Bacteria present when disease is present. 2. It must be possible to isolate and grow the microbe. 3. When cultured, they are introduced to a healthy host to see if it is infected. 4. It should be possible to isolate the microbes from the new host.
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Weak correlation
A weak correlation occurs when there is a wide spread of data shown in the graph.
Negative Correlation A negative correlation will occur when an increase in one variable causes a decrease in another.
How to prove a link Wide samples must be used. Data must be analysed over long periods of time. Variables must be controlled.
Demographic Transition Explains how the population changes over time e.g. from high birth rate. Page 6 of 114
Measuring risk 0% (no harm will occur) 100% (will defiantly occur) A timescale is needed to give the data more weight. Risk must be relative. Cancer Cell division in an uncontrollable fashion. This continues if there are nutrients. Cancer cells cease to function normally. Carcinogen Cause the DNA to mutate. They are cancer causing agents. Most mutated cells are destroyed. One mutated cell can cause a mass of mutated cells. Benign does not move from the point of origin. Usually harmless, however can cause problems depending on where it grows. Maligment grow faster and can spread throughout the body. Can have its own blood supply. The process of moving to another area of the body is called metastasis. Not fully understood how cancer starts. Age + = more likely. Genetics can cause approximately 5% of cancers. Tumour producing genes (oncogenes). Lifestyle factors can expose you to more carcinogens. Page 7 of 114
More you smoke, higher the risk. Diet low fat, high fibre, fruit etc. Radiation, uv light and xrays are carcinogens. Physical activity exercise reduces the risk. Alcohol increases risk. Hormones high level of sex hormones can increase risk.
Treatments Prevention is better than cure. Early diagnosis. Surgical removal Easiest when the tumour is benign. Chemotherapy using drugs to kill cells in the body. Effects all cells that divide rapidly. Radiotherapy ionising radiation that destroys tissue. Healthy cells suffer less so there are little side-effects.
Future treatments Hyperthermia may destroy cancer because the immune system is better at detecting cancer cells. It may be possible to create drugs which can locate genes which are responsible for mutating and causing each type of cancer.
Smoking Heavy smoking over a long period of time will drastically increase the risk of developing lung cancer. There is a strong correlation, but not a causal link.
Conclusive evidence Tar in cigarettes contains Benzopyrene (carcinogen) Cancer cells were looked at and scientist found that mutations occurred in 3 places in the DNA. The gene that mutates is called a tumour suppressor gene.
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This is still not a causal link because smoking does not defiantly cause cancer, even though it is very likely to be the cause. It is only a correlation because it is a multi-factorial disease.
Coronary Heart Disease Largest cause of death in the U.K Occurs when one of the arteries supplying heart tissue with oxygen is blocked. Heart respires anerobically when there is a blood clot. Anaerobic respiration does not release enough energy. Heart attack myocardial infarction. Blood clot thrombus Process of a blood clot forming is called thrombosis. If this happens to coronary arteries it is called coronary thrombosis. Smoking narrows blood vessels, thus increase blood pressure. High blood pressure increase the rate at which cholesterol is deposited. Exercise can lower blood pressure. Diets high in saturated fats will increase the risk of developing coronary heart disease.
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The Oesophagus is made up of a thick muscular wall and is adapted so that food can pass down it easily from the mouth to the stomach. Therefore it used for transport, as appose to digestion. The stomach is a muscular sac with an inner layer that produces enzymes. Its roles are to store and digest food (especially proteins). There are glands within it that produce enzymes to digest protein. Mucus is also produced in the stomach by glands. The mucus prevents the stomach being digested by its own enzymes. The small intestine is a long muscular tube. Food is further digested by enzymes in the small intestine. The enzymes enter the small intestine through its walls and through glands. The inner walls of the small intestine are folded into villi, giving them a larger surface area. The surface area of villi is further increased by millions of tinier projections called microvilli. The microvilli are found on the epithelial cells of each villus. This adapts the small intestine so that it can absorb substances into the blood stream. The large intestine absorbs water. Often the water is reabsorbed by the secretion of digestive glands. Because there is little water within the large intestine, the food becomes drier, thus forming faeces. The rectum is where faeces is stored before it is removed through the anus in a process called egestion.
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The salivary glands are positioned near the mouth. They pass there secretion via a duct into the mouth. This secretion will contain the enzyme amylase. The pancreas is a large gland situated near the stomach. It secretes pancreatic juice. This contains protease, lipase and amylase.
There are two stages of digestion; physical breakdown and chemical absorption.
Physical breakdown
Large pieces of food are broken down into smaller pieces by processes such as chewing and the churning of food in the stomach. This makes it possible to not only absorb food but to increase its surface area, thus making it easier for chemical absorption.
Chemical digestion
Chemical digestion is the process of breaking down large molecules into smaller ones so that they can be absorbed. This is carried out by enzymes. Enzymes function by hydrolysis. Hydrolysis is the process of splitting up molecules by adding water to the bonds that hold them together. The general term for these enzymes is hydrolases. Because enzymes are specific, more than one is needed to break down a large molecule. Usually, an enzyme will break down a molecule into smaller sections. These smaller sections are then hydrolysed into even smaller molecules by additional enzymes. Carbohydrases break starch molecules down until they become monosaccharides. Lipase breaks down lips into glycerol and fatty acids. Protease breaks protein down to amino acids. Once these molecules have been broken down to become even smaller molecules such as monosaccharides, they are absorbed into the body and are often built up again to form larger molecules again. These new molecules are incorporated into body tissue or are used in processes within the body. This is called assimilation.
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Carbohydrates are carbon molecules (carbo) combined with water molecules (hydrate).
Monosaccharides
Monosaccharides are soluble and have the general formula (CH20)n. N can be any number from 3 -7. Glucose is a hexose because it has 6 carbon atoms and has the formula C6H12O6 Even though it has the same chemical formula, the hydrogen and oxygen atoms can be arranged in many different ways. Glucose Galactose Fructose
Glucose is the most common sugar. Although its molecular arrangement is often shown as a straight line, its atoms form a ring.
Galactose has the same chemical formula as glucose. However on the left of the diagram you can see how the Hydroxide and hydrogen atoms are arranged differently to glucose.
Fructose has a very different structure to glucose and is often used as a sweetener.
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Polysaccharides
Polysaccharides are long chains of monosaccharides combined together through glycosidic bonds. Because they are very long molecules, they are often insoluble. This means that they are very suitable for storage. When hydrolysed, polysaccharides break down into disaccharides or monosaccharides. Some polysaccharides such as starch are not used for storage, but instead are used to give support to plant cells.
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Structure of amino acids There are 4 main parts that make up the general structure of an amino acid. There is: The amino group (NH2) this is a basic part of the molecule where it gets the name amino. The carboxyl group (COOH) this is an acid group. The hydrogen atom (H) The r group, this can be a variety of chemicals. Each amino acid has a different r group. The formation of a peptide bond Through the same process by which monosaccharide join to make disaccharides and polysaccharides, amino acids can join together to form dipeptides. They create a water molecule by combining the OH from the carboxyl group of one amino acid with the hydrogen atom of another amino acid. When there is a repeating sequence of amino acids joined by a peptide bond it is called a polypeptide chain. Primary Structure After many condensation reactions (removal of water molecules to form a peptide bond), many monomers are joined together in a process called polymerisation. The chain of many amino acids is called a poly peptide. This repeating sequence of amino acids in a polypeptide chain is known as the primary structure.
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Secondary structure The secondary structure is formed when the -C=O (which has a overall negative charge) is attracted to the hydrogen atom (which has an overall positive charge). This causes the long chain to twist in on its self creating a coil known as a alpha helix.
Tertiary Structure The secondary structure, which is an alpha helix can be further twisted and folded forming a unique 3D structure for each protein. It is formed by several different types of bonds. Disulphide bond fairly strong, not easily broken down. Ionic bonds formed by the carboxyl and amino groups. They are weaker than disulphide bonds. A change in pH can affect an ionic bond. Hydrogen bonds there are many of these however they are easily broken down.
Quaternary Structure This structure appears when a number of complex molecules containing polypeptide chains that are linked in various ways are associated with non-protein molecules called prosthetic groups.
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Effect of Temperature
Enzymes have an optimum temperature at which they work fastest. For mammalian enzymes this is about 40C, but there are enzymes that work best at very different temperatures, e.g. enzymes from the arctic snow flea work at -10C, and enzymes from thermophilic bacteria work at 90C. The rate of reaction doubles, approximately almost every ten degrees. The rate of reaction will increase as temperature increases. Then, once it reaches its optimum temperature it will begin to decrease as the temperature rises due to the active site being denatured. The thermal energy breaks the hydrogen bonds holding the secondary and tertiary structure of the enzyme together, so the enzyme (and especially the active site) loses its shape to become a random coil.
Effect of pH
Enzymes have an optimum pH at which they work fastest. For most enzymes this is about pH 7-8 (physiological pH of most cells), but a few enzymes can work at extreme pH, such as protease enzymes in animal stomachs, which have an optimum of pH 1. The pH affects the charge of the amino acids at the active site, so the properties of the active site change and the substrate can no longer bind. For example a carboxyl acid R groups will be uncharged a low pH (COOH), but charged at high pH (COO-).
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Non-competitive inhibitors Non-competitive inhibitors do not fit into the active site but instead they bind to another part of the enzyme molecule, changing the shape of the whole enzyme, including the active site, so that it can no longer bind substrate molecules. Inhibitors that bind fairly weakly and can washed out are sometimes called reversible inhibitors, while those that tightly and cannot be washed out are called irreversible inhibitors. Poisons like cyanide, heavy metal ions and some insecticides are all non-competitive inhibitors. Non-competitive inhibitors therefore simply reduce the amount of active enzyme (just like decreasing the enzyme concentration). be bind
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Ultracentrifugation Ultracentrifugation is the process by which the homogenate is separated in a machine called a centrifuge. The spins tubes of the homogenate, creating a centrifugal force that forces the mixture to separate. The tube of filtrate is placed in the ultracentrifuge and spun at a slow speed. The heaviest organelles such as the nucleus are forced to the bottom where they form a thin sediment. The fluid at the top, called the supernatant is removed, leaving just the sediment of nuclei at the bottom. The supernatant is then put in another tube where it is spun at an even higher speed than before. The next heaviest organelles (mitochondria) are forced the bottom and the process continues until all the organelles are separated.
