Excerpt - Advanced Installer Study Guide

Advanced Mobile Electronics Installer Study Guide
The Standard for Car Audio Technicians
mobile electronics certified professional

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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Introduction ....................................................................................................xiv
CHAPTER 1 VEHICLE ELECTRICAL SYSTEMS
Electrical History of Vehicles ..............................................................................2 Electrical System Components ..........................................................2 The Electrical System Backbone ........................................................3 Example of Electrical Power Supply and Demand ............................3 Function of the Battery ......................................................................4 Function of a Power Supply Capacitor ..............................................5 Audio Signal Content Determines the Real Electrical Work..............6 The Relationship of Voltage, Current and Resistance (Ohms Law)......................................................................7 Voltage ................................................................................................7 Current................................................................................................8 Speaking of Ohms (Electrical Resistance) ..........................................8 Multiple Resistance Values..................................................................9 Resistance in Series ............................................................................9 Resistance in Parallel ........................................................................10 Ohms Law and Electrical Power (Watts Law) ................................11 Practical Example Using Ohms Law and Watts Law ................................................................................................12 Easy Ohms Law and Watts Law References ....................................13 Batteries/Power Storage Technologies ..............................................................13 Wet Lead Acid Batteries ................................................................15 Maintenance-Free (Sealed) Lead Acid Batteries ..............................15 AGM (Absorbed Glass Mat) Batteries ..............................................15 Gel Cell Sealed Batteries ..................................................................16 Automotive and Deep Cycle Battery Differences..............................16 Parasitic Current Drain ....................................................................17 Charging and Starting Systems ........................................................................17 The Alternator ..................................................................................17 The Ignition Switch ..........................................................................19 12/14-Volt Electrical Systems............................................................21 36/42-Volt Electrical Systems............................................................21 Hybrid Vehicles ................................................................................23 OEM Anti-theft Systems ..................................................................................23 Power Supply and Distribution ........................................................................24 Kirchhoffs Voltage Law ....................................................................24 Kirchhoffs Current Law....................................................................24 High End, Appropriately Chosen Cables..........................................25 Fuses and Circuit Breakers ..............................................................27 Power Storage Capacitors ................................................................28 Applications of Electronic Components ............................................................29 Resistors ............................................................................................29 Potentiometers ................................................................................30 Incandescent Light Bulbs..................................................................31
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THE ADVANCED INSTALLER STUDY GUIDE
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Capacitors ........................................................................................32 Inductors ..........................................................................................37 Relays ................................................................................................40 Semiconductors ................................................................................44 Diodes ..............................................................................................45 Light Emitting Diodes (LEDs)..........................................................48 Transistors ........................................................................................50 Integrated Circuits (ICs) ..................................................................53 Microprocessors ................................................................................54 Digital Fundamentals ......................................................................................54 Databus / Network Communications ..............................................54 Control Modules and Diagnostic System Acronyms ........................54 Multiplexing......................................................................................55 The Binary System ............................................................................57 Integration into a Databus ................................................................59 IEEE-1394 (IDB-1394) ....................................................................61 MOST ................................................................................................61 Optical Data Transfer ........................................................................62 Sample Test Questions ......................................................................................64
CHAPTER 2 ADVANCED INSTALLATION KNOWLEDGE AND TECHNIQUE
Tools and Safety ..............................................................................................68 Hand Tools ........................................................................................68 Specialty Installation Tools ..............................................................71 Power and Pneumatic Tools..............................................................74 Shop Safety........................................................................................78 Keeping a Clean Shop ......................................................................82 General Vehicle Disassembly ............................................................................82 Use of Proper Tools ..........................................................................82 Panel Fastening Techniques..............................................................83 Management of Hardware ................................................................83 Electrical Connectors........................................................................84 Fabrication ......................................................................................................84 Fabrication Materials and Basic Techniques ....................................84 Plastic Adhesives ..............................................................................92 Working with Plastics and Adhesives ..............................................94 Working with Body Fillers to Cosmetically Finish Projects ............95 Types of Body Filler and Finishing Materials ..................................95 Smoothing Shapes with Body Fillers ................................................96 Finishing Projects with High Build Spray Primers ..........................97 Painting with Plastic Textures and Colors........................................99 Electronic Testing and Test Equipment ............................................................100 Circuit Verification..........................................................................100 Testing Wires in a Vehicle ..............................................................103 Taking DC Voltage Measurements..................................................104 Taking AC Voltage Measurements ..................................................105 Taking Resistance Measurements ..................................................106 Checking Continuity ......................................................................107 Taking Standby Current Draw Measurements................................108
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Battery and Charging System Testing ............................................109 Testing Voltage Drops ....................................................................113 Notes on Voltage Drop Testing Applications ..................................114 Identifying and Troubleshooting Noise ..........................................115 Powerline Noise ..............................................................................118 Radiated Noise ................................................................................118 Ground Loop Noise ........................................................................120 Accessory Noise ..............................................................................121 System Noise ..................................................................................121 Proper In-Dash Installation ............................................................122 In-Dash Installation Accessories ....................................................123 CEA Standards for Aftermarket Automotive Harnesses ..................................123 Proper Speaker Mounting ..............................................................124 Basics of Aftermarket Amplifier Installation ..................................................126 Getting Power at the Battery (Direct Battery Feed) ......................126 Grounding ......................................................................................126 Getting Signal into the Aftermarket Amplifier ..............................128 Interfacing with OEM Source Units................................................129 Speaker Connections to an Amplifier Channel ..............................131 Connecting Speakers (or Voice Coils) in Series ............................131 Connecting Speakers (or Voice Coils) in Parallel ..........................132 Understanding the Function of Input Gain Adjustment................133 Setting the Input Gain Correctly ....................................................134 Amplifier Mounting Location ........................................................139 Sample Test Questions ....................................................................................140
CHAPTER 3 ADVANCED MOBILE AUDIO/VIDEO SYSTEMS
Vehicle Disassembly for Audio System Installations Audio Source Formats ....................................................................................144 AM/FM Tuner..................................................................................145 Cassette ..........................................................................................145 Digital Satellite Radio......................................................................147 HD Radio ........................................................................................148 DAT - Digital Audio Tape ..............................................................148 DCC - Digital Compact Cassette ....................................................148 CD - Compact Disc ........................................................................148 HDCD..............................................................................................149 DVD-Video ......................................................................................150 DVD-Audio ....................................................................................150 SACD ..............................................................................................150 Mini-Disc (MD) ..............................................................................151 Compressed Audio Formats ..........................................................152 Mobile Audio Source Units ............................................................................153 Headunit Mounting Types ..............................................................153 Source Unit Audio Output Characteristics ....................................159 Peripheral Source Inputs ................................................................160 Headunit Installation Considerations..............................................................162 OEM Integration ............................................................................................165 Single Ended Audio Inputs/Outputs ..............................................166 Balanced Audio Inputs/Outputs ....................................................167
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Differential Audio Inputs/Outputs..................................................169 OEM Interface Devices ..................................................................................169 Line Output Converters..................................................................169 CD/DVD Changer Adapters ............................................................170 Satellite Radio Adapters ..................................................................170 Turn-on Lead Generators................................................................171 Steering Wheel Control Adapters ..................................................171 FM Modulators ..............................................................................172 OEM Integration Installation Considerations..................................................172 Audio Signal Processing..................................................................................173 What is Signal Processing? ............................................................173 Analog vs. Digital............................................................................174 Active Crossovers............................................................................175 Decoders for Multi-channel Audio Formats ..................................176 Installation Specific Signal Processing Considerations ..................177 Mobile Audio Amplifiers ................................................................................177 Mobile Audio Amplifier Circuit Topologies ..................................182 Class A Amplifiers ..........................................................................182 Class B Amplifiers ..........................................................................183 The Class AB Hybrid Amplifier ......................................................183 Class D Amplifiers (Switching Amplifiers) ....................................184 Passive Crossover Networks ..........................................................................187 Other Passive Networks..................................................................188 Construction of a Crossover ..........................................................189 Orders of Response ........................................................................191 Speaker Types and Enclosures ........................................................................191 Speaker Types..................................................................................191 Subwoofer Enclosures Types ..........................................................192 Enclosure Construction ..................................................................194 The Ideal Subwoofer Enclosure? ....................................................197 Infinite baffle Designs ....................................................................197 Semi-Closed Aperiodic Designs ......................................................199 Sealed Enclosure Designs................................................................200 Vented Enclosure Designs ..............................................................203 Bandpass Enclosure Characteristics................................................206 Single Reflex Bandpass Designs ......................................................207 Dual Reflex Bandpass Design..........................................................208 Sound in the Vehicle ......................................................................................210 Low Frequency Transfer Function ................................................210 Uninvited Noises ..........................................................................211 Importance of Damping Vibrations and Resonant Panels ..............212 Speed of Sound ..............................................................................212 Speaker Installation ......................................................................................212 Rear Deck Locations ......................................................................214 Kick Panel Locations ......................................................................215 Center Speaker Locations ..............................................................215 Positioning Speakers for Optimum Performance ..........................215 Tips for Component Speaker Placement ........................................221 Installation of Full Range Speakers and Mid-Woofers ..................221
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Installation of Tweeters ..................................................................222 Digital and Multi-Channel Sound ..................................................................223 Audio Encoding Formats................................................................224 Multi-Channel Audio Software Formats ......................................229 Stand Alone Decoders ....................................................................230 Vehicle Disassembly for Mobile Video System Installations ......................................................................................231 Mobile Video Entertainment Systems ............................................................233 Video Sources ................................................................................................233 VHF/UHF TV Tuners ......................................................................233 Satellite Television ..........................................................................234 VHS Tapes ......................................................................................235 DVD-Video ......................................................................................236 Video CD ........................................................................................242 Video Games Consoles ..................................................................242 DC-AC Power Inverters ..................................................................243 The Video Portion of a DVD-Video Disc ........................................237 The Audio Portion of a DVD-Video Disc ......................................238 Video Output Formats ..................................................................................244 Composite Video ............................................................................244 S-Video ............................................................................................244 Component Video ..........................................................................245 NTSC ..............................................................................................245 PAL..................................................................................................246 SECAM............................................................................................248 Basic Elements of a Video System Installation ..............................................249 Video Screen Types ........................................................................250 AUX Inputs and Outputs................................................................252 OEM Audio Integration with a Video System Installation ..............................253 Video Signal and Power Cabling ..................................................................255 Video Component Mounting Considerations....................................................256 Multi-Zone / Multi-Source Audio/Video Entertainment Systems ....................259 How many sources are possible or practical? ................................260 How do the source and screen selections work?............................260 Troubleshooting Common Video System Installation Problems ........................261 Sample Test Questions ....................................................................................264
CHAPTER 4 - SECURITY AND CONVENIENCE SYSTEMS
Introduction....................................................................................................268 Vehicle Disassembly for Security and Convenience Installations ......................................................................269 OEM Anti-Theft Systems ..............................................................................270 Identifying an OEM Anti-Theft System ..........................................270 Advanced Security Topics ................................................................................272 Range and RF Interference..............................................................272 Two-way Communication ..............................................................273 Inputs and Outputs of a Security System ......................................273 Identifying Vehicle Circuits ............................................................................274 Identify Positive Switching ............................................................276 Identify Negative Switching............................................................276
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Identify Reverse Polarity Switching................................................276 Identify Multiplex or Variable Voltage Switching ..........................276 Examples of applications that use the previous switching types ................................................................278 Unique Interfacing Challenges ......................................................281 Advanced Relay Applications ........................................................282 Security System Placement and Mounting ......................................................287 Mounting Considerations for a Control Unit ................................287 RF Range Concerns ........................................................................288 Electromagnetic and Inductive Coupling Concerns ......................288 Vibration Concerns ........................................................................289 Wiring and Connections for the Control Unit ..............................289 Performing the Installation (Start to Finish)..................................291 Troubleshooting Common Security System Problems ............................................................................................294 Security and Convenience System Accessories ................................................295 Paging Devices ................................................................................295 Window and Sunroof Automation..................................................296 Alternative Security System Applications ......................................................297 Boats................................................................................................297 Motorcycles and Snowmobiles........................................................297 Tractors ..........................................................................................298 Remote Start Systems ....................................................................................298 System Overview and Vehicle Applications....................................298 Automatic and Fuel-Injected Vehicle Applications ........................299 Carbureted Applications ................................................................299 Manual Transmission Applications ................................................300 Diesel Applications ........................................................................300 Identifying Critical Remote Starter Connections ............................................301 Ignition Switch Positions and Measurements ................................301 Parking Light Circuit ......................................................................303 Tachometer Signal ..........................................................................304 Alternator Signal (Voltage Change) ................................................305 Foot Brake Switch ..........................................................................305 Parking Brake Switch ......................................................................305 Neutral Safety Switch......................................................................306 Hood Pin Switch ............................................................................306 Programmable Parameters for Remote Starters ............................307 OEM Security Interface and Bypass for Remote Starters ........................................................................................308 Disarming the Factory Security System..........................................308 Factory Disarm Output Wire ..........................................................308 Resistor Keys (VATS, PASSkey I) ....................................................308 PASSlock 1 & 2 ..............................................................................310 Transponder Systems ......................................................................315 OEM Anti-theft System Bypass Modules: ......................................315 Safety Considerations While Installing and Configuring a Remote Start System ..................................................................................................316 Testing the Remote Starting System................................................316 Educating Customer on Responsible Use ......................................316 Troubleshooting Common Remote Starter Installation Problems ......................317 Sample Test Questions ....................................................................................319
TABLE OF CONTENTS
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CHAPTER 5 IN-VEHICLE INFORMATION AND CONTROL SYSTEMS
Overview of Data ..........................................................................................322 Driver Distraction Safety Concerns ................................................322 How Information on the Road Works ............................................323 Bringing Outside Data into the Vehicle via Satellite ........................................324 GPS Satellites ................................................................................324 Limitations of GPS ..........................................................................326 Positioning the GPS Device or External GPS antenna ..................326 Subscriber Radio Satellites ..............................................................327 Proprietary Data Satellites ..............................................................327 Terrestrial Repeaters........................................................................328 Bringing Data into the Vehicle via Radio Frequency Networks ......................................................................328 FCC Allocation ..............................................................................328 NTIA ..............................................................................................329 Public Access RF Subscriber Networks ..........................................329 Sending Data from the Vehicle (Two-way Communication) ............................331 Products in the In-Vehicle Information Systems Category ..........331 Modern Wireless Phones ................................................................331 In-Vehicle Navigation and Route Guidance Systems ....................334 Testing the Route Guidance System ..............................................338 Subscription Services......................................................................................340 Digital Satellite Radio ..................................................................................340 Installation Considerations of a Satellite Radio System ................340 Installing Adhesive/Magnetic Roof Mount Antennas ....................341 Installing Adhesive, Glass Mount Antennas ..................................342 Installing Mast-type, Commercial Truck and Marine Antennas......................................................................343 Mounting the Dedicated Receiver ..................................................343 Mounting the RF-Modulated Control Unit ....................................344 Troubleshooting a Satellite Radio Installation ................................344 Consumer Telematics Systems ........................................................................345 Installation Considerations of a Subscriber Telematics System ........................................................346 Stolen Vehicle Tracking Systems ....................................................347 Installation Considerations of a Vehicle Locator System ..............349 Commercial Telematics Services ....................................................................349 Installation Considerations of a Commercial Telematics System ..........................................................................350 CB and Other Two-Way Radios ......................................................................351 Positioning the CB Antenna ..........................................................351 Adjusting the Standing Wave Ratio ................................................354
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Integration and Interface with On-board Systems............................................354 Airbags ............................................................................................355 The Check Engine Light..............................................................355 OnStar Equipped Vehicles ..............................................................356 Additional Resources ......................................................................................356 Automotive Manuals ......................................................................356 Sample Test Questions ..................................................................................357
GLOSSARY OF TERMS
Glossary of Terms ..........................................................................................360