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Nuclear pores allow the passage of large materials into and out of the nucleus. Nucleoplasm is granular jelly like material that makes up the bulk of the nucleus. Chromatin is the DNA found within the nucleoplasm This is the diffuse form chromosomes take up when the cells is not dividing. The nucleolus is small spherical body within the nucleoplasm. It manufactures ribosomal RNA and assembles ribosomes.
The mitochondria A double membrane surrounds the organelle, the outer one controlling the entry and exit of material. The inner membrane inner membrane is folded to form extensions known as cristae. Cristae are shelf like extensions of the inner membrane. These provide a large surface area for the attachment of enzymes during respiration.
The matrix makes up the remainder of the mitochondria. It is a semi-rigid material that contains proteins, lipids and traces Page 23 of 114
of DNA that allows the mitochondria to control the production of its own proteins. The enzymes involved in respiration are found in the matrix. Mitochondria are responsible for the production of the energy-carrier molecule ATP. Because of this, high numbers of mitochondria are found in cells where there is a high level of metabolic activity. Endoplasmic Reticulum Rough endoplasmic reticulum has ribosomes present on the outer surface of the membranes. Its functions are to: a) provide a large surface area for the synthesis of proteins and glycoproteins, b) provide a pathway for the transport of materials, especially proteins throughout the cell. Smooth endoplasmic reticulum lacks ribosomes on its surface and is often more tubular in appearance. Its functions are to: a) synthesise, store and transport lipids, b) synthesise store and transport carbohydrates. Golgi Apparatus The Golgi apparatus is similar to the SER in structure but is more compact. It consists of a stack of membranes that form flattened sacks, or cisternae with small rounded hollow structures called vesicles. The proteins and lipids produced in the ER are passed through the Golgi apparatus in strict sequence. The Golgi apparatus modifies these proteins often by adding non-protein structures to them such as carbohydrates. It is also labels them so they can be sorted and sent to their correct destination. Once sorted and modified, proteins are transported in vesicles which are regularly removed from the edge of the Golgi cisternae. These vesicles move to the cell membrane where they fuse and release their contents to the outside. Lysosomes
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Lysosomes are formed when a vesicle contains enzymes. Lysosomes isolate potentially dangerous enzymes from the rest of the cell before releasing them outside of the cell or into phagocytic vesicles within the cell. Lysosomes digest worn out organelles so that the useful chemicals they are made of can be reused. They can completely break down cells after they have died. (Autolysis) Ribosomes Ribosomes occur in either the cytoplasm or the RER. There are two types depending on which cell they are found in: 80S Type found in eukaryotic cells, is around 25nm in diameter. 70S Type found in prokaryotic cells, is slightly smaller. Microvilli Microvilli are finger like projections of the epithelial cells. There function is to increase the surface area for diffusion.
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Lips contain carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. The proportion of oxygen to carbon and hydrogen is smaller than in carbohydrates. They are insoluble in water. They are soluble in organic solvents such as alcohol and acetone.
Roles of lipids Phospholipids contribute to the flexibility of membranes and the transfer of lipidsoluble substances across them. In addition to this, lipids can be used as: An energy source. Lipids can provide more than twice the energy of carbohydrate. Waterproofing. Lipids are insoluble in water and are therefore suitable for waterproofing. Insulation. Fats are slow conductors of heat, kept under skin to retain heat in the body. Protection. Often stored around delicate organs. Triglycerides are so called because they have three fatty acids (tri) combined with glycerol (glyceride). Each fatty acids combines with glycerol in a condensation reaction. CH2OH + HOOC CH2OOC + H2O
(Glycerol) + (fatty acid)
Phospholipids Phospholipids are similar to lipids except that the fatty acid is replaced with a phosphate molecule. Fatty acid molecules repel water whereas phosphate molecules are attracted to water. Test for lipids 1. Take a dry, grease free test tube. 2. Take 2cm^3 of the sample being tested and add 5cm^3 of ethanol. 3. Shake the test tube and dissolve the lipids. 4. Add 5cm^3 of water and shake gently. 5. A cloudy white colour indicates the presence of a lipid.
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The cell-surface membrane is a plasma membrane that surrounds that surrounds cells and forms a boundary between the cytoplasm and the environment. Phospholipids Phospholipids are important in cell surface membranes because: One layer of phospholipids has its hydrophilic head pointing inwards towards the water in the cytoplasm. The other has its head pointing outwards, interacting with the water surrounding the cell. The hydrophobic tales point inwards.
The function of phospholipids in the cell-membrane are to: allow lipid-soluble substances to enter and leave the cell, Prevent water-soluble substances entering and leaving the cell, Make the membrane more flexible. Proteins The proteins in the phospholipids bilayer are arranged randomly in two main ways: Extrinsic proteins appear on the surface or partially imbedded. They provide mechanical support or when in conjunction with glycolipids, act as cell receptors for molecules such as hormones. Intrinsic proteins Span the phospholipids bilayer. Some transport water soluble molecules across the membrane others are enzymes. Protein molecules in the membrane allow active transport by forming ion channels for sodium, potassium, etc. Fluid-mosaic model of the cell surface membrane Fluid - because the phospholipids molecules can move relative to each other, giving it a flexible structure. Mosaic because the proteins are imbedded in the structure in a similar way that stones are imbedded in a mosaic.
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Diffusion is proportional to: surface area x difference in concentration Length of diffusion path Facilitated diffusion Facilitated is a passive process as it only relies on the kinetic motion of particles. Facilitated diffusion can only occur at specific point along the plasma membrane where there are special protein molecules. The proteins for special water filled channels. The channels only open for specific molecules. This allows water soluble ions and molecules to pass through. Such molecules such as glucose and amino acids would take much longer to diffuse through the phospholipids bilayer. When a molecule that is specific to the carrier protein is present, the carrier protein changes shape, causing it to release the molecule on the other side of the plasma membrane. Page 28 of 114
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Occasionally, the molecule or ion is moved into the cell at the same time as a different one is being removed from it. One example of this is the sodiumpotassium pump Sodium ions are actively taken in by the cell whilst potassium ones are actively removed from the cell.
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The epithelial cells possess Microvilli which further increase the surface area for diffusion. They are situated on the cell surface membrane. Villi contain muscles which move the food ensuring the glucose is absorbed from the food adjacent to the villi, new glucose rich food replaces it, thus maintains a concentration gradient for diffusion. Role of active transport in absorption The way in which most glucose is absorbed from small intestine is an example of cotransport. 1. Sodium ions are actively transported out of the epithelial cells by the sodium potassium pump. 2. There is now a much higher concentration of sodium ions in the lumen than in the cells. 3. The sodium ions diffuse into the cells down a concentration gradient. As they flood back into the cells, they are coupled with glucose molecules which are drawn in with them. 4. The glucose diffuses into the blood through a carrier protein. It is the sodium ion concentration, rather than the ATP directly, that powers the movement of glucose into the cell.
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How the cholera bacterium causes disease Almost all Vibrio cholerae bacteria ingested by humans are killed by the low pH in the stomach but many can still survive, especially if the pH is above 4.5. When the bacteria enter the lumen of the small intestine they use their flagella to propel themselves through the mucus lining of the intestinal wall. They then start to produce a toxic protein. The protein has two parts: one part binds to the carbohydrate receptors of the intestinal epithelial cells, whereas the other part enters the epithelial cells. The causes the ion channels of the cell-surface membrane to open, that the chloride ions that are normally contained within the epithelial cells flood into the lumen of the intestine. The loss of chloride ions from cells increases the water potential in the cell, but lowers the water potential outside the cells. This causes water to move into the small intestine. The loss of ions from the cells establishes a concentration gradient. Ions move by diffusion into the epithelial cells. This establishes a water potential gradient that causes water to move by osmosis from the blood and other tissues into the small intestine.
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What is oral rehydration therapy? Drinking water to treat diarrhoea is ineffective because: Water is not being absorbed by the intestine. Indeed, as in the case of cholera, water is actually being lose from cells. The drinking water does not replace electrolytes that are being lost from cells of the intestine. As sodium ions are being absorbed, the water potential falls and water enters the cells by osmosis. A rehydration solution should therefore contain: Water to rehydrate tissues Sodium to replace the ions lost from the epithelium of the small intestine and to make optimum use of the sodium-glucose carrier proteins. Glucose to stimulate the uptake of sodium ions from the intestine and to provide energy Potassium to replace lost potassium ions and to stimulate appetite Other electrolytes such as chloride and citrate ions, to help prevent electrolyte imbalance
The solution must be given regularly and in large amounts whilst the person has the illness.
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oxygen to move from the alveoli into the blood and allows carbon dioxide to move from the blood in the capillaries into the alveoli. Each lung is enclosed by a double-layered serous membrane, called the pleura. The visceral pleura is firmly attached to the surface of the lung. At the hilum, the visceral pleura is continuous with the parietal pleura that lines the wall of the thorax. The small space between the visceral and parietal pleurae is the pleural cavity. It contains a thin film of serous fluid that is produced by the pleura. The fluid acts as a lubricant to reduce friction as the two layers slide against each other, and it helps to hold the two layers together as the lungs inflate and deflate. The lungs are soft and spongy because they are mostly air spaces surrounded by the alveolar cells and elastic connective tissue. They are separated from each other by the mediastinum, which contains the heart. The only point of attachment for each lung is at the hilum, or root, on the medial side. This is where the bronchi, blood vessels, lymphatics, and nerves enter the lungs.
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Inspiration
Inspiration is an active process (requires energy) In order to respire, the internal muscles relax whilst the external muscles contract. The ribs, as a result move upwards and outwards, thus increasing the volume. The diaphragm muscle contracts, and flattens. This further increases the volume. Due to the increase in volume, the air pressure drops, and is then lower than the air pressure outside of the lungs. Due to this, air is drawn in.
Expiration
Normally, breathing out is a passive process (requires no energy) this is because the force of gravity and the recoil of elastic muscle fibres pull the rib cage downwards and inwards. The internal muscles contract while the external muscles relax, this decreases the volume. The diaphragm relaxes and moves back into its domed shape. This further decreases the volume. The decrease in volume causes an increase in pressure and so air is pushed out.
Pulmonary Ventilation Pulmonary ventilation = tidal volume x ventilation rate (dm^3min^-1) (dm^3) (min^-1) Page 36 of 114
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The inner surface of the alveoli wall is covered in water, this is because the plasma membranes of its cells are permeable to water. The film of water slows down the rate of diffusion because it has increased the distance the gases need to travel. For a membrane to be permeable to oxygen it must also be permeable to water. Epithelium and endothelium Epithelial cells cells from epithelium tissue that lines the internal and external cavity. Endothelium is a specialised type of epithelium that lines the inner surface of blood vessels. Alveoli structure The wall of the alveoli is made of epithelial cells. Surfactant Surfactant prevents the alveoli from collapsing or sticking together. Alveoli must be kept open to increase their surface area. Lung surfactant reduces the surface tension so that the alveoli remain open.
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Treatment MTB is a bacterium that can be treated with antibiotics. Most TB is curable using a combination of 4 different types of antibiotics. The antibiotics are affective against most strains of the bacteria. The drug is taken for 6 9 months. Symptoms Persistent cough Chest pain Coughing up blood Chill + fever Night sweat Loss of appetite Unexplained weight loss Fatigue Death occurs when the sufferer has lost too much weight. When you are most at risk When you are in regular contact with those who have the disease When your immune system is compromised, the bacteria could break out of the tubercles in the alveoli. They can then affect other regions of the lungs. If the bacterium enters the blood, other areas of the body can be infected. This is called active tuberculosis. Bacteria destroy the lung tissue, resulting in cavities and scar tissue where the lungs repair. The loss of S.A can reduce the efficiency of gas exchange. Fluid collects in the lungs and breathing becomes difficult. Disease progression Your immune system kills the bacteria and no further symptoms are experienced. Immune system responds, bacteria are then engulfed by a type of white blood cell called macrophages which do not actually destroy the bacteria. Tb bacteria have a cell wall made of a complex, waxy material that protects it from the macrophages. The infection can lead to inflammation and enlargement of the lymph nodes responsible for that area of the lung.
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After 3 6 weeks another white blood cell called T-lymphocytes arrive at the site and activate the macrophages so they can destroy the bacteria. Lysosomes in the macrophages contain enzymes that break down the waste materials. In a healthy person there are few, if any symptoms and the infection is controlled within a few weeks. Active TB The bacteria can multiply within the macrophages and eventually cause the cell to burst, releasing the bacteria. These bacteria are then engulfed by more macrophages and the cycle continues.
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Difficulty breathing due to constriction of airways A wheezing sound when breathing caused by air passing through restricted airways A tight feeling in the chest consequence of not being able to ventilate the lungs properly Emphysema In emphysematous tissue the elastin has become permanently stretched and the lungs are no longer able to force all the air out of the alveoli. Shortness of breath air cannot be ventilated as effectively. This causes the concentration gradient to become shallower. As a result, the rate of diffusion is reduced and less gas exchange will take place. Chronic cough bodies reflex to try and remove damaged tissue. Bluish skin colouration due to the lower levels of oxygen within the blood as a result of poor gas exchange
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The circulatory system Mammals have a double circulatory system as blood passes through the twice on one complete circulation of the body. The pulmonary circulation pumps blood to the lungs to be oxygenated. The systemic circulation pumps oxygenated blood to every other part of the body that uses oxygen.
The human heart Lies in the thoracic cavity Consists mainly of cardiac muscle Its pumping action ensures that fresh supplies of oxygen and nutrients are constantly being supplied to all living cells of the body. It is divided into a left and right side by a septum.
Pericardium The heart is covered by a double layer of tough, inelastic membranes which form the pericardium. Pericardium fluid is secreted by the membranes and reduces friction, allowing them to move freely over each other.
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This sac, protects the heart, anchors its surrounding structures and prevents overfilling of the heart with blood.
Heart Chambers The right side pumps oxygenated blood; the left side pumps oxygenated blood. Each side has two chambers. The two upper chambers are called the atria and the two lower chambers are called the ventricles. The atria receive blood from veins. The ventricles pump blood into arteries.
The right side of the heart The right atrium receives deoxygenated blood from the systemic circulation through the vena cava. Each atrium is elastic so it can stretch as it fills up with blood. Atria have only a thin muscular wall as they only need to pump blood a short distance to the ventricle. The right ventricle pumps deoxygenated blood through the pulmonary artery, to the pulmonary circulation. The pulmonary artery is the only artery to carry deoxygenated blood.
Left side of the heart The left atrium receives oxygenated blood from the pulmonary vein. The pulmonary vein is the only vein to carry oxygenated blood. The left ventricle pumps oxygenated blood through the aorta into the systemic circulation. Ventricle walls are thicker than that of the atria as they have to pump blood over a greater distance.
Ventricles The right ventricle pumps blood to the lungs where the left ventricle has to pump blood to the whole body. Although the volume of blood they hold is the same, the left ventricle has a thicker muscular wall. Page 45 of 114
A thicker muscular wall will allow a stronger contraction to push blood further.
Valves There are 4 valves in the mammalian heart; one between each atrium and ventricle, and one at the base of each artery leading from the ventricles. The tricuspid valve between the right atrium and the right ventricle has three flaps. The bicuspid valve between the left atrium and the left ventricle has two flaps. The pulmonary semi-lunar valve is between the right ventricle and the pulmonary artery. The aortic semi lunar valve is between the left ventricle and the aorta.
How valves work They prevent the back flow of blood. Valves in the heart are designed to open when there is high pressure forcing the blood on the correct direction. If high pressure forces the blood in the wrong direction, the valves shut. Thin tendons join to the edges of the valve flaps to the wall of each ventricle. These tendons to not stretch, they stop the valves turning inside out.
Cardiac Muscle A special type of muscle, unlike other muscles it never fatigues. Does not tolerate a lack of oxygen or nutrients and soon dies if its supply of blood is cut off.
Coronary arteries Some of the bloody leaving the left ventricle goes to the coronary arteries. These arteries branch out to supply the thick heart muscle with oxygen and nutrients. The coronary arteries are much narrower than many other arteries and so can become blocked more easily.
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The stages of the cardiac cycle There are three stages of the cardiac cycle: atrial systole and ventricular systole and diastole. Atrial systole refers to the contracting of the atrial myocardium (heart muscle). Ventricle systole refers to the contraction of the ventricular myocardium. Between heart beats the myocardium of both atria and ventricles are relaxed. This is known as diastole. Both sides of the heart contract together. This means that the atria will contract and relax at the same time and so will the two ventricles.
Diastole Ventricular and atrial myocardium relaxes at the same time. Blood returning to the heart fills the atria. The higher pressure in the atria than the ventricles, forces the atrioventricular valves to open. Even though the atria arent contracting, blood flows from the atria to the ventricles.
Atrial systole The myocardium of both atria contract. This raises the pressure in the atria, pushing more blood into the ventricles. The atrioventricular valves open. More blood passes through these valves into the ventricles. Both semi-lunar valves are closed. Page 47 of 114
Ventricular Systole The myocardium of both ventricles contract The atria are relaxed The ventricles continue to fill with blood This quickly raises the pressure of the ventricles higher than that of the atria. Both atrioventricular valves are forced closed When the pressure of the ventricles exceeds that of the arteries, the pulmonary and aortic valves are forced open. Blood is pushed out of the heart into the pulmonary artery and aorta. The semi-lunar valves close, stopping blood moving back into the heart.
Pressure changes The events of the cardiac cycle create pressure changes. Pressure changes are responsible for moving blood through the heart and into the systemic and pulmonary circulations. Valves open or close when the balance of pressure on opposite sides of the valves changes.
Controlling the cardiac cycle Myogenic contractions are contractions originating from within the muscle, rather than by the nervous system. Myogenic contractions of the myocardium are largely responsible for the cardiac cycle. The cardiac cycle starts at the sinoatrial node (SA node). The SA node is a group of cells found out the top of the right atrium which acts as a natural pacemaker and initiates the heart beat.
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The rate at which the SA node produces the waves determines the heart rate. The heart rate can also be controlled by nervous impulses and hormones such as during exercise and adrenalin.
Starting the Cardiac cycle The SA node produces waves of electrical impulses called cardiac impulses. The impulses are not carried by nervous tissue but by specialised muscle fibres called purkinje fibres. This tissue conducts the impulses throughout the atria, stimulating the myocardium of the atria to contract. The contraction spreads outwards and downwards, from the top of the atria, squeezing blood towards the ventricles.
Continuing the cardiac cycle The electrical activity cannot pass from the walls of the atria to the walls of the ventricles, because it is stopped by a wall of fibrous tissue called the atrioventricular system. This stops the waves of the atrial muscle contraction continuing through the ventricle muscles as the blood would be forced to the bottom of the heart. There is only one location where the impulse can travel from atrium to ventricle through the atrioventricular node. (av node) The AV node is another specialised group of cells. The cells in the AVN can conduct electricity but only shortly after a slight delay. The delay allows time for the atria to complete their cycle.
Contraction of the ventricles From the AVN two specialised bundles of purkinje tissue run down the atrioventricular septum and up the ventricular wall. Bundles of his conduct electrical impulses rapidly down the atrioventricular septum, to the bottom of the heart. These fibres stimulate the muscles of the ventricles to contract rapidly, from the base of the heart upwards.