APPENDIX
Appendix ........................................................................................................390
REFERENCE MATERIALS
Reference Materials ........................................................................................404

INDEX
Index ..............................................................................................................408
TABLE OF CONTENTS
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IMPORTANT MESSAGE FROM CEA: Due to the increasing complexity of aftermarket automotive electronics, it is more critical than ever that mobile products be installed in strict accordance with the manufacturers instructions. Mobile product manufacturers go to great lengths to design and test their products for safety, reliability and performance. Make sure that your customers get the most out of their mobile electronics purchases by reading and following the installation instructions included in the product literature. A quality installation is your professional responsibility. CEAs Statement on Mobile Video: When installing mobile video, navigation, or telematics products, you have a responsibility to ensure that these products are installed in a safe manner. Please adhere to the following guidelines when installing video monitors in vehicles: An LCD panel and/or video monitor may be installed in a motor vehicle and visible to the driver if the LCD panel or video monitor is used for vehicle information, system control, rear or side observation or navigation. If the LCD panel or video monitor is used for television reception, video or DVD play, the LCD panel or video monitor must be installed so that these features will only function when the vehicle is in park or when the vehicle parking brake is applied. An LCD panel or video monitor used for television reception, video or DVD play that operates when the vehicle is in gear or when the parking brake is not applied must be installed to the rear of the drivers seat where it will not be visible, directly or indirectly, to the operator of the motor vehicle. The consumer electronics industry encourages a uniform approach to video in the vehicle. In recognition of consumer needs and safety, CEAs Mobile Electronics Division recommends these practices. For more information, please visit www.digitaldriver.org.
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ADVANCED MOBILE AUDIO/VIDEO SYSTEMS

Vehicle Disassembly for Audio System Installations
When an audio system installation is taking place, certain undeniable truths transpire. The dash panel almost certainly requires removal if an aftermarket headunit is going to be installed. More than likely, the dash panel removal is even necessary for many OEM upgrades where the factory-supplied headunit is retained. A number of other areas require disassembly for an audio system installation. You incur certain assumed liabilities when working on those areas of a customers vehicle, so be aware of the challenges that are common to audio system installations. Parts common for removal in audio system installations include:

Center dash panels (surrounding headunits, HVAC controls, etc.) Center console panels and complete center consoles Underdash panels (both driver and passenger sides) Glove boxes (and surrounding area) Front seats (both sides) Middle and rear seats Door panels (front, rear, and cargo doors) Kick and threshold panels B pillar panels (in four-door vehicles) Rear side panels Rear deck panels Front and rear seat belts (typically held in with large Torx bolts) Trunk cosmetic panels
Seat and seatbelt

anchor bolt removal is often a necessary part of running wires in a vehicle.
Though it is generally not necessary to entirely remove the floor carpet to run wires in an audio system installation, correctly running the wires may necessitate seat belt and B pillar panel removal as well as entire seat removal in some cases. In vehicles with a trunk or under rear seat mounted battery, always avoid running audio cabling down the same side of the car as the battery-to-alternator connection cable. This battery cable carries high current and will almost certainly be a source for electromagnetic interference (EMI) related noise problem. Most important in any vehicle disassembly is the final step: putting back all of the original hardware for panel attachment as it was originally assembled from the factory. Often the easiest way for an automotive mechanic to blame an audio component installation for an electrical problem stems from looking at reassembly of the vehicle interior panels. To remedy this, always use the appropriate panel removal tools to avoid damaging any sensitive panel
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Always store panels with

the cosmetic side facing up where no scratches will occur. Avoid stacking panels unless foam or other suitable protection is placed in between each panel.
Figure 81. Vehicles with Integrated Dash Board Electronics Often Present Disassembly Challenges
When working on plastic,

vinyl or leather interior panels face down, work on carpeted benches or a similar soft surface that will not scratch or damage the panel.
clips and always be aware of where panels are stored while they are out of the vehicle. Laying a blanket or strip of carpet across a storage shelf helps ensure that the panels will not get any scratches while in your care. There is nothing worse than handing a customer the keys to the vehicle only to have him notice the big scratch in the plastic dash panel that surrounds his new headunit. Some of the methods by which interior dash and trim panels are removed for installation and/or modification are covered in Chapter 2 of this MECP Study Guide, Advanced Installation Knowledge and Technique.
Audio Source Formats

AM/FM TUNER
A tuner selects one of hundreds of public radio broadcast signals while it must ignore others. It must also reject electrical interference from car ignitions and Class D switching amplifiers as well as atmospheric conditions such as lightning and severe storms. The tuner must be able to select a desired signal, whose strength may be only a few millionths of a volt, while rejecting nearby, stronger signals, without adding to or subtracting from the source. Most car decks are designed to blend from stereo to mono as the signal strength of the station drops. AM (Amplitude Modulation). AM is a broadcasting process in which the amplitude of a high-frequency carrier wave is modulated by the amplitude fluctuations of the lower-frequency program signal. The AM band in North America operates between 520kHz to 1600kHz. FM (Frequency Modulation). Developed in 1939, FM is a mono-based system in which the frequency of a high-frequency carrier wave is modulated by the amplitude fluctuations of the lower-frequency program signal. The FM band in North America operates between 87MHz and 108Mhz. FM tuners typically operate in odd-numbered frequency steps in North America, while other countries operate FM stations in much more crowded airspace. FM stations in the United States are staggered, such as 95.1, 95.3, 95.5, 95.7,
The AM bandwidth in
North America is 520kHz1600kHz.
The FM bandwidth in
North America is 87MHz108MHz.
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95.9, and then on to 96.1 Mhz. In European countries. The increments are both odd and even numbers, and often in half-band increments. A typical European tuner would read 95.00, 95.05, 95.10, 95.15, 95.20 and so on. In the United States, the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) regulates the neighboring air space around public broadcast stations so that the broadcast signal is more defined when the tuner needs to lock in for consistent reception.
Amplitude Modulation (AM)
540 KHz - 1700 KHz
Frequency Modulation (FM)
88.1 MHz - 107.9 MHz
Figure 82. AM and FM Frequency Comparison
DVD-A - 5Hz-50KHz Amplitude (dB) CD - 5Hz-20KHz FM - <50Hz-15KHz 0
FM
10Hz
100Hz
1K
10K
20K
30K
50K
Frequency (Hz)
Figure 83. Frequency Response of FM Compared to Other Formats
Both AM and FM analog tuners have limited frequency response. While the average humans hearing is considered to be 20Hz to 20Khz, a typical AM/FM tuner has a response no better than 40Hz to 15kHz. Often the response is not even as good as that. For this reason, many AM and particularly FM broadcasts compress the broadcast programming so that is has better low and high frequency response when processed through a car tuner. Some headunits containing tuners feature RDS (radio data system) capabilities. RDS scrolls text on the front panel display to help sort broadcasts by type (talk, sports, etc.) and provide drive-time warnings of accidents.
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Important AM/FM tuner specifications include:

Sensitivity: the ability to receive weak signals clearly. Sensitivity is now measured in decibels per femtowatt (dBf). Lower numbers are generally better.
Margin Notes
Selectivity: the ability to discriminate between two signals very close to each other in frequency. This is important in major metropolitan areas. Again, lower numbers are better.
Capture ratio: the tuners ability to lock onto the stronger of two signals on the same frequency. This occasionally happens if a tuner is located about midway between two cities, for example. The lower the number, the better.
Stereo separation: The ability of an FM tuner to accurately separate a stereo broadcasts left and right channel information. Measured in decibels (dB), higher numbers are generally better.
CASSETTE
The cassette tape is a small, enclosed reel-to-reel that uses a plastic film coated with magnetic particles. In the recording process, the cassette tape is drawn at a regulated speed across a recording head. The recording head is an electromagnetic device that can arrange the magnetic particles on the tape in a specific manner. The audio material being recorded controls the order in which the magnetic particles on the tape are arranged. Once the recording head has arranged the magnetic particles on the tape, the playback head translates the particles back to audio. This is done by drawing the cassette tape across the playback head. The magnetic particles on the tape cause a magnetic field to form in the playback head that corresponds to the alternating current contained in the original audio source. Mobile audio headunits with cassette capabilities feature a playback head only. Cassette tapes have limited frequency response and playback quality when compared to other, more modern formats. Many OEM mobile audio systems no longer feature a cassette player in the main headunit, but may offer a slave version in a console or another dashboard opening. It is common for an OEM audio system to contain both a cassette player and another playback form such as CD. The cassette has obvious sound quality limitations and has a high noise floor (known as tape hiss) during playback. By using a masking principle together with signal compression and expansion, the Dolby noise reduction system (Dolby NR) masks some of the inherent noise associated with cassette tape playback. Dolby NR achieves this by boosting the low-level signal components during recording. This is followed by complementary attenuation during playback, using expansion. Dolby B helps reduce tape hiss up to 10 dB. Dolby C helps reduce tape hiss up to 20 dB. Many OEM and aftermarket headunits in the past featured this option, though most modern mobile audio headunits are suited only for standard playback.
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DIGITAL SATELLITE RADIO
Digital satellite radio

requires a paid subscription and compatible receiver for use in a vehicle.
Digital satellite radio is the latest advancement in automotive entertainment, offering consumers unprecedented sound quality, programming choice and national coverage. Digital satellite radio works much like the digital broadcast satellite systems (known as DBS or DSS) that are popular in homes. The digital signal from a satellite radio company is uplinked from a groundbased transmitter to several high-powered satellites that beam the signal back down to earth. Digital satellite radio subscribers can listen to the broadcasts using special receivers and dedicated antennas. See the InVehicle Information and Control Systems chapter for additional information on digital satellite radio.
HD RADIO
HD Radio technology allows digital radio signals to ride the same airwaves as analog AM/FM radio, bringing CD-like sound from any radio station to the listening public along with integrated wireless data services such as news and entertainment. There are a host of new benefits that HD Radio technology provides with the upgrade to digital broadcasting:

AM digital has FM-like audio quality FM digital will have CD-like audio quality Static-free and crystal-clear reception Wireless data services to include on-demand
Some aftermarket HD Radio manufacturers are using a separate tuner box, while others use a single-din headunit. Unlike aftermarket satellite radio technology, HD Radio only requires new receiver to hear HD Radio signals, and no new antenna or subscription fees are required.
DAT - DIGITAL AUDIO TAPE
Digital audiotape (DAT) was introduced many years ago as an economical professional grade digital recording format. Mobile players never really gained momentum, primarily because of a lack of recorded software. Where mobile DAT players are popular, you usually find a musician or someone else within the recording industry creating that demand. DAT tapes are much smaller than standard cassette tapes and therefore DAT players only allow for the playback of other DAT tapes. DAT tapes are also considerably more expensive. The DAT digital recording format uses a 16-bit linear pulse code modulation with selectable (recording) sampling rates of 32, 44.1, or 48 kHz.
DCC - DIGITAL COMPACT CASSETTE
Digital compact cassettes arrived around the same time as the mini-disc (MD) format. DCC was developed by Phillips of Europe and uses a 16- to 18-bit compressed (PASC) format. DCC is not the same as DAT in either size or recording technology. DCC tapes are similar in size to the traditional cassette tape and most DCC players will play both DCC tapes and standard
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cassettes. Commercial DCC players for the car are not widely available in the United States. DCC headunits were available primarily in Europe in the early to mid-1990s. Much like DAT and mini-disc (MD), DCC tapes that have pre-recorded titles are difficult to find in most music stores. A user who wants to enjoy DCC in the car will most likely have to have a DCC player/recorder in their home audio system to make the tapes. Because DCC was always more popular in Europe than in the United States, there was little if any evidence of this format around in the mobile electronics market. These days, the recordable CD format has all but consumed the market for DCC.
CD - COMPACT DISC
Margin Notes
The compact disc has been around since 1982 and CD players for the automotive environment since 1984. CDs were the first consumer format that offered the reproduction quality inherent in a digital audio format. As storage format, the CD is now recordable (CD-R) as well as repeatedly re-recordable (CD-RW). Depending on the source material, CDs can be used to record and store music or generic digital data. The process of getting music on to a CD requires analog to digital (A/D) conversion. The analog audio waveforms produced by music, vocals and other sounds in a space are digitized into analog representations that are given specific binary codes of zeros and ones (0s and 1s). This coding system is called pulse code modulation (PCM), and it is used in all modern digital recording and computer audio interfaces. To achieve a faithful reproduction of audio signals, PCM attempts to make an accurate digital footprint or code of the audio waveform contained in the signal. The PCM system requires two important elements to function at inaudible levels (meaning that the conversion between analog to digital and back to analog is indistinguishable to the human ear). The first of these elements is sampling frequency, and the second is bit depth. Sampling frequency describes the number of times that an incoming audio signal is sampled or measured in a given period of time. CD quality audio uses a sampling frequency of 44.1kHz (44,100Hz). Bit depth describes the accuracy of the sampling. As analog signals are converted to or from digital signals, the measurements are given unique binary codes of zeros and ones (0s and 1s). Bit depth corresponds to the length of the binary coded signals used to describe each sample of the input signal. Longer coded signals allow for the representation of a wider range of numbers. Smaller coded signals represent fewer numbers and smaller storage requirements. The standard compact disc system uses a 16-bit system with each sample represented as a binary code 16 digits long. Each of these 16 digits can be either a 0 or a 1; as such there are 65,536 possible combinations (or 216 unique 16 bit code values) for each sample.
Figure 84. Compact Disc (CD) Logo
The compact disc audio

format is 16 bit and uses pulse code modulation encoding sampled at 44.1kHz.
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HDCD
The HDCD 20-bit audio

format requires an HDCD decoding device; otherwise it plays as a normal compact disc.
Figure 85. HDCD Logo
High definition compatible digital format (HDCD) is a technology originally created by Pacific Microsonics (a company now owned by Microsoft). If a CD is encoded with HDCD, the front cover carries the HDCD logo. HDCD-encoded CDs are capable of better sound quality because they are encoded with 20 bits of audio signal data, rather than just 16 bits. HDCD overcomes the limitation of the 16-bit CD format by using a sophisticated system to encode the additional four bits onto the CD while remaining completely compatible with the existing CD format. HDCD provides more dynamic range, a more focused 3-D soundstage, and extremely natural vocal and musical timbre. To listen to the additional four bits of benefit, however, requires a CD player or digital signal processor capable of HDCD decoding. Because of the high resolution digital decoding chips in an HDCD component, even normal digital recordings (CDs, MDs, DVDs, etc.) can sound cleaner than on normal (non-HDCD decoder) components. Currently, very few HDCD audio source or signal processing components are offered in mobile electronics.
DVD-VIDEO
The acronym DVD stands

for digital versatile disc.
Figure 86. DVD Video Logo
DVD is an optical storage media format that is primarily used for playback of movies with high video and sound quality. The acronym DVD stands for digital versatile disc and encompasses a wide range of applications. A DVDvideo disc can contain up to 150 minutes of full motion video in addition to a 2-channel and separate multi-channel audio soundtrack on a single side. This allows continuous playback of most movies on a format just slightly thicker than a standard CD. Depending on the DVD movie title, the multichannel surround sound audio soundtrack may be a Dolby or DTS-encoded 6-channel (5.1) or 7-channel (6.1) soundtrack. Read more on DVD-video in the Multi-Channel Audio Formats and Video Sources sections of this chapter.
DVD-AUDIO
A DVD-Audio disc is not

the same as a DVD-Video disc.
DVD-Audio is not the same as a DVD-Video movie. DVD-Audio (DVD-A) is a DVD format, developed by Panasonic, which holds high quality audio data. DVD-Audio has been designed to be the next evolution from the 2channel, 16-bit CD. The DVD-A format is said to provide at least twice the sound quality of an audio CD-on a disc that can contain up to seven times the information of a traditional audio CD. DVD-A uses a compression format called Meridian Lossless Packing (MLP) to reproduce its superior audio playback with a frequency response of 5-50 KHz. Various types of DVD players that are compatible with DVD-Audio are being manufactured for home and professional use. Additionally, many DVD-A players have been specifically developed for the format. Only a few companies have developed a DVD-Audio player specific to the car, but several manufacturers have DVD-Audio players in the works. DVD-Audio requires a DVD-A player for true playback of the MLP audio tracks. Some special discs are available that have Dolby Digital or DTS encoded audio material in the
Figure 87. DVD Audio Logo
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Frequency Response of DVD-Audio
Margin Notes
Amplitude (dB)
DVD-Audio - 5Hz-50KHz 0
10Hz
100Hz
1K
10K
20K
30K
50K
Frequency (Hz)
Figure 88. DVD-Audio has a Possible Frequency Response up to 50K
video zone of the disc. A normal DVD-Video player can access the video zone. Remember that the DVD-A format allows content to be placed in the video zone of the disc but does not require it. Many DVD-A discs on the market today contain only a MLP multi-channel and high resolution 2-channel PCM layer and are thus unplayable on a conventional CD or DVD-Video player. For the most part, DVD-Audio is limited by the player compatibility issues and by commercially available titles. Read more information on DVD-Audio in the Multi-Channel Audio Formats section of this chapter.
SACD
Super audio compact disc (SACD) is a high-resolution audio CD format developed and supported by Philips and Sony. Like DVD-Audio, SACD offers 5.1-channel surround sound in addition to 2-channel stereo mix on a single disc. SACD uses Direct Stream Digital (DSD) recording, a proprietary Sony technology that converts an analog waveform to a Delta-Sigma 1-bit signal for direct recording, instead of the pulse code modulation (PCM) and filtering used by standard CDs. DSD uses lossless compression and a sampling rate of 2.8MHz to improve the complexity and realism of sound. An interesting aspect of SACD is that it allows dual density, or hybrid discs that can contain both DSD and CD format (called the red book layer) of the same music on different disc layers. The top layer holds DSD-format audio data. This layer is structured so that it can contain both stereo and multichannel versions of the same music. If the artist, producer or music company desires, the discs bottom layer may contain red book CD-format digital data that can be played by any CD player. When a hybrid disc is placed in an SACD player, the player will automatically read to the DSD layer to produce theoretically better sound. A CD player, on the other hand, would automatically read the bottom red book or CD quality
An SACD disc may contain

a CD compatible layer, but the format does not require it.
Figure 89. SACD Logo
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Margin Notes
layer. This means that a single disc would provide the best sound quality a particular player was capable of retrieving. Remember that the SACD format allows a dual density or hybrid disc containing the red book layer but does not require it. Many SACD discs on the market today contain only a DSD layer and are thus unplayable on a conventional CD player. Like DVD-Audio, the SACD format can also contain extra information such as text, graphics and video clips. Also like DVD-Audio, SACD is limited by the player compatibility issues and by commercially available titles. Read more information on SACD in the Multi-Channel Audio Formats section of this chapter.
MINI-DISC (MD)
Figure 90. Mini Disc Logo
Created by Sony in the early 1990s, the mini-disc is a 16-bit compressed (ATRAC) format. A mini-disc (MD) is a re-writable disc just slightly smaller than a 1.44Mb computer floppy disc. MD works along similar lines to MP3 encoding but takes a different approach in performing the audio compression. It still bases compression on the concept of masking in human hearing, but it only compresses the music to about one fifth of the original size. Current versions can give very high quality playback. Although there are still a few mobile electronic products that can accept and play MDs, the format has become integrated into other products along the way such as computers and portable players. Commercially available MDs are difficult to find in major music retailers, which contributes to their limited growth market.
COMPRESSED AUDIO FORMATS
Figure 91. Mini Disc
Many digital audio formats have become popular with music enthusiasts who want their music portable. All of the audio formats in this section are forms of compressing the digital file sizes while trying to remain sonically entertaining. MP3 compression is the most popular format, but is by no means perfect. MP3 is an abbreviation for MPEG 1, audio layer 3. Many companies have developed other audio compression formats. Some formats focus on improved audio quality; other formats focus on improving compression and shrinking file sizes. Most notably, Microsoft Windows Media Audio files (.WMA), Real Audio files (.RM), and Dolby Advanced Audio Compression (AAC) all use some form of digital compression.
Many compressed digital

audio formats are known as lossy compression because of the compromises in signal fidelity.
MP3 (as well as WMA, RM and AAC) are lossy compression formats. During the compression process in a lossy format, some of the audio information is lost and does not return upon decompression when the music file is played back. The average listener may never be able to hear the difference between a high bit rate compressed file and the digital original, but given the choice, many enthusiasts will trade the convenience of digital audio for the purest quality of the compact disc. Until storage sizes increase or other lossless
152
formats (such as DVD-Audio) become more available at competitive prices, lossy compression formats (MP3, WMA and Real Audio) and Dolby AAC applications continue to grow. To read more on the compressed audio techniques and formats, please see the Compressed Digital Audio section in this chapter.
Margin Notes
Mobile Audio Source Units

HEADUNIT MOUNTING TYPES
Whether you are dealing with a cassette player or a CD player, several aspects of head units are similar. Around the same time compact discs were introduced into vehicles in 1984, the industry accepted the DIN-sized headunit chassis size (7 1/8 x 2 1/8) as the standard. The adoption of a standard chassis size has allowed the aftermarket industry to develop mounting kits that are easier to work with than in the past, when each manufacturer determined its own sizes. Now the major obstacle in chassis size is the vehicle manufacturer. A number of other terms relate to headunit dimensions: DIN - This is the most common aftermarket headunit chassis size. It measures 7 1/8 wide x 2 1/8 high. Many aftermarket radios are actually 7 x 2 and slide into a DIN opening that accepts a 1/8 larger mounting sleeve. There are also many OEM DIN radios including Porsche, Mercedes-Benz, Saab, pre-1996 BMW, most VW and older Jaguar vehicles. Other applications include some Fords from 1987 and later, most pre-2000 Hondas, and some Mazdas. Sadly, DIN openings are disappearing from modern dashboards in favor of unique, more ergonomic shapes.
A DIN opening is 7.125