First heart beat sound lub occurs when the atrioventricular valves close. Second heart sound dub occurs when the semi lunar valves close.
Cardiac output The volume of blood from ventricles in one minute. Measured in DM^3min^-1 The volume pumped by both ventricles pumped is the same. The cardiac output depends on two features: how quickly the heart is beating, and the stroke volume (amount of blood in one beat). Cardiac output =heart rate (min^-1) X stroke volume (dm^3)
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High blood pressure in the arteries means there is more chance of an aneurysm forming and bursting causing a haemorrhage. To resist the high pressure the walls of the arteries tend to become thickened and may harden, restricting blood flow. Blood Cholesterol High density lipoproteins remove cholesterol from tissue and transport it to the liver for excretion. They help protect arteries against heart disease. Low density lipoproteins which transport cholesterol from the liver to the tissue, including the artery walls, which they infiltrate, leading to the development of Atheroma and hence a heart attack. Diet High levels of salt raise blood pressure. High levels of saturated fat increase low density lipoprotein levels and hence blood cholesterol concentration. Foods that act as antioxidants, e.g. vitamin c, reduce the risk of heart disease, and so does non-starch polysaccharide (dietary fibre).
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Non specific
Response is immediate and the same for all
Specific
Response is slower and is specific to each pathogen
pathogens
Physical barrier
Phagocytosis
T-lymphocytes already exist within the body. There is over 10 million different types of T-lymphocytes. Given that there are so many different types of lymphocyte in the body. There is a high probability that when a pathogen enters the body the antigen on its surface will be complementary to a specific lymphocyte. There are very few of each lymphocyte so response to an infection is slow.
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Phagocytosis Pathogens are engulfed by phagocytes in the form of vesicles which are formed on the cell-surface membrane. Chemical products of the pathogen act as attractants which draw the phagocyte towards it. Phagocytes attach themselves to the surface of the pathogen. They engulf the pathogen to form a vesicle known as a phagosome. Enzymes within the Lysosomes join with the phagosome and release their contents. The enzymes within the Lysosomes digest the pathogen. The soluble products of the pathogen are absorbed into the cytoplasm of the phagocyte
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The chains of one pair are long and are called heavy chains, while the other pair have shorter chains and are called light chains. Antibodies have a binding site that is very specific to the antigen once together they form and antigen-antibody complex The binding site is different for all antibodies and is known as the variable region. The rest of the antibody is the same and is called the constant region. Monoclonal antibodies A pathogen entering the body is likely to have hundreds of different antigens on its surface. Each antigen will induce a different B cells to divide and clone its self. Each clone will produce a different antibody known as a polyclonal antibody. Antibodies that can be isolated and cloned are called monoclonal antibodies. Monoclonal antibodies have a number of uses such as: The separation of a chemical from a mixture Immunoassay- this is the method of calculating the amount of substance in a mixture. It is used in pregnancy testing kits, testing for drugs in the urine, and detecting the immunodeficiency virus (aids test) Cancer treatment it is possible to manufacture monoclonal antibodies that will attach themselves to cancer cells. They will then activate a cytotoxic drug that will kill cells. This drug will only be activated by cells to which the antibody is attached. Transplant surgery Even with close matching the transplanted tissue will experience some rejection from the T cells. Monoclonal antibodies can be used to knock out these T Cells.
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Vaccination is the injection of a substance into the body with the intention of stimulating active immunity. Features of a successful vaccination program The success of a vaccination program depends on a number of factors: A suitable vaccine must be economically available in sufficient quantities There must be very few if any unpleasant side effects from the vaccine. Means of producing, storing and transporting the vaccine must be available. There must be the means of administrating the vaccine at the right time. It must be possible to vaccinate the vast majority of the vulnerable population.
Why vaccination does not eliminate a disease Vaccination fails induce immunity amongst some individuals. Individuals may develop the disease immediately after vaccination but before their immunity levels are high enough to prevent it. Pathogens may mature rapidly so that their antigens change suddenly rather than gradually. This is due to the antigenic variability. There may be many varieties of a particular pathogen. Certain pathogens can hide from the bodys immune system by hiding themselves with cells or by living in places that are out of reach.
The problems of controlling cholera and tuberculosis by vaccination Cholera is an intestinal disease and is not easily reached by the immune system. The antigens on the cholera surface change rapidly. The increasing amounts of people with HIV has led to more people having impaired immune systems and so are more likely to contract TB. The proportion of elderly people in the population is increasing. These people have less effective immune systems and so vaccination is less effective at stimulating immunity.
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Biologists often take measurements of some aspect of a living thing. However, all living organisms differ in some way. Sampling involves taking measurements of individuals, selected from the population of organisms which is being investigated. Sampling bias The selection process may be biased, possibly due to the investigator making unrepresentative choices, either deliberately or unwittingly. Chance Even if sampling bias is avoided, the individuals chosen may, by pure chance be unrepresentative.
To prevent sampling being biased, random sampling should be carried out instead. One method is to: 1. Divide the study area into a grid of numbered lines. 2. Using numbers generated by a computer to obtain a series of coordinates 3. Take sample at the intersection of each set of coordinates. The affect of chance cannot be removed however it can be minimised by using large sample sizes and analysing the data collected at the end to determine the affect chance had and to what degree it influenced the data. Causes of variation Genetic differences due to differences in the genes of each individual organism Genetic differences occur due to: Mutations sudden changes to genes and chromosomes may, or may not, be passed on to the next generation. Meiosis Special form of nuclear division, forms gametes. This mixes up all the genetic material before it is passed into the gametes, all of which are different. Fusion of gametes In sexual reproduction the offspring inherit some characteristics of each parent and are therefore different from both of them. Which gamete fuses with which at fertilisation are a random process which further adds variety to the offspring. Environmental differences In most cases variation is due to the combined effects of both genetic differences and environmental influences. As a result it is very difficult to draw conclusions about the causes of variation in any particular case.
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Some characteristics of organisms grade into one another, forming a continuum. Environmental factors play a major role in determining where on the continuum an organism actually lies. If we take these data and plot them on a graph we obtain a bell-shaped curve known as a normal distribution curve. Mean and standard deviation Mean measurement of the maximum height of the curve. The mean provides an average value that can be used when comparing one sample with another. It does not however, provide any information about the range of values within the sample. Standard deviation Is a measurement of the width of the curve. It gives an indication of the range of values either side of the mean. A standard deviation is the distance from the mean to the point where the curve changes from being convex to concave. Calculating standard deviation 1. Calculate the mean value (x bar). 2. Subtract the mean value from the measurement values. For example if the mean is 9 and one of the measurement values is 6, do 6-9. 3. Square all the numbers obtained in step 2 to make them positive. 4. Add all the square numbers together and divide by the number of measurements. 5. Square root the number obtained in step 4, to get the standard deviation.
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Inheritance ensuring that DNA is passed on, unaltered, onto the next generation and protein synthesis. DNA structure DNA molecules are huge: each molecule consists of two interconnected chains or stands. Each chain is sing and unbranched These polynucleotide strands are twisted to for a double helix. What is DNA made of? Each strand of DNA is made of repeated subunits called nucleotides. The phosphate and sugar molecule make the backbone of the DNA molecule. What are nucleotides? DNA is called a polynucleotide. Nucleotides are nitrogen containing, organic molecules that play a vital role in every organisms life. They occur singly (mononucleotides), in twos (dinucleotides), or in thousands (polynucleotides). The nucleotides of DNA Each nucleotide has three components: 1. An organic nitrogenous base: adenine, thymine, cytosine, or guanine. 2. The pentose (5 carbon) sugar deoxyribose 3. A phosphate group The structure of the nucleotides The nucleotides in each strand of DNA are held together by the bonds between deoxyribose of one nucleotide, and the phosphate group of the next. This forms a sugar-phosphate backbone with the base petruding outwards. The bases are attached to the backbone. Nucleotides are joined together by a condensation reaction. The reaction occurs between the deoxyribose sugar and the phosphate group.
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The bonds linking the two nucleotides are called covalent phosphodiester bonds. The bond can be broken down by hydrolysis. DNA bases Adenine = A Thymine = B Cytosine = C Guanine = G As there are four different bases, there four different types of nucleotides in a DNA molecule. Bonding between DNA strands All the atoms in the nucleotides that make up each chain have no free covalent bond site. Hydrogen bonds are formed between the organic bases of each polynucleotide strand. The hydrogen bonds are between the hydrogen atoms of a base in one chain and the nitrogen and oxygen atoms in another chain. Hydrogen Bonds Hydrogen bonds are weaker that phosphate covalent bonds. Individually, hydrogen bonds are weak, but in a combination they can be strong. Hydrogen bonds break and reform, allowing strands to separate during replication and protein synthesis. Base pairing rule If the nucleotide contains adenine it bonds with thymine. Nucleotides containing cystine, bond with guanine. Three hydrogen bonds are formed between G and C Two hydrogen bonds are formed between A and T Reason for pairing Hydrogen bonding only occurs between certain bases. G and A have a double ring structure and are longer molecules. C and T have a sing ring structure and are shorter. Each run on the ladder must be the same length so long molecules bond with short molecules. Complementary bases
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A and T are complementary bases. There are equal amounts of A and T and C and G DNA and variety What differs between DNA is the proportion and sequence of bases. The four different types of nucleotides can join in an infinite number of ways. The Double helix DNA is similar to twisted ladder Each complete turn has ten base pairs Because of the complementary pairing, the sequence of bases along a polynucleotide chain determines he sequence along another. DNA strands A polynucleotide has two distinct ends: a 3 prime end and a 5 prime end. At the 3 end, carbon 3 of the deoxyribose is closest to the end. Each of the two polynucleotide chains is anti-parallel, that is, they run in opposite directions.
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Each gene carries the code for a specific polypeptide. Making proteins DNA codes for amino acids that form the primary structure of a protein. Each protein has a unique tertiary structure due to its sequence of amino acids. All proteins are made from the 20 amino acids. Different numbers and sequences of these amino acids produce an almost limitless range of proteins. Determining amino acid sequences Each is amino acid is determined by the sequence of bases in the gene. Each code has three bases triplet code. Amino acids Three bases can code for 64 different amino acids. As there are only 20 amino acids, most amino acids have more than one code. We say the degenerate code. Coding non coding Much of the DNA is Eukaryotic cells does not code for polypeptides. Some non coding DNA is found within a gene, some found between genes. Non coding regions introns Coding regions exons Splicing The introns are spliced out by enzymes. The remaining exons code for amino acids. Joining amino acids Peptide bonds between amino acids, forming polypeptides Genetic code summary Triplet each of the 20 amino acids used to make proteins is represented by a base triplet in DNA. Non overlapping: each base is part of only one triplet and is therefore involved in specifying only one amino acid.
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Linear DNA is always read from 5 to 3 Degenerate There are more base triplets than amino acids. Some amino acids have more than one code. Almost universal: the base triplet that codes for a particular amino acid in humans also codes for the same amino acid in most other living organisms.
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A single eukaryotic cell has many different molecules of DNA called chromosomes. Mitochondria + Chloroplasts DNA does not have histones.
Prokaryotic DNA Forms a closed loop and is circular. Found in the cytoplasm Found in a region of the cell called a nucleoid The DNA of prokaryotic cells is smaller than the DNA in eukaryotic cells. This is because the cell is smaller and so is less complex; ergo it does not need as many genes. It is not organised into chromosomes. Does not contain non-coding DNA Many cells contain smaller circular pieces of DNA called plasmids.
Chromosomes Human cells has 46 chromosomes (23 pairs) The chromosomes are only visible when the nucleus divides. Each chromosome is made of one DNA molecule Chromosomes are thicker and shorter than individual DNA molecules; therefore it is possible to see them under electron microscopes. Each chromosome carries the DNA for a large number of polypeptides.
The structure of polypeptides Composed of DNA and histones DNA and histones forms chromatin Nucleosomes are the basic structural unit of chromatin. Nucleosomes consist of a DNA molecules wrapped around a ball of 8 histone molecules. Page 69 of 114
Alleles
Genes come in more than one form. Alleles are different version of the same gene. Chromosomes come in pairs and so there are two copies of the same gene. As we have two of each gene we have two alleles for each gene.
Homologous Chromosomes The members of each pair of chromosomes have the same shape, size and code for the same genes. One chromosomes comes from the mother (maternal), the other from the father (paternal). We call the members of each pair, homologous chromosomes. Cells with pairs of homologous chromosomes are called diploid cells. Cells with one chromosome from a homologous pair are called haploid cells. Gametes are haploid cells.
Chromosomes and genes The largest chromosome can contain approximately 8000 genes, whereas the smallest contains approximately 300. Each gene has a specific position on a chromosome called its locus. Different genes are active in different cells. Changes in the genetic code can mean that a particular protein is not produce, is not produced properly or is produced in the wrong amounts.
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Sex chromosomes are the 23rd pair. The other 22 chromosomes are called autosomes Karyotyping is used to spot chromosomal disorders
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When two gametes fuse to give rise to new offspring there chromosomes pair with each other. The number of chromosomes in a gamete is a haploid number; therefore when they fuse the diploid number of the cell is restored. Meiosis allows for genetic material from both the mother and the father to be passed on. The process of meiosis First Division Homologous chromosomes pair up and their chromatids wrap around each other. Crossing over occurs, where equal proportions of each chromatid are exchanged. At the end of this first stage, the homologous pair would have separated, leaving just one chromosomes in the daughter cell. Second division During the second division, each chromosome separates into two chromatids. Each of which will enter the daughter cells. At the end of meiosis two there will be 4 new cells. In humans each cell will have 23 chromatids. Meiosis brings about genetic variation by independent segregation of homologous chromosomes and recombination of homologous chromosomes by crossing over. Gene section of DNA that codes for a polypeptide Locus Position of a gene of a chromosome Allele One of the different forms of a gene Independent Segregation of Homologous Chromosomes When homologous chromosomes line up, they do so randomly. One of each pair will go into the daughter cell. Because the chromosomes line up randomly, the combination of chromosomes that go into the daughter cell is also random. Variety from new genetic combinations Independent segregation brings about genetic variation because although the homologous chromosomes have the same genes, the alleles differ. The random distribution, and consequent independent assortment, of these chromosomes produces different genetic combinations. Genetic recombination by crossing over 1. The chromatids of each pair twist around one another 2. During the twisting process, tensions are created causing portions of the chromatids to break off.
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3. These portions of chromatids then join on to the homologous partner. 4. Usually equivalent portions of chromosomes are exchanged. 5. In this way new genetic combinations are achieved.
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fact that because there are more alleles, there is therefore a greater probability that there are members within the species that have the characteristics required to adapt to a certain change in the environment. Selective Breeding Selective breeding, or artificial selection, involves selecting individuals with desired characteristics and using them to parent the next generation. Offspring without desired characteristics may be killed or prevented from breeding Due to this, alleles with unwanted characteristics are bread out of the population. Selective breeding is used to produce high yielding breeds of domestic animals and strains of plants.
The founder affect Occurs when a few individuals colonise a region The few individuals will possess fewer alleles and may not be representative of the whole population. The new group will show less variation, yet may be genetically distinct from the original population. In time this new population may become a separate species.
Genetic Bottlenecks Occurs when a species suffers a dramatic drop in numbers The few survivors will possess few alleles than the original population therefore there is less genetic diversity. As these individuals become re-established, the genetic diversity of the population will be restricted.
Each Fe ion can combine with a single oxygen molecule, therefore allowing a total of four O2 molecules to be carried. The role of Haemoglobin Transportation of oxygen Haemoglobin must be able to: Readily associate with oxygen at the surface where gas exchange takes place Readily dissociate from oxygen at respiring tissues Haemoglobin can change its affinity for oxygen under certain condition Its shape changes in the presence of certain substances such as carbon dioxide. When carbon dioxide is present, its shape changes so that its affinity for oxygen decreases and so can dissociate from the oxygen molecule more readily.
Why have different haemoglobins? Haemoglobin with a high affinity for oxygen takes up oxygen more readily but releases it less easily. Haemoglobin with a low affinity for oxygen takes up oxygen less easily but releases it more readily. An organism living in an environment where there is little oxygen, should have haemoglobin with a high affinity for oxygen, thus making it easy to take up oxygen. This is provided that it has a low metabolic rate and therefore does not need to give up its oxygen as easily to respiring tissues. An organism with a high metabolic rate needs to give up its oxygen more readily to tissues, and so haemoglobin with a low affinity for oxygen is necessary. This is provided that the organism lives in an oxygen rich environment. Why do organisms have haemoglobin with different affinities for oxygen? Different sequence of amino acid changes the shape of the molecules and there for its ability to hold oxygen.
The further to the right, the lower its affinity for oxygen
The affects of Carbon dioxide concentration In the presence of CO2, haemoglobins affinity for oxygen is reduced. At the gas exchange surface, there is a low concentration of CO2 because it is diffusing out of the blood. This causes haemoglobins affinity for oxygen to increase, thus allowing for O2 to be absorbed more easily. The curve therefore shifts to the right. At respiring tissue the level of CO2 is greater, the haemoglobin therefore has a lower affinity for oxygen, it releases its O2 more readily to respiring cells, and the curve shifts to the right. When CO2 dissolves, it lowers the pH of the blood. A low pH can reduce haemoglobins affinity for oxygen. Loading, transporting and unloading oxygen At the gas exchange surface, CO2 is constantly being removed. The pH is higher due to low CO2 concentrations. High pH changes the shape so that oxygen can be easily absorbed. In tissues, CO2 is produced by respiring cells, thus lowering pH. The haemoglobin molecule changes shape in such away that its affinity for oxygen is reduced. Haemoglobin then releases its O2 into respiring cells.
High rate of respiration more CO2 produced lower pH greater haemoglobin changes shape oxygen unloaded more readily more oxygen available for respiration.
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It is insoluble and therefore does not cause osmosis to occur. It is compact, allowing more to be stored in a small space. When hydrolysed, alpha glucose can easily be used in respiration.
Glycogen Glycogen is similar to starch however it is highly branched and made up of shorter chains. In animals it is stored as grains in the muscles and the liver. Because it is made up of shorter chains, it is more readily hydrolysed. Glycogen is found in animal cells, but never in plant cells.
Cellulose Cellulose differs from starch and glycogen in that it is made up of beta glucose rather than alpha glucose. This produces fundamental differences in its structure. The reason for this is that in beta glucose the position of the H and the OH group is reverse. When glycosidic bonds form between these molecules the result is that the CH2OH group on each beta glucose molecule alternates from being above and below the chain Rather than forming a coiled chain like starch, cellulose forms straight chains that run parallel to one another, allowing for hydrogen bonding to occur. Although each hydrogen bond is on its own weak, because there are many hydrogen bonds, the chains are held tightly together. Cellulose molecules are grouped together to form microfibrils which in turn make parallel groups called fibres. Cellulose is major component in plant cell walls. It is strong and prevents the cell from bursting due to osmosis. It achieves this by exerting and inwards pressure that stops the influx of water.
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The chloroplast envelope is a double plasma membrane that surrounds the organelle. It is highly selective in what it allows to enter and exit. The grana are stacks of 100 disc like structures called thylakoids. Within the thylakoids is the photosynthetic pigment called chlorophyll. Some thylakoids have tubular like extensions that join up with thylakoids of adjacent grana. The grana are where the first stage of photosynthesis takes place. The stroma is a fluid filled matrix where the second stage of photosynthesis takes place. Within the stroma are a number of other structures such as starch grains.