wide by 2.125 high.
Figure 92. Front Load DIN Headunit Application
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Margin Notes
An ISO-DIN application
does not use the supplied trim ring, but rather the OEM dash panel as the trim surrounding the headunit.
ISO-DIN - The ISO-DIN has a slimmer front panel, sometimes called the nosepiece. This usually mounts into an opening and has a dash trim panel that fits over the front. An aftermarket radio that can be ISO-mounted needs to have the ability to have the surrounding trim ring removed so only the nosepiece protrudes through the radio opening. Most fixed radios can be ISO-mounted. Radios with a detachable faceplate sometimes cannot be ISO-mounted. It depends on the radio trim ring and whether it is fixed or removable. In a true ISO-DIN installation, the mounting sleeve is not used, but rather the factory bracket assembly is. OEM ISO-DIN cars include Toyota, Mitsubishi, Isuzu, older Nissan and some Mazdas. Double DIN - Double DIN is the same as two DIN units stacked on top of each other. Double DIN could also refer to an opening in a dash, which will allow for two DIN radios to be stacked. Double ISO-DIN - Much like a double DIN chassis, the double ISO DIN is meant to accommodate two stacked DIN radio chassis, although it could also be a single chassis, double-sized. The key difference between a double DIN and a double ISO-DIN is the size of the nosepiece. These openings are found in Toyotas, Mitsubishis and Nissans. M2000 General Motors Chassis - This is the industry name for the size of radio found in most General Motors cars. Its front panel measures 8 1/8 wide x 3 5/8 high. The depth of these radios is often very shallow, sometimes little more than 5 deep. This can make aftermarket radios difficult to install without modifications for limited depth or specialty installation parts. Installation kits for aftermarket radios are widely available to fit nearly every GM-M2000 chassis application.
Labeled with "N" and "T"
Figure 93. Factory Bracket Holes
Figure 94. Front Load Double DIN Headunit Application Common in Many Ford and Mazda vehicles. (Some applications may require dash trim removal)
Figure 96. Standard GM M2000 Dimension Headunit
Figure 95. Double ISO DIN Headunit Application
Oversize GM Chassis - In recent years, GM has put a slightly larger radio chassis into some of the luxury GM cars and trucks. These include some Chevrolet, GMC truck, Buick, Oldsmobile and Cadillac models. The opening is nearly double DIN size.
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Margin Notes
Figure 97. Oversize Dimension GM Headunit
Chrysler Chassis - The Chrysler chassis fits most U.S.-made Chrysler, Plymouth, Jeep and Dodge products. Its front panel measures 7 3/4 wide x 3 1/2 high. It looks about the same as the GM M2000 opening. Chrysler vehicles since the late 1990s use the same chassis with rounded corners on the headunit face. Installation kits for aftermarket radios are available for most Chrysler chassis applications.
Figure 98. 1996+ Chrysler Headunits (Identified by Rounded Corners)
Non-DIN Ford Chassis - In recent years, many new Ford and LincolnMercury products also feature a newer and larger chassis size, similar to the double DIN size. Since 1998 it is found in nearly all Ford trucks, Lincoln vehicles and many other Ford vehicles.
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Unique Shapes - An increasing number of vehicles use proprietary integrated control panel (ICP) headunit designs. What used to be limited to a few exotic or luxury vehicles has become more mainstream. Today, manufacturers such as Ford, Dodge/Chrysler, Honda, Mitsubishi, Toyota, Acura, Audi, Lexus, Volvo, Mercedes Benz, Cadillac, Infiniti, BMW and Nissan all have several vehicles with unique dashboard shapes and integrated radio/HVAC control assemblies. In addition, many of these vehicles incorporate an LCD screen to facilitate driver information such as temperature, rear view cameras and OEM navigation systems. With these challenges to consider, some vehicles are clearly candidates for OEM integration with the factory source unit so that other functional elements of the dashboard remain intact.
Figure 99. 2000 Ford Taurus
Figure 100. 88-92 GM Trucks 3-Piece Source Unit
Figure 101. 2003 Honda Accord (without OEM Navigation)
Figure 103. 2001 BMW 3 Figure 102. 2003 Honda Accord (with OEM Navigation) Series
Figure 104. 2003 Infiniti G35 Sedan (with OEM Navigation)
Figure 105. 2004 Nissan Maxima
Figure 106. 2002 Lexus IS300
Figure 107. 2003 Porsche Cayenne
Source Unit Audio Output Types (Analog and Digital)
The vast majority of headunits in mobile audio applications use analog outputs, either powered to directly drive small speakers or pre-amp level intended to use external amplification. Analog pre-amp level audio outputs typically feature red and white colored RCA connectors. This plug standard is found on many consumer audio/video products, but in mobile audio these colors represent analog audio inputs and outputs. Nearly all audio
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THE ADVANCED INSTALLER STUDY GUIDE CHAPTER 3 ADVANCED MOBILE AUDIO/VIDEO SYSTEMS
components built for mobile audio applications feature these types of audio connections. These connections provide the pathway for audio material to get from the headunit into other components and, ultimately, to an amplifier. There are four common types of analog audio outputs: single-ended, balanced, floating and differential. This is an important detail with respect to compatibility of aftermarket and OEM audio components. Often one type of audio output is not compatible with another, even when the components plug into each other using RCA audio cables. The majority of aftermarket headunits with an analog preamp level audio output are simple, singleended outputs. High-powered headunits that directly power a speaker typically feature a floating ground output. OEM audio systems are often balanced or differential outputs that have other audio grounding conflicts not directly compatible with single-ended audio inputs and outputs. To read more about balanced or differential outputs in regard to OEM applications, read more in the OEM integration section of this chapter.
Margin Notes
RCA is a plug standard

found on many devices. Red and white designate preamp level audio inputs and outputs. Red is right, white is left.
Figure 109. Speaker Level Outputs
Figure 108. Single Ended Preamp Level Audio Output (Using standardized RCA type connectors)
Figure 110. Floating Ground Speaker Output
Some high-end mobile CD players or CD changers feature a digital audio output. Perhaps more common is DVD players that feature digital audio outputs. Whenever a source component features a digital output, it must be connected to an intermediary device called a D/A converter to convert the digital audio to analog signals that an amplifier can accept. Currently, very few mobile audio amplifiers accept digital audio inputs. Furthermore, DVD players may need additional decoding of the digital audio signal to unpack
CHAPTER 3 ADVANCED MOBILE AUDIO/VIDEO SYSTEMS THE ADVANCED INSTALLER STUDY GUIDE
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Margin Notes
multiple, discrete channels of encoded surround material. For these decoding chores, a digital decoder is required and typically increases the overall cost of the audio system. The vast majority of mobile audio products that contain a digital audio output use an optical connection via plastic optical fiber cable (POF) as opposed to copper wire connections. Optical connections (also called fiberoptic) convert digital signals into light pulses that are virtually immune to electromagnetic interference (EMI) issues in the vehicle. Optical connections have different installation concerns than copper. To maintain signal purity, the optical cable must not be severely bent so that the clarity of the light pulse is altered in any way. Of course, for any source unit (CD, DVD, etc.) to make use of the optical digital output, it must connect to an intermediary processor that accepts such an input. While this type of input is common on most home audio components, it is somewhat harder to find in mobile audio components. Optical digital audio connections typically take the form of TosLink connections between POF cables. The TosLink gets its name from Toshiba, who developed the connector. Most consumer audio products have since used that type of connector. When a copper wire is used for digital audio connections, the connector is the same familiar RCA connector used in analog audio outputs. The only difference is that this connection requires a single cable to carry as many as six discrete channels of audio from the source to the D/A converter. To adequately match one component to another, the copper digital connection uses coaxial cable between the RCA connectors. This cable typically has a 75-ohm impedance at the digital sampling frequencies. Although a digital audio cable and an analog audio cable may both share an RCA termination, they are not the same.
The TosLink optical

connector is the most common in optical outputs in the mobile environment.
Figure 111. Optical Digital Audio Connection (Use with TOSLink Connector and POF Cable
Figure 112. Coaxial Digital Audio Connection Using a Single Orange RCA Type Connector and 75-Ohm Coaxial Cable
Top View
Front View
A digital audio RCA

connector (if present) is not the same signal as the 2-channel red and white audio RCA signals.
Minimum Bend Radius - 1.25" (Approximately 3cm or greater)
Figure 113. TosLink Optical Connector (Found on plastic optical fiber cables)
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SOURCE UNIT AUDIO OUTPUT CHARACTERISTICS
Margin Notes
Several key points affect the technical performance of any preamp level source unit. The individual merit of the source itself (AM/FM tuner, CD/DVD transport and D/A converter, etc.) is important. The preamplifier section that drives the actual audio output into the next device(s) also matters a great deal. For the most part, these are engineered into the source unit and cannot be changed or altered by the installer; however knowledge of the merits allows the installer to better match system components in the process of designing an audio system.
Signal to Noise Ratio (S/N) - This specification describes the difference between the audio signal from the source material and any residual noise generated by the source unit itself. This is measured in decibels (dB) and higher numbers are always better. CD and DVD source units have the best signal-to-noise ratios because they have inherently high signal-to-noise specifications.
Preamp Output Voltage - This specification, measured and listed in volts AC, is important for several reasons, the greatest of which involves the next component downstream in the signal path. The output voltage from the source unit should have enough potential to drive the amplifier or signal processors input with the input sensitivity control in the MIN position without overdriving it. This yields the lowest degree of additional system hiss from the amplifier(s). The reference point between setting levels using test tones and listening to music generally allows for an easy 2:1 ratio of output voltage to input range. That means if you have a 4- volt headunit output, it will do just fine when it connects into an amplifier with a maximum range of two volts. It is always preferable to maximize the signal into the amplifier by matching it with the appropriate source unit. Although higher voltage is generally better, it must take into account the next device in the signal path. If the next device only has a maximum range of 2 volts, an 8-volt source unit will almost certainly overload the input of that next device.
Output Impedance (also called source impedance) - This specification is also important to consider as you select the components in the signal path. Output impedance is measured and listed in ohms (). True output impedance varies with frequency, so the specification listed with a source unit is typically accompanied by the tested frequency. With output impedance at preamp levels, numbers between 50 ohms and 1000 ohms or more are found. Although we typically regard lower output impedance as better, what is important to remember is that low output impedance enables more current. More current is important when driving multiple signal processors and amplifiers in the signal path. If only one amplifier is used with a particular source unit, the difference between a few hundred ohms compared between two headunits will make fewer differences than if the system contains multiple amplifiers and preamp level signal processors. Another example of beneficial low output impedance is when Y adapters split the signal from a single output to two or more inputs. This may be common practice in high SPL systems using multiple amplifiers and subwoofers.
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Margin Notes
PERIPHERAL SOURCE INPUTS
A peripheral source component is considered a source component that requires connection to the main headunit in an audio system for command and control, audio processing or both. The peripheral device(s) can be either permanently installed or portable with the option of easy removal when not used in the vehicle.
AUX Inputs
Many headunits offer one or more auxiliary or AUX inputs to allow external sources not contained within the closed loop of the source component audio path to be added into the mobile audio system. The advantage of a source unit featuring one or more AUX inputs is that the external source can have a fixed volume and the volume can then be controlled from the front panel of the headunit. This is useful for any portable music source, such as an MP3 player, or remote mounted source such as a tray load DVD player or video gaming console (X-Box, PS-2, etc.). Headunits that feature the AUX input also offer the ability to select the AUX source from the source selection routine in the menu functions or by a dedicated switch on the front panel.
Multiple Zones
Many headunits that feature multiple AUX inputs also allow a dual zone function whereby the main audio input selection is routed to the preamp outputs and will be heard on the main speakers. A second zone can be routed to an audio output that feeds signal to a secondary listening device such as wired or wireless headphones. This feature is especially useful when the vehicle incorporates a rear seat video entertainment system.
Media Changers
A DVD changer will

typically contain a composite video output in addition to control and audio cabling.
The CD changer has long been a staple in the mobile audio environment. The changer typically connects to a compatible controller headunit or control device via the proprietary bus cable. These bus cables allow the changer to be controlled and information to be displayed from an alternate location, which makes the installation flexibility of the changer virtually limitless with regard to placement. Many changers bundle both audio and control functions into a single cable. Other changers separate the bus (control) cable from the audio by providing a traditional RCA output that must be connected separately. These days the changers are not limited to only CD playback. Many changers are considered as media changers because they play both CD and DVDVideo discs. Some media changers also offer playback of MP3 files on CD-R or CD-RW discs. Any changer containing DVD-Video or DVD-Audio playback capability will feature a composite video output (the yellow RCA plug) in addition to the control and audio cables. DVD-Video playback capability may also indicate the presence of a TosLink optical audio output for use with a Dolby Digital or DTS decoder. Remember that the optical output
160
must be used if the 5.1 audio playback is going to be enabled and it must connect into a decoding device with the capability to decode the appropriate 5.1 format. In addition to disc-based media changers, there have been other changers such as cassette tape changers (originally offered by Alpine in the early 1990s) and mini-disc changers from several manufacturers.
Hard Drive Storage Devices
Margin Notes
A somewhat new alternative for music storage is a hard drive system that can store many types of media, both compressed and uncompressed. Obviously the more compressed the media, the more one can fit on the drive space. The main benefit is that the configuration of the media as well as the compression choices can be managed on a computer, than saved to the hard drive. This allows the user to customize his or her selections to suit individual tastes. Some hard drive systems are contained within the headunit while others are peripheral components that essentially connect as if they were an auxiliary source, such as a CD changer. Whatever the configuration, the audio output types are no different than most other mobile audio components, so installation of the device does not pose a higher degree of difficulty. If any increase in difficulty exists, it is in the set-up and configuration of the media on the hard drive device.
FM Modulation
One method of getting an external audio source into just about any existing headunit (either aftermarket or OEM) is the FM modulator. An FM modulator takes a traditional audio input (typically in the form of RCA inputs) and broadcasts that audio signal as an FM broadcast. The FM modulator device can be a wired-in version that plugs directly between the vehicles AM/FM antenna and the headunit or it may also be wireless. The FM band(s) that are broadcast via FM modulation are selected to within a bandwidth that has little or no broadcast traffic. Generally the lower range of the FM dial is the chosen bandwidth (around 87-89 MHz). Most FM modulators offer more than one band selection to allow the installer the greatest flexibility with getting a clean audio signal into the tuner. If there is one predictable drawback of FM modulation, it is that the audio playback will only be as good as the frequency response and channel separation of the FM tuner section in the headunit. Even the best mobile tuners have a frequency response that cuts off the extreme low and high frequencies of the audible spectrum, so the best source material will still only be as good as the tuner allows. Some FM modulators compress the incoming audio signal, which yields better results, but most listeners easily identify the difference between a direct preamp input versus the same input that has been FM modulated.
Figure 114. Mobile Hard Drive Source Units
Frequency response
and channel separation are common drawbacks of FM modulation.
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Margin Notes
Audio Output through selected FM Channel
Apply +12v and Chassis Ground to activate the AUX input source
Antenna Input (from vehicle antenna)
Audio Input (from AUX device)
Figure 115. Typical FM Modulator Configuration
With the FM modulator, only the audio is provided to the headunit, therefore only volume can be controlled by the headunit. The appropriate station of FM broadcast must also be selected for the FM modulator to operate properly. The audio source component still needs its own method of control for functions such as play, pause, track or disc selection, etc.
Headunit Installation Considerations