Chloroplasts are adapted to their function in the following ways The granal membrane allows a large surface area for the attachment of chlorophyll, electron carriers and enzymes that carry out the first stage of photosynthesis. These chemicals are attached the membrane in ordered fashion. The fluid of the stroma possesses all the enzymes required for the second stage of photosynthesis. Chloroplasts contain both DNA and ribosomes so they can quickly manufacture some of the proteins needed for photosynthesis. Cell wall Contains microfibrils of cellulose Consist of a number of polysaccharides such as cellulose There is a thin layer called the middle lamella, which marks the boundary between adjacent cell walls and cements cells together.
Functions of cellulose cell wall are: Provides strength and prevents cell from bursting due to osmotic gain. Mechanical strength to plant as a whole Allows water to pass along it and so contributes to the movement of water through a plant.
Replicated chromosomes
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Following the replication of DNA, a chromosome appears to double its structure composed of two chromatids. The chromatids are identical as the DNA in the original chromosomes has replicated exactly. The two chromatids are temporarily held together by a centromere. The replicated chromosomes has twice the DNA as the regular chromosomes, but still only counts as being one chromosome. The chromatids become separated when the cell divides. Stages of DNA replication Stage 1 Strands of DNA separate The double helix structure of the DNA molecule partially unwinds An enzyme called Helicase breaks hydrogen bonds between complementary basis. The two strands are now separate Stage 2 Free nucleotides bond with the complementary basis exposed on each poly nucleotide. Large numbers of nucleotides are made in the nucleus and are attracted to the exposed basis. Hydrogen bonds form between complementary basis and as a result the strand builds up into a sequence of nucleotides. Stage 3 Nucleotides bond together Bonds have already formed between bases. Through condensation reactions, an enzyme called DNA polymerase forms covalent phosphodiester bonds between the deoxyribose of on nucleotide and the phosphate group of the next. The DNA molecule rewinds into a double helix and the process is complete. Leading and lagging strands Nucleotides can only be joined together in the 5 to the 3 On the leading strand, nucleotides can be added continuously in the same direction as the movement of the replication fork. On the lagging strand, continual synthesis is not possible, so small fragments of DNA are constructed. These fragments are linked together by DNA ligase. Origins of replication replication forks
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The origins of replication are the points where replication begins DNA molecules are very long and so it would take too long if it started at one end and moved along the molecule. Instead, the double helix opens up and is replicated at a number of different sites. Replication forks resemble branching prongs where DNA Helicase is separating DNA into single strands. Semi conservative replication Each DNA molecules is formed from an intact strand from the original DNA and are newly synthesised. Both new DNA molecules are identical to one another and to the original molecule. Evidence for DNA replication Intact DNA acts as a template Mixture of nucleotides DNA polymerase ATP for energy New DNA molecules were formed that contained the same proportions of bases. Strong indication that DNA can copy its self by base pairing Alternative to semi-conservative The conservative model: parental DNA remains intact and the new molecule is built from completely new material. The dispersive model: proposes the new DNA molecules consist of sections of both old and new DNA, interspersed along each strand.
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Differentiation and repair: worn out or damaged cell tissues must be replaced by cells that do the same job. Therefore the new cells must have the same structure, function and genetic information as the original cell they are replacing. Asexual reproduction: offspring are genetically identical to the parent, such as in bacteria amoeba and non flowering plants. Daughter cells Mitosis results in each daughter nucleus having the same number and same type of chromosomes as the parent nucleus. Each chromosome contains one molecules of DNA, therefore each daughter nucleus contains exactly the same amount and the same type of DNA as the other daughter cell and parent nucleus. DNA replication is needed Daughter nuclei are identical because the DNA replicates. The chromosomes that were single stranded become a double structure. Each structure is chromatid, each chromatid in the two chromatids that make up a chromosome are called sister chromatids. Chromatids are held together by a centromere. The centromere The centromere is a constricted region of the chromosome that is made up of two components. A specific sequence of DNA bases that is not transcribed, but which is required for the segregation of chromatids A protein based structure called a kinetochore to which spindle fibres attach Mitotic cell division Two main stages Division of nucleus, mitosis Cell divides cytokinesis Mitosis is a continuous process although it is described in 4 stages. Prophase By the start of prophase, DNA has replicated and so chromosomes have a double structure.
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The chromatin condenses, forming chromosomes that are tightly coiled and appear shorter and thicker. As soon as the chromosomes condense, the DNA becomes inactive. Sister chromatids - attach to the centromere Nuclear envelope breaks down Spindle apparatus appear Nucleolus disappears
Metaphase Chromosomes align at the centre of the cell Spindle fibres appear from the poles of the cell and attach to the centromere One sister chromatid of each chromosome is attached by spindle fibres to one pole the other is attached to the other pole.
Anaphase Involves splitting of the centromere The separation of the chromatids Spindle fibres pull chromatids to opposite poles of the cell. Chromatids are now referred to as chromosomes. BY the end of anaphase there are two groups of chromosomes. One at each pole Each group contains one chromatid from each pair of sister chromatids.
Telophase Nuclear envelope reforms around daughter nucleus. Nucleoli appear in each daughter nucleus. Chromosomes become long and thin until theyre a mass of chromatin fibres and can no longer be seen with a microscope. Telophase marks the end of mitosis. The original nucleus has divided into two genetically identical daughter nuclei. Next the cell must divide into two.
Cytokinesis Cytokinesis is when the plasma membrane forms a constriction across the centre of the cell. This becomes narrower and narrower finally dividing the cytoplasm into two cells. The result is two daughter cells. Some cells such as those of the muscles divide their nuclei without cytokinesis.
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Cytokinesis in plants In plant cells, a cell plate is formed in the centre of cells. This grows outwards and fuses with the cell wall, forming the two new cell walls and separating the two daughter plant cells. Key features of mitosis Only one nuclear division Two daughter cells formed Daughter cells are diploid Daughter cells are identical
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Prokaryotic cell division Prokaryotes do not divide by mitosis but instead by binary fission. Binary fission is different because it cannot be divided into phases because prokaryotes do not have a nucleus and a centromere. Why do cells need replacing? Cells are constantly being scraped off of the lining of the gut, billions of red blood cells are replaced each day and are lost from the surface of the skin. The daughter cells are genetically identical to the parent cell. The four main phases Once in the cell cycle, a non embryonic cell goes through four main phases then divides by cytokinesis. The first 3 phases (G1 S and G2) are often grouped together and called interphase. The 4th phase is mitosis. Each part of the cell cycle involves specific cell activities. A cell that has formed due to cell division is initially have the size of the parent cell with only half the number of organelle as the parent cell, therefore must enlarge and synthesis new organelles. Phases of the cell cycle G1 phase of interphase The cell is active growing and increases in size Nucleotides and histones are produced Proteins are produced from which organelles will be synthesised Cellular checks are made to ensure that the DNA is in good enough condition to be replicated. If it is not, the cell is terminated. S phase synthesis of DNA DNA is replicated and combines with newly formed histones to double the amount of chromatin in the nucleus. Chromosomes are now duplicated The amount of DNA remains at this double level until cytokinesis because until then the DNA is contained within the cell. G2 phase Organelles are replicated Proteins are made to create spindle apparatus that will separate chromosomes during mitosis and synthesis.The cell continues to grow in size. M phase Chromatids are separated and go into daughter nuclei The nucleus divides before cytokinesis The cytoplasm divides to form new cells.
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Length of the cell cycle The length of the cell cycle is important because it determines how quickly an organism can multiply or grow or replace damaged cells. The duration of the cell cycle varies greatly from organism to organism and from cell to cell. DNA replication is generally faster in simpler organisms with smaller genome. In humans, the whole cycles takes approximately 24hours How to prepare slides Onion roots are often used as their cells are rapidly dividing and so the will be many cells in different phases. The tips must be squashed so that they form a thin single layer that easily allows the light to pass through it. Chromosomes must be treated with a stain to be made visible. Mitosis and cancer Most cells only divide by mitosis when required to do so. The process is carefully controlled by genes Eukaryotic cells normally divide when triggered to enter the cell cycle by one or more chemical factors. Non-dividing ells are not considered to be in the cell cycle G0 phase. Nerve cells are permanently in G0 phase Genes controlling cell division might mutate, causing cells to enter the cell cycle when there is no need to control growth/repair. Cancer and the cell cycle Most mutated cells that are undergoing unwanted cell division are destroyed by phagocytes. Sometimes the protective mechanisms break down and rogue, mutated cells remain in the cell cycle. These cells continue to divide out of control and form a malignant tumour or cancer. Cancer treatments Effective cancer treatments require early diagnosis. Treatments work by blocking some part of the cell cycle. Problems with treatments Cancer treatments do not just stop cancer cells. Cancer drugs target all rapidly dividing cells that have a short or absent G0 phase. Cancer cells are damaged the most as they are the fastest dividing.
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The cell goes through a series of mitotic cell cycles to form two cells, then four, etc. This resulting in a multicellular organism with cells genetically identical to the original single cell Cells formed during early mitotic division form a hallow ball of cells known as a blastocyst A blastocyst consists of an inner cellular mass surrounded by a layer of cells. These inner cells are called stem cell and will eventually give rise to nearly all the different adult cells. Forming different cell types All of out cells have the same DNA but they differ in how these instructions are used. Not all genes work in all cells only a few genes are switched on I any one cell, the rest are switched off. Because different genes are expressed, this determines the size and the shape of the cell and how many of each organelle are produced. Cells in different positions in an embryo develop in different ways to form tissues. Embryonic stem cells There are different types of stem cells with varying abilities of differentiation, but those taken from the blastocyst are called embryonic stem cells. They can develop into and of the 200 different cells that make up the human body. Because they can develop into any tissue, embryonic stem cells have the ability to be used in the treatment of degenerate diseases and growing new organs. Injection of stem cells could hopefully lead to regeneration of healthy tissues. Adult stem cells An adult stem cells I thought to be an undifferentiated cells, found amongst differentiated cells in a tissue or organ that can its self and can differentiate to yield some or all of the major specialised cell types of the tissue/organ. The primary roles of an adult stem cell in a living organism are to maintain and repair the tissue in which they are found. These adult stem cell generally remain inactive until needed. Specialised cells They have been differentiated They have lost the ability to carry out other functions. Stem cells become specialised when the genes required for a particular function are switched on and all others are switched off. One a cell becomes specialised it is usually unable to make other types of cells. Connective tissue: adds support and strength to the body. Epithelial tissues: Lines the body surfaces, the surfaces of organs or organ cavities and tubes. Muscle tissue: moves the body or body parts. Nerve tissues: enables quick communication between body parts.