Every headunit installation has both cosmetic and electronic considerations that make or break the installation. With the appropriate installation mounting kit (where necessary), wiring harness adapter and antenna adapter (where necessary), installation of a DIN or double DIN headunit is relatively easy. Where the difficulty comes is in the following conditions:
The headunit that has been removed has no installation kit available and the installer must fabricate one. In this case an installation kit must be fabricated, period. The majority of installation kits are fabricated using ABS or acrylic plastics along with some heating, forming, texturing and/or coloring techniques. Only installers who have the proper materials and skills should undertake this. The finished look must be visually integrated with other dashboard panels.
Double ISO DIN Installation with relocated climate controls and a factory matched texture
ISO DIN Installation in a full custom show vehicle installation incorporating dual video screens
Figure 116. Custom Headunit Insallation from Mild to Wild
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The headunit should be ISO-mounted using factory headunit brackets, but no factory headunit is present (either a blank panel or missing from theft). Either purchase brackets from the parts department of a car dealer or fabricate them using an appropriate material. Many installers use rear support straps bent to attach to the ISO mount screw locations on the side of the headunit and to the OEM bracket locations in the dash. Angled thin wall steel or aluminum is also an excellent choice. Trial and error will be necessary to ensure a good fit when the panel is completely reassembled.
Margin Notes
The factory wiring harness plug has been cut off (either by a previous installation or from theft). This is not really a problem as long as you can function with measurements made by your multimeter. If the vehicle had a recent headunit theft, some of the power fuses connected to these wires in the fuse panel may have blown, which means they will need replacement before identifying any wires. 1) Begin by setting the meter to DC volts and first identifying a +12v constant lead, followed by +12v ACC and +12v illumination and/or dimmer wiring. Note: Use a known good ground point such as the vehicle sheet metal or the negative battery post for a reference ground. 2) After you identify the positive wires, move the meter to the ohms scale and find pairs of wires showing 2-16 ohms of DC resistance between them. These indicate a speaker load is connected to that pair of wires. 3) To find out which speaker in the vehicle it is, use a 1.5v C or D battery to pop the speaker. The speaker moving up or out corresponds to the polarity of the wiring to the battery being correct (the wire on the positive terminal of the 1.5v battery is the positive speaker wire for that location and the wire on the negative terminal is the negative speaker wire). Note: In cases where there is no popping and much higher resistance between wires (several hundred or thousand ohms), the system is probably amplified and a third party interface device will be necessary. 4) Set the meter back to DC volts and connect the red probe to the wire identified as +12v constant. Using the meters black probe, attempt to identify a factory ground wire. This is not necessary if you can locate a suitable ground point elsewhere. Note: If you locate a factory ground, turn on the parking light circuit to ensure you have not located a false ground through the dimmer or light switch. Many positive lighting circuits appear as ground while the switch is in the OFF position.
Cut or damaged wiring

harness plugs are one of the many reasons why test lights are no longer considered a safe and reliable tool. To successfully determine wire function, use a multimeter.
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Margin Notes
A telematic unit will need

to remain functional if the OEM headunit is removed, which may mean the OEM headunit must be re-located to another part of the vehicle. If you are not certain about an on-board OEM telematic system, ask the customer to verify a subscription service exists with the capability for roadside assistance at the press of a button from within the vehicle.
5) Make the appropriate connections to the headunit harness using a reliable connection method such as solder and high quality electrical tape or heat shrink tubing. The factory wiring harness plug is intact but has no wiring harness adapter available. This is basically the same procedure as the previous situation, but you should not cut the plug when interfacing your aftermarket wiring into this harness. Whenever possible, tap in to the harness a few inches back from the plastic plug so that the original equipment can be reinstalled when necessary. This is especially useful for lease returns or when a customer sells the vehicle and you wish to return it to stock condition.
The headunit contains functions for other parts of the vehicle, such as the dome light supervision, oil change reset function, door or lights left on chimes, or the OEM security system. Removing the headunit renders those function(s) inoperable. The headunit will either have to remain in the vehicle with an extension harness to allow it to be placed out of sight or a third-party interface module must be used. Not all lost functions have a third-party solution available, so relocating the OEM headunit may be the only option.
The headunit is part of the on-board telematic system and removal renders this system inoperable. OEM telematic systems include OnStar, Tele-Aid, Lexus Link, ASSIST and others. The headunit will either have to remain in the vehicle with an extension harness to allow it to be placed out of sight or a third party interface module must be used. Not all telematic systems have a third party solution available, so relocating the OEM headunit may be the only option. Keep in mind that the telematic system must still be operational (in the event of an emergency) while the vehicle is off and the key is not in the ignition cylinder.
The headunit contains a display that is necessary for other on-board systems, such as HVAC control and navigation, to function. Removal of the headunit renders these functions inoperable. Although there may be a custom engineered solution on a case-by-case basis, you should probably consider integration using the OEM headunit. Upgrading the speakers and adding or upgrading amplifiers can make a tremendous difference. Perhaps the most important part of this solution will be the functional integration of the appropriate OEM interface. See the OEM Integration section in this chapter for more information.
The headunit is part of an integrated control panel (ICP) that controls multiple systems, including HVAC, trip and performance computers, navigation, communications or many other integrated functions.
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All but the most advanced installation professionals should definitely consider integration using the OEM headunit. Upgrading the speakers and adding or upgrading amplifiers can make a tremendous difference. Perhaps the most important part of this solution will be the functional integration of the appropriate OEM interface. See the OEM Integration section in this chapter for more information. Whatever the challenge, headunit installations can range from easy to seemingly impossible. The key to a successful installation is having all of the correct installation accessory parts before you begin the installation. Once a headunit installation has taken place, take the time to check for the correct function of balance and, if applicable, fader as well as the clock and preset memory functions. It is always nice to set the clock and presets for the customer so the new headunit can get used without delay. Additionally, be sure to wipe down any fingerprints or oily smudges on the dash or the faceplate of the headunit. When you deliver the vehicle back to the customer, encourage him or her to read the owners manual about the basic operations of the headunit. Although many customers choose the hunt and peck method of learning the button layout of their new component, a quick reference to the owners manual will save a lot of unnecessary frustration.
Margin Notes
Always set the clock and

radio station presets when finishing a headunit installation so the customer can use the new headunit right away.
OEM Integration
The challenge with connecting an OEM headunit to an aftermarket amplifier- or connecting an aftermarket headunit to an existing OEM audio system (whether or not it has amplifiers present)-is that all OEM headunits and amplifiers do not share a unified audio output style. Many years ago, mobile audio source units and amplifiers used circuits for input and outputs, much like home audio systems did. These designs quickly had problems, primarily component signal level mismatching and unwanted noise. In addressing these problems, vehicle manufacturers developed their own ways of doing audio outputs and inputs in a mobile environment. As a result, not all audio outputs and inputs today can interconnect with one another, and not all aftermarket products will interconnect into OEM audio systems without some modifications or application-specific adaptor devices. In the past several years, integrating aftermarket and OEM audio components in harmony has been a growing challenge for all installers, including experienced installers. Electrically speaking, many styles of audio output are present in OEM source units and amplifiers. While they all deal with AC audio signals, the actual signal voltage levels and signal reference grounding schemes are different across the range of vehicles. Many of these source unit audio output types are dictated by the input style of the factory amplifier(s) when present. In Chapter 2, four OEM audio amplifier input types were characterized.
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Margin Notes
Low-level, single-ended input - (high impedance typically greater than 40 ohms but often in the thousands of ohms). High-level, single-ended input - (low impedance, typically 2-16 ohms measured between any channel positive and a common negative). High-level, balanced or floating input - (low impedance with high signal level, typically 2-16 ohms measured between any channel positive and the corresponding channel negative).
Low-level, differential input - (high impedance with low signal level capability and a differential audio input type. Common in Bose systems).
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN SINGLE-ENDED, BALANCED AND DIFFERENTIAL SINGLE-ENDED SYSTEMS
From an audio input and output perspective, discrete analog audio signal transfer between two or more components involves two conductors for each channel. The traditional audio output of aftermarket mobile audio equipment is to send the audio signal down the inner core of coaxial audio cable and to let it return via the outer braided shield. The majority of mobile audio equipment using this method also connects the shield to the chassis ground of the component. This method of audio output and input is termed single-ended, and is regarded as relatively simple. A simple output stage is needed in the source unit and a simple input stage in the receiving component (such as the signal processor or amplifier). The majority of aftermarket audio components with single-ended outputs and inputs use simple coaxial cables terminated with a two-conductor RCA connector. On the audio cable, the center conductor that is used to send the signal can easily pick up interference from external sources, so it is shielded by the chassis-grounded signal return braid that surrounds it. Common drawbacks of single-ended outputs and inputs are ground loops and radiated noises. Regardless of the signal levels (low voltage or high voltage), the inherent problems are still present. As signal levels increase, the ratio of audio signal to unwanted noise improves, which is why many companies offer headunits with preamp level outputs in excess of 3 volts AC. Expert troubleshooters often can fix ground loops in single-ended systems, yet many installers find ground loops are a frustrating source of noise. Furthermore, radiated noise from high current wiring that is close to singleended RCA cables is also a constant problem in mobile audio system installations. To best avoid radiated noise, it is essential to avoid running singleended signal cables near any high current wiring. See the section on Identifying and Troubleshooting Radiated Noise in Chapter 2 for more information. Suffice it to say that many vehicle manufacturers easily see the limitations of single-ended signal transfer in their own OEM systems.
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Margin Notes
RCA Connector Center Pin (Signal)
Shielded Audio Cable
Outer Ring (Signal Ground)
Figure 117. Single Ended Audio Output
BALANCED SYSTEM
A balanced signal transfer also involves two signal-carrying wires, but neither is chassis-grounded. Instead each carries an audio signal. One conductor carries the same information as the center pin of a single-ended system, but the other conductor carries an equal signal that is phase-inverted (mirror image) of the audio signal. The wires are typically twisted together in pairs and the conductor carrying the actual signal is normally called +, or non-inverted, and the conductor carrying the phase inverted signal is normally called -, or inverted. In most preamp level balanced systems, there is a third conductor that is intended to connect the chassis grounds of all components together; however, not all OEM mobile audio systems use this three-conductor approach. The three-conductor approach is highly popular in the profes-sional sound reinforcement industry where audio cables can run hundreds and hundreds of feet; however, the relatively short distances in a vehicle do not necessitate the third chassis-grounded conductor. When only two conductors are implemented, this is called a floating connection, such as high power headunit (speaker level) outputs. In some cases a third conductor may be present but not chassis-grounded, simply functioning as a shield for high frequency noises (such as the switching power supplies of the amplifiers). In a balanced audio circuit, the audio equipment is more complex. The source unit in a balanced system has to generate an inverted copy of the audio signal and send it along with the usual, non-inverted signal. The receiving unit, such as the signal processor or amplifier, has to have an input stage capable of accepting the inverted and non-inverted signals and recombining them back into one discrete signal for each channel. Many years ago, transformers were used both at the input and output of many audio components because it is very easy for a transformer to generate or accept balanced signals. Since transformers are not always cost-effective or physically small enough to retain good audio quality, more complicated schemes are implemented using transistors or integrated circuits (ICs). See Direct Coupled Differential Systems for more information.
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Generating a balanced audio output with high sound quality can be challenging. This explains why many OEM audio systems are not necessarily the same from vehicle brand to vehicle brand. Many OEM manufacturers simply bolt on a generic phase inverter stage-fed from the main, non-inverted, output-to provide the phase-inverted output. This may be cost-effective, but not necessarily high audio quality. The main objective for the OEM supplier is to avoid any major chances for unwanted noises. The balanced system accomplishes that aim. Balanced connections are excellent for noise rejection. When the two audio signals are recombined in the input stage of the OEM amplifier, they are recombined by subtraction (the inverted signal is subtracted from the normal signal) using the following mathematical model: [x - (-x) = 2x] Where x = the non inverted audio signal -x = the inverted audio signal The result is to retrieve the original signal at double strength and to exactly cancel out any radiated noise picked up on the wires.
Normal Left Channel Audio Signal
Normal Left Channel Audio Output
+
Left Channel
Differential Amplifier
Inverting
See Note Inverted Left Channel Audio Output
Normal Right Channel Audio Signal
Normal Right Channel Audio Output
+
Right Channel
Differential Amplifier
Inverting
See Note Inverted Right Channel Audio Output
+
Chassis Ground
(Audio Output Signal Does NOT Reference Chassis Ground)
*Note: At the receiving end of the audio signal (i.e. the next component), a differential operational amplifier must re-configure the NORMAL and INVERTED signals into one single combined signal. Mobile audio components such as headunits with "high voltage" outputs may already include the differential amplifier as part of the output stage to allow function with "unbalanced" audio equipment.
Figure 118. Balanced Audio Output (Using 2 conductors)
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DIRECT COUPLED DIFFERENTIAL SYSTEMS
Margin Notes
Many times, the balanced system (without any transformers) uses a method called direct coupling. Direct coupled balanced inputs are sometimes called differential inputs. One of the shortcomings of differential circuits is that they may not always be floating above chassis ground, which means that auxiliary transformers sometimes must be added to eliminate induced noise (due to ground loops or to very high level noise voltages). The vast majority of differential systems in OEM mobile audio applications are floating connections, but the relatively low signal levels of some systems make successful integration a challenge. In addition to addressing the low signal levels, an integration device must also address any differences in the DC offset of the floating audio ground. Many Bose systems in OEM applications are differential systems.
Many Bose systems

use differential outputs and inputs, which make the OEM components virtually impossible to interface to aftermarket without the appropriate adapter.
OEM Interface Devices

LINE OUTPUT CONVERTERS
An important part of integration involves devices specifically engineered to be middlemen between aftermarket and factory-installed components. These interface devices are line output converters (LOCs). The majority of LOCs used to be engineered and built using basic power resistors (configured as a voltage divider) for the factory headunit output. Potentiometers allowed the output signal level to be attenuated enough for an aftermarket amplifier to be added. Over the years, as OEM audio systems have changed to include more factory amplifiers, the complexity of an LOCs function has also changed. It is not as simple as adding a few large resistors and a potentiometer anymore. Many headunit output types will not tolerate the load of a LOC using power resistors. The modern LOC also must be able to function as an interface device that can adapt aftermarket headunits into OEM amplifiers and speakers. Suffice it to say that all LOCs are not created equal, nor do they all function in a universal application. Many installation shops will need to have a variety of LOCs on hand to complete installations in different types of vehicles. Before selecting the appropriate interface device, consider the following five parameters: 1. Output and input type Single-ended Balanced Differential 2. DC offset (if any) 3. Grounding Floating Common Reference to chassis
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4. Audio signal voltage levels (AC volts) 5. Input and output impedance
Just about every

installation that retains an OEM audio component while having an aftermarket component installed will require an LOC of some sort.
To properly match these parameters, use specific interfaces depending on the conditions present at the headunit (or source unit) wiring harness of the vehicle. These interfaces can loosely be divided into two categories: gain/impedance matching interfaces and impedance/grounding scheme matching interfaces.
-
Left Channel Speaker Level Input Left Channel to Amplifier Input
ACC B+* Chassis Ground*
LOC
Right Channel to Amplifier Input
Right Channel Speaker Level Input
Direction of Signal Flow
* Note - Not all LOC's have active circuitry that require accessory power and chassis ground.
Figure 119. Typical Line Output Converter (LOC) Configuration
CD/DVD CHANGER ADAPTERS
Yet another popular upgrade path for an OEM audio system is to add a signal source that is higher quality-and has higher capacity-than what is in the dash. This is why many customers are interested in adding a CD, MD or DVD changer to their existing factory system. If the customer asks the dealer, he or she generally will find the cost as much as triple that of a comparable aftermarket solution. In most cases, the missing link is simply a protocol converter or translator that can emulate the correct command from the factory headunit so that the aftermarket changer can be properly controlled. In these cases, the customers original unit retains its look and feel and the changer operates just as the factory option changer would have. Some CD/DVD changer adapters also offer an additional AUX input for the connection of a second source on the changer bus line. These devices may offer simple RCA inputs that could potentially connect to just about any source or specifically be configured to connect a second CD changer, satellite radio tuners, etc.
SATELLITE RADIO ADAPTERS
In addition to adding changers, many companies specializing in OEM interface products also offer the ability to control a satellite radio tuner directly from the factory unit. The highest level of integration allows the OEM headunit display to read out the satellite radio stations and informational text. Some adapters are limited to using the audio input of the factory headunit; they rely on an external controller for the selection of stations and text readout. In either case, the specific applications offer the consumer a greater choice of entertainment sources than the vehicles original equipment does.
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TURN-ON LEAD GENERATORS
Margin Notes
Many OEM audio systems lack a compatible remote turn-on lead for aftermarket equipment. The remote turn-on circuit from the factory-installed audio system (if not compatible as a direct +12v turn-on) may fall into one of five categories: 1) The remote turn-on output switches -12v ground rather than +12v positive. 2) The remote turn-on output is positive, but less than +12 volts (like +9, +5, or +3 volts). 3) The remote turn-on output is negative, and less than -12 volts (like -9, -5, or -3 volts). 4) The remote turn-on command is generated by the databus system in the vehicle and cannot be connected to a discrete wire for activating the aftermarket equipment. 5) A remote turn-on wire simply does not exist. Several options are available to remedy these problems, but the easiest solution is the device that senses audio and then generates a suitable remote turn-on lead. The device is available from many manufacturers and is even built into several high level input circuits on powered subwoofers. The basic operation is that the circuit connects to a pair of speaker wires and is able to sense the AC voltage when an audio signal is present. It then generates a +12 volt output that is compatible with aftermarket equipment. The circuit usually will remain on during quiet passages so the amplifiers or signal processors do not randomly turn on and off. Some devices offer a finetuning adjustment to this time period. Avoid connecting remote turn-on inputs to the accessory (ACC) circuit. To do so would cause the device to always be on whenever the key is in the accessory position, but to momentarily lose power when the engine is cranking over. This can cause unnecessary pops and thumps in the audio signal path.
STEERING WHEEL CONTROL ADAPTERS
Turn-on lead generators

are powered devices that simply take an audio input and generate a compatible +12v turn-on lead. Many powered subwoofers have this circuit already built right in.
Avoid connecting the

remote turn-on input for amplifiers and/or signal processors to the ACC circuit of the vehicle.
It is such a shame to lose the function of OEM steering wheel controls when adding an aftermarket headunit to a vehicle. While most consumers may not consider the loss of their controls until after the new unit is installed, there is clearly a compromise for the functionality of the system if the OEM controls do not function with the new equipment. In most cases, it is possible to retain the use of the OEM steering wheel controls by adding a third-party interface device. The common connection of the interface device either plugs into a compatible wired remote port on the new headunit or, most often, emulates the same commands that an infrared (IR) remote control does. For this device to function properly, the new headunit must have a wireless IR remote. The steering wheel control adapter essentially is trained to learn the
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Margin Notes
command from the factory buttons. This connection is hard wired into the appropriate wires at either the back of the radio or near the steering column. Once the factory button initiates the device, the device must learn a command from the remote control. The IR repeater LED must be mounted so that the front panel of the headunit can receive the transmission from the IR LED.
FM MODULATORS
FM modulation, a technique covered earlier in this chapter, is always a last alternative for getting an auxiliary audio source into the OEM audio system. Remember that there are sonic compromises with FM modulation in the form of both frequency response and channel separation. The FM modulator is best used for either simple installations, where fidelity is not the primary concern, or where there is no other choice. With the FM modulator, only the audio is provided to the OEM headunit, so only volume can be controlled by the headunit. For the FM modulator to operate properly, the appropriate FM station must also be selected. The audio source component still needs its own method of control for functions such as play, pause, track or disc selection.
OEM Integration Installation Considerations

There are a number of case-by-case installation issues to consider in nearly all OEM interface installations. As modern vehicles continue to evolve, with more complex and integrated audio systems, the necessity for strong technical knowledge and good resources only increases. The vast majority of OEM integration work will require some kind of interface device or maybe more, depending upon the challenges presented by the installation. Here are the key problems that occur frequently:

Alternator whine noises EMI related issues Floor noise / system hiss Turn-on / Turn-off pops Turn-on circuit voltage problems Impedance matching of various inputs and outputs Signal voltage level matching of various inputs and outputs Diversity or multi-path AM/FM antennas Factory-installed telematic system retention Retaining a portion of the premium audio system
The bottom line is that both installers and salespersons need to get into the habit of assuming that whenever a vehicle has some form of OEM integration installation, a portion of the budget should be set aside for the appropriate interface device(s). The biggest challenge with OEM integration installations is that many people assume that if a factory component is retained, the overall cost of installation is less than a complete aftermarket
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system. The reality is that approaching OEM integration the right way-using the appropriate interface techniques and devices-typically costs more. The complexity of the vehicle and the OEM audio system necessitates an ongoing cycle of research and development for interface techniques and devices. No single easy solution applies in all cases. Assuming a heightened level of complexity and cost to perform an OEM integration installation allows both the installer and customer to be more aware of the task of integration. Without question, the job of a Professional Mobile Electronics Installer will continue to offer greater challenges in this area and this category will separate the amateurs from the professionals.
Margin Notes
The majority of
installations implementing OEM integration require some type of interface device to accomplish the installation properly.
Audio Signal Processing

WHAT IS SIGNAL PROCESSING?
A signal processor somehow conditions the audio signal when passed through it. Signal processors are found in a number of forms, such as:

Equalizers Active crossovers Bass enhancement devices Spatial processors Digital signal processors (time/phase) Noise gates Subsonic filters Pre-amps
The most common signal processors are crossovers and equalizers. The crossover allows signals to be directed at speakers that are meant to handle a particular range of frequencies. It also limits the unwanted or potentially damaging frequencies.
Figure 120. Signal Flow of Pre-Amp Level Signal Processors
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Margin Notes
The equalizer (EQ) allows the customer to configure sound to his or her taste. It also allows for some correction caused by resonance, reflection and system shortfalls in the vehicle. The EQ provides a means to accentuate or attenuate a frequency. An equalizer will not fix a poorly designed system or improperly placed speakers. It is simply meant to flavor the music to sound accurate and real. Professional equalizers also aim to help achieve a smooth octave-to-octave balance in frequency response, which further increases tonal accuracy. Signal processors have several important features and functions, depending on the task at hand.
ANALOG VS. DIGITAL
Analog EQs use slide bar or rotary potentiometers. This requires a knob or control for each frequency or band. The multi-band versions of these EQs are usually trunk-mounted. Multi-band versions have many bands of adjustment, typically about 30 in a mobile audio application. These are known as one-third-octave equalizers. Many professional one-third-octave equalizers are separated into mono configurations, meaning that two are needed, one for the left channel and another for the right channel. Smaller versions can be dash-mounted. The smaller versions are usually three to nine bands.
A digital EQ in mobile audio
Q is FIXED at one value
may have an analog front end (for the RCA input) and analog
+12
Graphic Equalization
Boost or Cut
traditional single-ended RCA audio inputs and outputs.
Amplitude (dB)
output stage to function with
+6 0 -6 -12
20Hz 100Hz 1K 2K 5K 10K 20K
Band Center is FIXED at one frequency Greater range of adjustment requires a greater number of bands.
Frequency (Hz)
Q is VARIABLE (Wide to Narrow)
+12
Parametric Equalization
Boost or Cut Band Center is ADJUSTABLE, typically over a range of an octave above or below the center frequency. This reduces the need for a large number of bands.
Amplitude (dB)
+6 0 -6 -12
20Hz 100Hz 1K 2K 5K 10K 20K
EQs are not meant to fix poor installations, but rather to enhance an already good system design.
Frequency (Hz)
Figure 121. Graphic vs. Parametric Equalization
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Digital EQs have been introduced to car audio within the past decade. The advent of the digital signal processor (DSP) brought forth new possibilities for equalizers. Lower-cost processors now allow for multiple band digital EQs in the car. The first benefit to the customer is presets. The customer may have several EQ curves pre-programmed for sound quality and SPL or for the variety of music they listen to. Displays and controls can be improved aesthetically, because the DSP electronically controls adjustments and needs far fewer knobs. Many DSP devices incorporate other processors besides an EQ. DSP devices are famous for their ability to delay channels to make listeners feel as though they are sitting toward the middle of the car and in a bigger space. One thing to note: DSPs are not meant to fix poorly placed speakers; they will just help. It is not uncommon for a digital EQ to feature more than 30 bands. Some advanced mobile audio products have more than 100 bands, which add flexibility as well as complexity to an audio system installation. A digital EQ may have an analog front end and output to allow functionality with traditional RCA audio inputs and outputs. Regardless of analog or digital circuit operation, there are two basic styles of equalization employed in most mobile audio signal processing components. Graphic equalization features fixed band centers at evenly spaced frequency intervals; parametric equalization features adjustable band centers and generally adjustable Q. Both types of equalization typically offer cut or boost at the desired frequency, although having to do too much cut or boost often indicates the acoustic problems in the sound system are better served by fixing phase differences, reflections and speaker placement issues. Whether digital or analog, graphic or parametric, an equalizer is only able to enhance a well-designed audio system. An equalizer is not meant to fix problems associated with poor design, poor speaker placement, phase problems or poor choices in subwoofer enclosure design. Put an equalizer into place after you have already addressed most of the other system tuning issues.
ACTIVE CROSSOVERS
Margin Notes
Due to bandwidth
limitations, the crossover is typically the final signalprocessing component before amplification.
The crossover, like a glass prism, is intended to separate the different frequency bands and redirect them to different components. Without crossover networks of some kind, ranges of sound cannot be separated in an audio system. As a result, the system will produce nonlinear sonic performance and intermodulation distortion. Active crossover networks are designed to be inserted in the signal chain before the power amplifier. An active crossover is recognized by its need for external DC voltage. It will have external power wires or power terminals. Without power, it will not operate. Many mobile audio amplifiers have builtin active crossover networks to simplify installation and increase flexibility.
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Margin Notes
Q and Slopes
Equalizers are designed to accentuate (boost) or attenuate (cut) at a given frequency. Crossovers are designed to attenuate at a given frequency. Adjacent frequencies are also affected to some degree. This is referred to as slope, rate of attenuation, or the Q (quality factor). All of these terms describe the same thing: the rate at which neighboring frequencies are affected. Typically, 12dB per octave is used in equalization, sometimes 18dB/octave. This means that at 12dB/octave if you were to boost 5kHz by 24dB: 10 kHz and 2.5kHz (one octave away in each direction) would be boosted 12dB; and 20 kHz and 1.25kHz would not be affected at all. The steeper the slope, the fewer frequencies are affected. The gentler the slope, the more frequencies are affected by either allowing the music signal to pass or blocking it from passing. Parametric equalization typically offers an adjustment for the Q, which is why the parametric equalizer is an excellent tool for systems that simply need a few targeted equalization points not served with a fixed band graphic style equalizer. Slope is also known as roll-off. The slope of an EQ, crossover or other filtering device is measured in decibels per octave (dB/octave) and is indicated as a specific order of response. The following list outlines these orders of response: Order of Response 1st order 2nd order 3rd order 4th order 5th order dB/Octave Roll-Off 6 dB/octave 12 dB/octave 18 dB/octave 24 dB/octave 30 dB/octave
With active crossovers, higher slopes mean more signal passes (or more blocked signal) when you measure the next octave away, up or down. In active crossovers, 12, 18, and even 24dB/octave are common. In passive crossovers, simple 6dB to 24dB crossovers are commercially available, many with separate mid/tweeter speakers. For additional information about slopes of passive crossovers, see the section on Passive Crossover Networks in this chapter.
DECODERS FOR MULTI-CHANNEL AUDIO FORMATS
Any type of digitally