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Organs Organs are structures within an organism that are made of at least two types of tissue. Each tissue performs its own function and is essential to the overall function of the organ. The skin is the largest organ within the human body; other organs include the heart, liver, kidneys, etc. Organ system An organ system is comprised of two or more different organs working together to a common function.
Nutrients (glucose, fatty acids, amino acids, vitamins and minerals) Excretory products (urea, carbon dioxide)
Exchange can happen in two ways 1. Passively requires no energy (diffusion, osmosis) 2. Actively Energy is required (Active transport) For exchange to be affective, the surface area to volume ration of the organism must be high. Organisms have evolved in the following ways so that they can provide all their cells with the material necessary in an affective manor: A flattened shape means that no cell is ever far away from the exchange surface (e.g. a flat worm) A specialised exchange surface, for example the lungs which has a large surface area, and therefore increases the S.A: Vol. ratio.
Features of specialised gas exchange surfaces Exchange surfaces have the following characteristics: Large surface are to volume ratio to increase the exchange rate. Very thin so that diffusion distance is short Partial permeable so that only certain materials can diffuse across Movement of the environmental medium to maintain concentration gradient (e.g. air) Movement of internal medium to maintain concentration gradient (e.g. blood)
Diffusion can be explained with ficks law. Diffusion is proportional to surface area X difference in concentration gradient Length of diffusion
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For cells that have a cell wall, the cell wall does not affect the diffusion of gases as it is completely permeable. Gas exchange in insects Terrestrial insects have a problem where they loose water through the surface of their bodies and so easily become dehydrated. To inhibit water loss, terrestrial organisms usually have the following two features: Water proof coverings over their body surfaces. In the case of insects this is a waterproof cuticle. Small surface area to volume ratio to minimise the area over which water is lost Insects gave developed an internal system of tubes called trachea The trachea has strengthened rings for support. The trachea branches into smaller tubes called tracheoles. Gases move into and out of the respiratory system in the following ways. Along diffusion gradient During respiration, oxygen at the end of the tracheoles is reduced. This sets up a diffusion gradient where oxygen in the atmosphere moves towards where there is less oxygen, i.e. the tracheoles. Carbon dioxide is also produced during respiration which sets up a diffusion gradient that moves in the opposite way. Ventilation The movement of muscles in insects cause mass movements in air into and out of the trachea. This speeds up gas exchange as it maintains a diffusion gradient between the two mediums. Gases enter and leave the trachea through small pores called spiracles. Spiracles are often closed to prevent water loss. Spiracles open periodically to allow gas exchange. For diffusion to be affective the pathway needs to be short. This has limited the size of insects.
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They made up of gill filaments Gill filaments are stacked up in a pile. At right angle are structures called lamellae which increase the surface area for gas exchange. Water is taken in through the mouth and forced over the gills. Blood flows in the opposite direction to the water that moves over the gills. This is known as counter current flow.
The counter current flow The counter current flow ensure that there is a concentration gradient maintained between the two mediums so that gas exchange can take place at a fast rate. Blood that is already well loaded with oxygen meets water, which has its maximum concentrations of oxygen. Therefore diffusion from water to blood takes place. Blood with little to no oxygen meets water with most of its oxygen removed. However oxygen diffuses from water to the gills regardless. There is a consistent rate of diffusion from the water to the lamella. Due to the counter current flow approx 80% of the available oxygen is absorbed. Without it the maximum amount would be 50% as there would be no diffusion gradient.
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oxygen from photosynthesis is used in respiration but most of it diffuses out of the plant. When photosynthesis is not taking place, oxygen diffuses into the leaf because it is constantly being used by cells during respiration. Om the same way carbon dioxide produced by respiration diffuses out. Structure of a plant leaf and gas exchange No living cell is far from the external air, and therefore a source of oxygen and carbon dioxide. Diffusion takes place in the gas phase, which makes it more rapid than if it was in water. There is a short diffusion pathway. No specialised transport system is required for moving the respiratory gases in leaves. Leaves have the following adaptations for gas exchange: A thin, flat shape that provides a large surface area Many small pores called stomata, which are found mostly in the lower epidermis of the leaf. Numerous, interconnecting air spaces that occur throughout the mesophyll
Stomata Stomata are pores which occur mainly but not exclusively on the lower epidermis of the leaf. Each stoma is composed of two specialised cells called guard cells. Guard cells can open and close the stomatal pore. Due to this, they have the ability to control the rate of gaseous exchange. This means they are able to prevent water loss
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Diffusion is only adequate for the movement of substances over a short distance. In order to move substances a long distance, a specialised transport system is required. Why large organisms need a transport system A transport system is required to take materials from cells to exchange surfaces and from exchange surfaces to cells. Materials have to be transported from the environment to cells. They also need to be transported to different parts of the organism. Whether or not a specialised transport system is required depends on the S.A to vol. ratio and how active the organism is. Features of a transport system Common features include: A suitable medium for carrying materials e.g. blood because it is water based and so substances can dissolve. A form of mass transport by which the medium is moved A closed system of tubular vessels that contains the transport medium A mechanism that moves the transport medium creates a pressure difference. A mechanism to maintain mass flow in one direction e.g. valves A means of controlling the transport medium
Transport system in mammals Mammals have a double circulatory system which means blood travels twice through the heart I one complete circuit. When blood travels through the lungs is pressure is reduced. By going back to the heart to be pumped once more, its pressure increases, allowing it to travel around the body. With out going back to the heart the pressure would be low and so blood would take longer to circulate the body. Substances are quickly delivered to the rest of the body, which is necessary as mammals have a high metabolic rate. Although transport systems move materials a over longer distance, the final part involves diffusion into cells. The final phase where materials pass from the blood to the cells and vise versa is rapid because it takes place over a large surface area, across short distances and down a steep concentration gradient.
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Arteriole structure and function Muscle layer is thicker than that of arteries contraction of muscle layer narrows the lumen and so constricts blood flow and helps control the blood flow into capillaries. Elastic layer is thinner than that of arteries The pressure in arterioles is lower than in arteries.
Vein structure related to function Muscle layer is thin constriction does not control the movement of blood into capillaries because blood is moving away from tissues.
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Elastic layer is relatively thin pressure in veins is low and so the blood vessel will not burst. In addition the pressure is to low to create a recoil action The overall thickness of the wall is small No need for the wall to be thick as the pressure within veins is small. Also, it allows veins to be flattened thus aiding blood flow There are valves throughout prevents back flow of blood because pressure is low. When body muscles contract, veins are compressed pressurising blood within them. Valves ensure that the pressure directs blood toward the heart.
Capillary structure and function Walls consist only of lining layer short diffusion pathway Numerous and highly branched increased surface area Narrow diameter permeate tissues Narrow lumen pushes red blood cells which reduces diffusion pathway There are spaces between the lining allows white blood cells to escape Tissue fluid and its formation Blood pumped by the heart passes through arteries, then arterioles then finally narrower capillaries. This creates a hydrostatic pressure at the arteriole end of the capillaries. Hydrostatic pressure forces tissue fluid out of the blood plasma. This however is apposed by two forces. Hydrostatic pressure outside of capillaries Lower water potential of the blood due to its contents e.g. proteins causes water from tissue fluid to move back into the capillary.
The overall affect means that there is only a small pressure that pushes small molecules out of the capillaries. This is called ultra filtration Return of tissue fluid Loss of tissue fluid in capillaries reduces hydrostatic pressure. When blood reaches the venous end its hydrostatic pressure is less than that outside of the capillary. Tissue fluid is then forced back into the capillaries. Osmotic forces from proteins in the blood pull water back.
Some tissue fluid travels back via the lymphatic system. The content of the lymphatic system is moves by hydrostatic pressure of tissue fluid leaving capillaries, and contraction of body muscles that creates pressure changes. Valves also ensure the fluid moves in one direction.
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The symplastic pathway Water moves through the cytoplasms of cells of the cortex by osmosis. Water moves through small pores called plasmodesmata. The process happens in the following way: Water enters by osmosis and increases the water potential of the root hair cell. Water then moves via osmosis to the first cell of the cortex. This cell then has a higher water potential than the neighbouring cell, further into the root. The water then moves by osmosis.
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A water potential gradient is set up along the cells of the cortex; this carries water through the cytoplasm of cells to the endodermis.
Passage of water into xylem Water travelling by the apoplastic pathway eventually reaches the Casparian strip where it is prevented from travelling further by the waterproof band. Water is then forced into living cells where is joins water travelling via the symplastic pathway. Active transport of salts in the most likely way by which water moves into the xylem Endodermal cells actively transport salts into the xylem which sets up a water potential gradient. If water in to move into the xylem it must first enter the cytoplasm of endodermal cells. This is explains why water from the apoplastic pathway is forced into the cytoplasm of cells by the Casparian strip. Water moving into the xylem via osmosis creates a force called root pressure.
Evidence of root pressure includes the following: The pressure increases with a rise in temperature and decreases with a fall in temperature. Metabolic inhibitors, for example Cyanide stop active transport and therefore cause root pressure to cease. A decrease in oxygen for respiration decreases root pressure.
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2. If a xylem vessel is broken and air enters it, water can no longer be drawn up. This is because the continuous chain of water molecules joined by cohesion is broken. 3. When the xylem is broken, water does not leak out. Transpiration pull is a passive process. No additional metabolic energy is required. In addition xylem vessels are composed of dead cells.