encoded audio signal must have a compatible decoding scheme as part of the playback device and signal path.
Whenever a true encoded multi-channel audio soundtrack is to be reproduced, the signal must first be decoded. Although this function is typically built into another signal processing device, it is still necessary to unwrap the multiple discrete channels (or matrix-encoded channels) of audio. Whenever an audio signal is capable of surround sound, for instance, there must be some form of decoding that signal. To read about the different types of surround-encoded material, see the Multi-Channel Audio Formats section in this chapter.
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INSTALLATION SPECIFIC SIGNAL PROCESSING CONSIDERATIONS
Margin Notes
When choosing a signal processor for a system, it is not uncommon to have several signal processors or several signal processing functions within one component. Given multiple signal processing paths, be sure to avoid having a signal over processed. Whenever a system has a crossover function within one component and another component is installed (and enabled) with a duplicate crossover function, this is known as cascading. While cascading crossovers can be an appropriate method to increase the roll-off rate of a particular audio signal, the results are less than pleasing if the two crossover points are not symmetrically aligned. For example, if a headunit has a subwoofer output enabled whose crossover frequency is 120Hz low pass, connecting into a full range amplifier would be absolutely fine because the signal is already filtered. The problem arises when that amplifier also has a low pass crossover and it is set to a different frequency. That causes a change in the roll-off that does not hand off the signal with as much accuracy and blend as if there were only one crossover point to control. Even if the amplifiers crossover point is set so that the printed number indicates the same crossover point as the headunit, there is absolutely no way to know for certain unless the signals of both components are measured and calibrated individually before cascading the crossover points on top of one another. Another concern is overlooking a subsonic (or infrasonic) filter for certain subwoofer enclosure types. In any vented enclosure, the woofer literally becomes uncontrolled below the frequency at which the vent, or port, is tuned. At that point, it is as if the subwoofer is not even in an enclosure. To prevent any unnecessary speaker failures and to increase power handling above the tuned frequency, use a subsonic filter. This provides a high pass function at a very low frequency, so that the very lowest frequencies (25Hz and lower) are simply cut off from the bandwidth reproduced by the subwoofer amplifier. By cutting the damaging low bass away from the vented enclosure, the speaker avoids damage from over excursion and excessive amounts of heat in the voice coil. A subsonic filter can save a subwoofer when implemented correctly. Many subwoofer amplifiers and active crossovers feature subsonic filtering capabilities.
Avoid cascading multiple

redundant active crossovers where different crossover points exist. It is virtually impossible to align multiple active crossovers by ear without the assistance of an RTA or oscilloscope with a signal generator.
Use a subsonic (infrasonic)

active filter when installing vented enclosure designs. The filter may protect the speaker from unnecessary damage at points where power handling is at minimum.
Mobile Audio Amplifiers

In a mobile audio environment, an amplifier has two distinct sections, the power supply section and the audio section. The power supply section contains components for filtering the vehicle battery voltage before it moves on to step-up transformers that increase the voltage for amplification. Step-up transformers trade an increased output voltage for an increase of input current. Larger output power requires more input current. In the power supply section, capacitors help to stabilize the supply voltage levels. The addition of externally mounted power supply capacitor(s) can often help the stability of the power supply. Of course the vehicle must be able to support the power supply requirements in the first place.
Mobile audio amplifiers

have two distinct sections, power supply and audio input/output.
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Margin Notes
Figure 122. Inside a Mobile Audio Amplifier
Regardless of amplifier topology, the power supply section in any 12-volt amplifier affects overall efficiency. Since vehicle electrical system voltage must be stepped up into larger voltages before it can be useful for audio amplification, it creates an intermediate step that wastes power and reduces overall efficiency. The drawback of inefficiency is, of course, heat. An amplifier that has a more efficient operation will produce less heat for a given level of output power. As amplifiers are asked to drive lower impedance loads (say going from 8 ohms to 4 ohms - then 4 ohms to 2 ohms - then 2 ohms to 1 ohm), power supply efficiency typically suffers because of the increased amounts of current draw in the power supply section. The audio section of a mobile audio amplifier processes the audio signal input-typically fed by a low level RCA jack or by high level speaker inputsto the audio output stages. Eventually, speakers are connected to a higher voltage version of the audio signal that was input into the amplifier. Higher voltages are available from the power supply but need to be switched into the speakers in a way that represents audio that will move a speaker in and out. This is why audio inputs and outputs are classified as AC. There is an alternating motion of both the signal and the speaker to which the signal is ultimately connected. It would be impossible to reproduce music through speakers by simply connecting a speaker to high voltage DC. Depending on polarity, the speaker would simply move all the way out-or in-and stay there until DC is removed. The amplifier alternates the polarity so the speaker moves both in and out. It must do this rapidly enough to keep time with the audio signals at the input. In an output stage of an amplifier, the job of driving the speaker is split between two sections, or rails. Think of each rail as a garden hose faucet that can be turned all the way off, full blast or anywhere in between. One section, or rail, provides the positive part of the signal when the speaker is pushed out. The other rail provides the negative part of the signal when the speaker is pulled in. These two rails are composed of power transistors. Each rail can deliver a variable fraction of the available supply voltage.
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The amount of voltage available to the rail is the rail voltage. The difference between amplifier classes has to do with the way the design changes between the positive rail and the negative rail and vice versa.
Channel Configurations
Margin Notes
Throughout the mobile electronics industry, amplifiers from one to eight channels of output are available. In determining a consumers needs, the number of amplifier channels is just as important as the output power. You can configure channels in different ways for different applications. For example, a four-channel amplifier can have two channels bridged while the remaining two channels operate in stereo. This creates a three-channel system. A six-channel amplifier can have two channels bridged while the remaining four operate in stereo. You can accomplish any number of combinations with multi-channel amps. For example, you can use a four-channel amp in three-channel mode, where the low pass crossover sends bass to the mono channel for subwoofer input, while the remaining stereo signal drives a pair of components in the doors in a high pass mode.
2 Channel Amplifier
Front OR Rear Speakers
Front Speakers
4 Channel Amplifier
Rear Speakers
Front Speakers
6 Channel Amplifier
Additional Speaker Locations
Rear Speakers
Figure 123. 2, 4, and 6 Channel Amplifier Default Configurations
Bridging Channels
Two main factors limit the output power in a common two-channel mobile audio power amplifier:

The impedance of the speaker(s) connected to the amplifier The internal power supply voltage
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Margin Notes
An amplifiers bridging
capabilities depend upon the load impedance connected to the output terminals and internal power supply voltage.
Assuming the best variables in the vehicle electrical system, these two factors still determine the safe and reliable power output of the amplifier. Other than buying a more powerful amp, one has limited choices to obtain more power. You can reduce the load impedance, but if the load happens to be a pair of standard loudspeakers, this is not always viable. Since the impedance of each speaker is already a fixed value, adding speakers in a parallel connection will effectively reduce the impedance loaded on each amplifier channel. Depending on the design, some amplifiers may not have enough output devices to effectively dissipate the added workload (i.e., heat). Increasing the power supply voltage by exchanging power supply components is generally a bad idea, since most commercially available power amps do not have a wide safety margin with component ratings. Amplifiers are engineered with specific parts in mind for the intended application. Modifying the power supply of an amplifier may cause destruction if the power supply voltage is raised to obtain even 50 percent more power at the given load impedance.
Bridging an amplifier
allows it to produce almost four times the single channel 4-ohm power, but doubles current draw and significantly increases heat generated on the heatsink.
Bridging an amplifier can cause it to produce almost four times the power of a single channel for the same impedance, however there are electrical and thermal costs for doing so. Bridging combines two channels into a single, more powerful channel. Bridging is often a more reliable way to achieve increased power levels without sacrificing impedance stability. Normally, a speaker is driven from the positive amplifier output to signal ground and the AC voltage swing is limited by the maximum rail supply voltage in the amp. Consider a 100-watt (RMS) per channel power amp: 100w into 4 ohms requires a signal voltage of 20 volts RMS. P=V2 / R or 20 volts2 = 400 / 4 ohms = 100 watts To achieve this, the peak rail voltage is just over +/-28V (20*1.414), and a power supply voltage of about +/-35V will generally be used to allow for losses due to heat and switching as well as supply voltage variations. For this 100-watt example, the voltage measured across the speaker voice coil terminals is about 20 volts RMS. The same amplifier into 2 ohms will deliver close to 200 watts per channel, provided the power supply does not collapse under the extra workload. For both of these examples, in each channel only one side of the loudspeaker is driven, and the other is connected to the signal ground of the amplifier. In a high-powered amplifier, the audio signal ground is not common with chassis ground, but instead floated above the chassis ground potential. This is where the term floating ground comes from. Nearly all aftermarket amplifiers use this design. Bridging channels means the second amplifier channel is configured so that the output is exactly 180 out of phase (inverted), with the first channel
180
then connected to the signal-grounded (negative) side of the speaker. As one speaker terminal is driven positive, the other is driven negative by the same signal level, only the signal level is 180 inverted. This creates an overall larger voltage range across the speaker coil, essentially double the initial rail voltage. At maximum power, the 4-ohm loudspeaker now sees double the voltage that it would receive from one amplifier channel alone. Using the same formula, observe the effective increase in power by simply doubling the voltage across the speaker coil. P=V2 / R or 402 = 1600 / 4 = 400 watts As the voltage across the speaker coil doubles, the current through the voice coil (and amplifier rail output devices) also doubles. This is the reason that each amplifier channel must be capable of driving half of the normal speaker impedance. For example, if an amplifier is capable of running in 4 ohms bridged mode, it must also be able to run 2 ohms stereo. Although it is not the same load, it produces the same heat and current on the output voltage rail. The main difference is that when bridging, one channel is a mirror image inverted version of the other channel.
Margin Notes
Amplifier
Sample Specifications 100 Watt x 2 @ 4 Ohms 400 Watt x 1 @ 4 Ohms 2
P=E /R
2 Channel Mode
20 Volt Rail
(Swings +20v and -20v) + 20v - 20v
Left Channel @ 4-Ohms
20 Volt Rail
(Swings +20v and -20v)
+ 20v - 20v
Right Channel @ 4-Ohms
Bridged Mode
+ 40v
Subwoofer
40 Volt Rail
(*Swings +40v and -40v) - 40v
*Bridging Combines +/- Rail Voltage to provide all of one channel as (+) Voltage and all the other channel as (-) Voltage
Bridged Channel @ 4-Ohms
2 Channel Mode
E = 20v total per channel R = 4 Ohms 202 = (20 x 20) = 400 400 / 4 = 100 Watts/Ch. 100 Watts x 2 Channels Total Output = 200
Bridged Mode
E = 40v across one channel R = 4 Ohms 402 = (40 x 40) = 1600 1600 / 4 = 400 Watts 400 Watts x 1 Channel Total Output = 400
Watts
Watts
Figure 124. How an Amplifier Works in Bridged Mode
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Margin Notes
Bridging amplifier channels is very common in mobile audio systems because the nominal 12-14v of a vehicle electrical system is too low to obtain large amounts of amplifier power without using ridiculously low impedances. Whether running stereo or bridged mode, an amplifier that delivers several hundred watts must still have stable input voltage and current to deliver that power level reliably. In addition, be cautious in bridging amplifiers where heat dissipation is a concern. If an amplifier runs hot in a 4-ohm stereo application, it will run four times hotter (or reach thermal shut down four times faster) when it is running bridged without additional thermal management, such as fan cooling.
Mobile Audio Amplifier Circuit Topologies