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Although transpiration is thought of as a passive process, the energy that drives it comes from the sun. This is due to the fact that the sun provides the heat energy and the light, both of which are factors affecting transpiration rates.
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plants ability for photosynthesis and so a compromise must be met between the two requirements.
Most classification in use today are natural and aim to reflect the Phylogenic relationships that is, the historical/evolutionary relationships between organisms. Phylogeny is putting organisms into groups that reflect their evolutionary history A Phylogenic tree shows the evolutionary relationship between organisms. Phylogenic Trees The closer the branches, the closer the evolutionary relationship Hierarchy system Uses Phylogenic relationship to group organisms Modern biology places each organism into a taxa: a series of groups arranged in a hierarchy. Each group is called a taxon and contains organism sharing some basic features indication they have a common ancestry. The study of a classification is called taxonomy Taxa Kingdom Phylum Class Order Family Genus Species
They are listed in descending order of size species is the most exclusive group containing the fewest organisms. Kingdom Is the largest taxon Contains the most organisms, with the fewest features in common There are five kingdoms: 1. Prokaryotae 2. Protoctista 3. Fungi 4. Animalia 5. Plantae Page 101 of 114
Kingdom Prokaryotae Cells lack true nuclei Cells have circular DNA Cells to not have membranes around organelles
Example: bacteria Organisms in other kingdoms have cells with true nuclei, chromosomes and membrane bound organelles.
Kingdom Protoctista Very diverse, contains most organism that do not belong in other kingdoms. May be sub divided in the future due to the diverse mix of organisms All protocistians have eukaryotic cells Some posses cells walls, chlorophyll and can even photosynthesise Others have no cell walls and are motile. Some are unicellular; others consist of billions of cells.
Kingdom Fungi Common features Non-cellulose wall Are non photosynthetic Eukaryotic cells Secrete enzymes to digest organic materials outside their cells and absorb the products of digestion. Usually feed on dead organic material but some feed on living hosts Example, yeast, mushrooms.
Kingdom Animalia Are multicellular Have eukaryotic cells with no cell walls Develop from blastocyst Most animals: Ingest food into their digestive system, and are motile.
Kingdom Plantae All plants: Multicellular have eukaryotic cells with a cellulose cell wall Are photosynthetic Examples: mosses, ferns conifers
Viruses are not included in the classification system as they are acellular Autotrophs make their own food Hetrotrophs Consume food Phylum The kingdom Animalia contains approx. 10 phyla. Class Classes include mammalia, reptilia, and anphibia. Order Mammalian order includes primates, carnivores, etc. Family Primate families include hominidue. Genus Species that are very similar to each other are places in the same genus. Both the species and the genus are used when naming the organisms. Species Homosapiens are the only existing species of the genus homo Binomial system Is used to name organism based on the system devised by Swedish naturalist Carl Linnaeus Is a universal system, laid down by international codes; never a matter of personal opinion. Latin or Greek names are used Each organism is given a name with two words. The first word is the generic name, the name of the genus and begins with an uppercase letter. The second word is the name of the species and it begins with an uppercase letter.
The two words must be printed in italic when typed or underlined if handwritten to show that it is the biological name.
Comparison of amino acid sequences in proteins The sequence of amino acids in proteins is determined by the DNA. The degree of similarity in the amino acid sequence is of the same protein in two species will therefore reflect how closely related they are.
Immunological comparisons of proteins The proteins of different species can be compared using immunological techniques. The principle behind this methods is the fact that antibodies of one species will respond to specific antigens on proteins.
Most are harmful Man mutation result in a change in the shape of a protein so that the protein cannot function. Mutations that affect large sections of a gene are often lethal. Silent neutral mutations Some mutations have no effect because the mutation has occurred in a non-coding part of DNA The mutation may also produce a different codon for the same amino acid. The alternative amino acid sequence may not affect the proteins shape/function. Beneficial mutations Very occasionally a mutation occurs that changes the phenotype so that an organism has a better chance of surviving and reproducing. Although rare, beneficial mutations are bound to happen sooner or later if there are a large number or organisms. As there are so many bacteria and they reproduce so quickly, even a rare event such as a beneficial mutation is likely to happen in a relatively short time. Conjunction Conjunction is another way in which bacteria increase their genetic variation.
The donor cell produces a thin production called a pilus that connects the two cells. The pilus retracts to draw the cells closer together. The donor cell has replicated one of its plasmids The plasmid is altered by an enzyme to make it linear. Once the plasmid has been transferred to the recipient cell, the ends of the plasmid rejoin and become circular again. The plasmids in each bacterial cell then replicate to become double stranded. Their connection via pilus is broken and each cell is free to conjugate with other cells. Conjugation is also known as horizontal gene transmission.
Chemicals produced by microorganism, animals and plants. Chemicals such as penicillin which is produced naturally but altered chemically to make them more affective Chemicals such as chloramphemiol originally produced naturally but now entirely synthesised.
Types of antibiotics Antibiotics that kill bacteria are called bactericidal antibiotics. Some antibiotics, known as bacteriostatic antibiotics, do not kill the bacteria, but stop them from reproducing. How antibiotics work Antibiotics work by interfering with some metabolic functions of microorganisms. There are three main ways antibiotics can do this: 1. Disrupt cell wall synthesis 2. Disrupt DNA replication 3. Disrupt protein synthesis Disrupting cell wall synthesis Antibiotics weaken the cell wall and cause osmoticlysis. Cell walls are made up of long chains of peptidoglycan molecules and allow the bacteria to tolerate osmotic influx of water. Just as in plant cells, bacterial cells become turgid when in a watery environment with higher water potential than they have. The cell contents push against the cell wall, which can stretch, so it prevents expansion of the cell and halts further entry of water. The antibiotics inhibit the synthesis of peptide links that bind molecules together. The cell wall becomes so weak that the bacteria burst when water enters the cell by osmosis. These antibiotics only work on bacteria that are actively growing and have no effect on bacteria lying dormant in the body. Disrupt DNA replication These antibiotics disrupt the synthesis of nucleic acids, so DNA is not replicated. Bacteria are not killed but cell division is halted. Disrupt protein synthesis These antibiotics either inhibit protein synthesis or promote the synthesis of abnormal proteins. The antibiotics bind to the bacterial ribosomes but do not affect eukaryotic ribosomes which are larger. The bacterial cells cannot synthesis enzymes and structured proteins. How bacteria resist antibiotics Remember that bacterial DNA can mutate Page 110 of 114
A mutation is the change of base sequence in a gene that results in a new protein produced. This new protein could be an enzyme that is able break down the antibiotic before it has a chance to kill the bacteria. Antibiotics do not cause mutations Antibiotic resistance most often results from mutations in the plasmid DNA Passing on antibiotic resistance Bacteria can pass on resistance in two ways, binary fission/conjugation Binary fission Both the plasmid and the larger circular DNA in the bacterium replicate prior to cell division. If a plasmid has a mutation that gives the bacteria resistance to an antibiotic, when the cell divides, each daughter cell will receive the gene for resistance. Conjugation Bacteria can also pass and receive plasmids from other bacteria in the process called conjugation. A plasmid conferring antibiotic resistance can pass from one bacterium to another Conjugation can also occur between members of the same species. Conjugation is the main reason why some bacteria have become resistant to antibiotics. Antibiotic resistant strains An antibiotic resistant strain is a whole population that has become resistant to an antibiotic. A gene for antibiotic resistant gene is only beneficial where there the bacteria are exposed to the antibiotic; hence there is a selection pressure that kills off the bacteria without the gene, leaving only the resistant bacteria. Natural selection The frequency of the allele for resistance consequently increases and will continue to increase with each succeeding generation of the bacteria, until an antibiotic resistant strain has been produced. This antibiotic resistant strain is a result of natural selection. Overuse of antibiotics may have provided an increased selection pressure in favour of resistant bacteria. Multiple resistance A bacterium can accumulate several plasmid DNA via conjugation that give it resistance. An antibiotic strain can be produced by natural selection if the population was exposed to several antibiotics. The greater the amount of antibiotics used, the greater the chance that mutant bacteria will have multiple resistance. These bacteria will have an advantage over the other bacteria and will out-compete the normal variety. MRSA
Resistant to several antibiotics Because of its multiple resistances, infections caused by this bacterium are difficult to treat, so the focus is on preventing transmission. MRSA is found on many individuals skin without any ill effects but these people could pass the bacterium to somebody else via skin to skin contact. If the bacterium gets inside the body it can cause deadly infections. Absolute cleanliness is particularly important in wards where patients may have open wounds. Anyone in contact with patients is required to wash their hands.
Species diversity has two components: 1. The number of different species in a given area 2. The proportion of the community that is made up of an individual species Species diversity is calculated using the index that follows: d=N(N-1)
n(n-1) Where: d = species diversity index N = total number of organisms of all species n = total number of organisms of each species = the sum of Number (n) found in habitat X 10 10 10 10 10 n(n-1) N(n-1) 10(9)=90 10(9)=90 10(9)=90 10(9)=90 10(9)=90 450 Number (n) found in habitat Y 3 5 2 36 4 n(n-1) N(n-1) 3(2)=6 5(4)=20 2(1)=2 36(25)=1260 4(3)=12 1300
Species A B C D E
Habitat X: d = 50(49) 450 =5.44 Habitat Y: d =50(49) 1300 =1.88 Habitat X has a higher value for d and therefore has more species diversity
Species will compete for the resources around and many will not survive. In addition pesticides are used to kill off these species as they can affect crop growth. The overall affect is that the species diversity is lowered.
Impact of deforestation Forests provide numerous habitats where species have become adapted to live. Deforestation is the permanent clearing of forests and the conservation of the land to other uses such as agriculture. The most serious consequence of deforestation is the loss of bio diversity where many species are killed each year as a result. Species diversity is reduced due to deforestation because: Habitats are destroyed Species are not adapted to live anywhere else The organism in the species will not survive as a result This note only reduces the amount of organisms in a species, but also reduces the number of different species. The overall affect is a reduction in the species diversity for the given area.