CLASS A AMPLIFIERS
Class A amplification is also known as linear amplification. In a true Class A amplifier, the transistors of the positive and negative rails are always on at the same time, regardless of whether the output is positive, negative or zero. This means that a lot of power gets wasted as heat. True Class A amplifiers are rare in mobile audio because they consume so much energy for such low output. Some respected audiophiles praise the sound quality of a Class A amplifier as clearly distinguishable over other designs, although in truth it is very difficult to hear subtle sound quality differences of amplifiers in a vehicle with road and wind noises.
Positive Rail ON Audio Signal ON Negative Rail ON ON ON ON ON ON
Class A
Rail is always "ON"
Positive Rail ON Audio Signal OFF Negative Rail ON OFF ON OFF ON OFF
Class B
Rail is ONLY "ON" with Signal
Figure 125. Class A and Class B Amplifier Operation
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CLASS B AMPLIFIERS
Margin Notes
Class B amplification is also known as linear amplification, but the Class B amplifier approaches audio output in a different manner than the Class A does. In a true class B design, the positive and negative rails are completely off until a signal comes through. If the signal is positive the positive block rail is powered on. Conversely, when the signal changes to negative, the positive rail turns off and the negative rail turns on. The two rails are never on at the same time. There is no power loss when there is no signal, but the handoff between the positive side and the negative side is a bit rough. The transition from one to the other causes crossover distortion that is obvious at low levels. Though Class B has inherent high fidelity limitations, many brands of mobile amplifiers are true Class B designs. Class A provides more output power for a given amount of electrical consumption, while Class B has limited fidelity compared to Class A.
THE CLASS AB HYBRID AMPLIFIER
Class AB hybrids combine the good from both Class A and Class B designs while seeking to eliminate the drawbacks from each. When there is no signal, the positive and negative rails are both on a little bit and both faucets are on a little. Some power is wasted, but not nearly as much as in a straight Class A. When the signal goes positive, the negative rail stays on for a brief time while the signal gets bigger. Once the signal is strong, the negative rail shuts off, as in Class B. In a similar way, when the signal goes negative, the positive rail stays on until the negative signal is sufficiently strong. This overlap prevents the crossover distortion present in a straight Class B design. The drawback to Class AB is that the overlap, known as bias, has to be adjusted for every channel on the amp. The bias adjustment needs to be set on each amplifier that is manufactured and the work is more labor intensive since it is done by hand. There are many examples of Class AB hybrid amplifier designs throughout mobile audio.
The majority of full range

amplifiers in mobile audio are Class AB hybrid designs.
Positive Rail
ON
ON
ON Audio Signal ON OFF
NO
NO
OFF
ON
OFF
ON
OFF
Negative Rail ON ON
Class AB
Rail stays "ON" just after Signal
Figure 126. Class AB Hybrid Amplifier Operation
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Margin Notes
CLASS D AMPLIFIERS (SWITCHING AMPLIFIERS)
Although switching amplifiers are offered under many names, Class D is the most common. Marketing departments have invented several new classes with new alphabet letters attached. In spite of the hype, these have all been variations on the same basic theme. The term switching amplifier will be used here to refer to all of these. While traditional linear-operation amplifiers work by supplying a variable fraction of the power supply voltage to the output, a switching amplifier, as the name implies, uses switches to deliver output power. A switch is either completely open or completely closed. To use the water faucet analogy, the faucet is either off or opens full blast. A switch essentially wastes no power. A light switch in a home can control hundreds of watts of electrical power and not even get warm. The same positive and negative power supply voltages that are present in conventional amplifiers are also present in switching amplifiers. The middle point between these plus and minus supplies is called the signal ground and is used as a reference point. A switch connects between each of these supplies and the power output. Basically they connect in series across the positive and negative supplies. If both switches are closed circuit at the same time, a short circuit across the power supplies would result. As installers know, a short circuit causes infinite currents to flow, damages components and blows fuses. When the positive switch is closed, the negative switch is open, and vice versa. A closed switch delivers nearly 100 percent of the supply voltage to the output. The switch can deliver either full positive supply or full negative supply, depending on the voltage rail to which it is connected.
Positive Rail Modulation
ON Audio Signal ON
Negative Rail Modulation
Class D
Signal is Modulated in ON-OFF Duty Cycles*
Figure 127. Class D Amplifier Operation (*Each Duty Cycle Equals a Value that Translates into a Signal Voltage)
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At this point, the rail voltage switching is relatively efficient, but the output does not look much like audio on an oscilloscope, nor would it sound like anything. You can get audio output from a switching amplifier by varying the amount of time that the positive switch is closed compared to the time the negative switch is closed, and then using the average value of the switched output. The averaging process is done by looking at the positive and negative output times. The polarity of the output is determined by which value is bigger. If the positive switch is closed for a longer time than the negative switch, the average value of the output is positive. If the negative switch is closed for a longer time than the positive switch, the average value of the output is negative. Finally, if the switches are closed for an equal amount of time, the average value is zero. When the positive and negative areas are equal, they cancel each other out. Here is an averaging example: Suppose the positive and negative outputs each have a height of one and the output is positive for 7 1/2 seconds and negative for 2 1/2 seconds. The area of the positive side is 7 1/2 and the area of the negative side is 2 1/2. Subtract 2 1/2 from 7 1/2 to get 5. So the net output is +1 for 5 seconds and zero for 5 seconds - in this 10-second period, the average value is + 1/2. How does the amplifier get an electrical average? Use a low pass filter, which goes between the switched output and the amplifier output. This filter uses inductors and capacitors. It removes the rapid changes from positive to negative and back, giving us the average as output. Now the amplifier has a way to get any value of output. But how does that become audio? A circuit called a pulse-width modulator takes audio signal input and creates signals that control the positive and negative switches. The switches do their thing, creating positive and negative outputs, and then the low pass filter gives back the original audio signal. The power switches have to operate at a frequency that is higher than the highest audio frequency to be reproduced. This is due to the averaging of the low pass filter. It takes several cycles of switched signal to get an average that accurately represents the audio signal at a given time. In a typical switching amplifier, the switching frequency must be at least 10 times above the highest audio frequency. So, during one complete cycle of audio signal, the amplifier will have at least 10 cycles of switching. How does the efficiency of a switching amp compare to a conventional linear amp? At full rated power, the difference is not that incredible. Where switching amps really produce greater efficiency is at medium power. For example, looking at just the output stages, at 1/4 of rated power, the linear amp has just over 40 percent efficiency, where the switching amp has about 70 percent efficiency. This matters because music spends most of the time in between minimum and full power.
Margin Notes
Figure 128. CEA Published Standard for Mobile Amplifier Power Output. The Primary Measurement Criteria Outlined in CEA-2006 are Power Output, the Signal-to-Noise Ratio and Total Harmonic Distortion Plus Noise (THD+N),
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Margin Notes
The efficiency picture in a car is more complex because you must have a power supply as well as an amplifier. The battery voltage must be converted to a higher voltage before it can be used it to make audio. This intermediate step wastes power and reduces efficiency in both linear and switching amplifiers. While you may hear claims of 80 to 90 percent efficiency in switching amps, this is for the audio output only. By the time the power supply inefficiencies are added in, a car-switching amp really demonstrates about 65 to 75 percent efficiency. This compares to between 45 and 55 percent for a linear amp. Remember that these numbers are at full power and the difference is even greater at medium power. Some marketing people have observed that the rectangular signals that come out of the power switches look like the string of 1s and 0s of a binary digital signal and have proclaimed that switching amplifiers are digital. The confusion is understandable, but this is wrong. Digital audio uses a string of numbers in which each number represents the approximate size of the audio signal at a given time. When you convert the string of numbers back to audio, you get a signal with stair steps. You cannot have a digital value between two whole numbers. There is no digital 1 1/2, only 1 and 2. That is where the approximate part comes in. The technical term is quantization. In a switching amp, the modulator can make infinitesimally small changes to exactly represent the audio signal in pulse form-no stair steps, no quantization-and no string of binary code as in 16-bit PCM audio. The next time someone calls a switching amp digital, just smile and explain this. If switching amps are so cool, why are not all amps made this way? Switching amps require high-speed switching devices that are rugged and easy to use. They did not exist until the early 1980s when power MOSFETs appeared. Then, too, the design problems in a switching amp are completely different from those in a linear amp, so there is a big learning curve. And a switching amp has performance tradeoffs. It is easy to get good efficiency, but hard to get low distortion, low noise and good damping factor. New research is going on today to eliminate these tradeoffs, so you can expect to see switching amps become more common in the future. The following terms apply to amplifier power (AC voltage) measurements:
Class D amplifiers (by

switching design) are not digital as some literature mistakenly says.
RMS - root-mean-square. Compute the RMS voltage of a signal by squaring the instantaneous voltage, integrating over the desired time, and taking the square root. If the signal is only AC, then the single peak value multiplied by 0.707 will work. As an example, if the voltage on an oscilloscope is 10V peak, then the RMS value is 7.07 volts RMS. The value of an RMS measurement is that it represents something likely to be measured at any given time, rather than just one reading over the entire measurement such as the peak measurement.
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Average - The average voltage of a signal is the mathematical average of the absolute numeric value of all points. Averaging improves the accuracy of measurements. In RMS measurements, averaging is inherent in the measurement; however true averaging takes into account the amount of time over which the measurement is made.

Margin Notes
Peak - Peak is the maximum instantaneous voltage of a waveform over a given observation period. Peak is often the most complimentary measurement and a manufacturer lists it on the chassis of a component, in advertising materials or on product packaging. Peak can be computed from an RMS value by multiplying RMS x 1.414. For example, if the voltage on a true RMS oscilloscope is 10V RMS, then the peak value is 14.1 volts peak. Peak-to-Peak - The voltage from negative peak to positive peak of a waveform. Continuous - The sustainable voltage or signal level over a long period of time. Typically, the continuous rating considers the normal amount of time in which the rated device(s) are used.
Passive Crossover Networks

When a filter network is placed after the amplifier, it needs no electrical power for any of the components to operate. Only an audio signal is needed. These filters are known as passive filters. Passive crossovers are simple networks that are designed to pass high signal levels. They are inserted between the power amplifier output and the drivers. Passive crossovers require no hook-up to the vehicles electrical system and divide the sound ranges after they exit the amplifier. Two and three-way car audio speakers typically include a simple form of passive crossover in the form of a single capacitor to block the bass to the high frequency part of the speaker. The installer can design and assemble passive crossovers to provide specific characteristics needed. Four main crossover functions are in use for mobile audio system installations:
Passive crossovers go
after the amplifier but before the speaker in the audio signal path.
Low pass crossovers let low frequencies pass through and primarily direct bass ranges to the components operating the subwoofers. High pass crossovers only allow higher frequencies to pass for routing to high frequency drivers. Bandpass crossovers allow a middle-range bandwidth, the pass band, to pass through. Such applications typically apply to mid-range speakers covering many octaves. In some cases, a bandpass crossover (or filter) will be used to let the entire musical band pass, but not subsonic and ultrasonic frequencies. Narrow bandwidth bandpass applications apply to dedicated midbass speakers and subwoofers with both low pass and subsonic (high pass) filters. A notch filter performs the opposite function of a bandpass filter. It cuts out or notches a particular band and compensates for acoustic peaks.
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Margin Notes
Although any of these crossover types can be active or passive, many components in car audio use passive crossovers for the cost savings of additional amplifier channels without much sacrifice to the quality of the sound. In general, passive crossovers are much more common for mid-range and tweeter speakers than for subwoofers.
Low Pass
Amplitude (dB) Amplitude (dB) 0 -6 -12 -18
20Hz 100Hz 500Hz 1K 2K 5K 10K 20K
High Pass
0 -6 -12 -18
20Hz 100Hz 500Hz 1K 2K 5K 10K 20K
Frequency (Hz)
Frequency (Hz)
Band Pass
Amplitude (dB) Amplitude (dB) 0 -6 -12 -18
20Hz 100Hz 500Hz 1K 2K 5K 10K 20K
Notch Filter
0 -6 -12 -18
20Hz 100Hz 500Hz 1K 2K 5K 10K 20K
Frequency (Hz)
Frequency (Hz)
Figure 129. Typical Crossover Frequency Response
OTHER PASSIVE NETWORKS
In mobile audio installations, other crossover types can be useful as a correction circuit to compensate for certain interactions between the speaker, crossover and vehicle. Since a passive crossover is highly phase-sensitive and the vehicle can cause phase problems, the phase correction circuit can return the front wave to a uniform output. Response-shaping filters, similar to notch filters, allow for correction in acoustically or electrically generated peaks. The common Zobel network is intended to remove the resonant impedance peak that is inherent in all woofers, mid-ranges and tweeters.
+ +
Amplifier Output
Resistor
Non-Polar Capacitor
Note - If using a passive crossover network, place BEFORE the Zobel Network
Figure 130. Zobel Network
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Driver attenuation circuits will balance the output from two or more drivers for optimum linearity in output. They reduce the output of a driver to match the overall volume. Each system can have custom-tailored crossovers. Since they are connected just before the speakers, one amplifier can drive a number of speakers correctly. This allows for the design of systems that are simple, yet provides for easy and effective upgrades just by adding amplifiers.
CONSTRUCTION OF A CROSSOVER
Margin Notes
Crossovers are built according to mathematical models that represent certain types of sonic behavior. Active crossovers are the most efficient, but require more than one amplifier to reproduce the various ranges. Since crossovers operate in the preamp level area of the signal, efficiency is high, and most active crossovers are variable for instant adjustment of sound parameters. Despite the higher costs involved in a multi-amp system, when coupled with active crossovers, the sound is optimized. Many amplifiers feature both active crossovers (built in) and multiple channels, making it cost less overall to implement an active crossover than to use separate outboard components. Fundamental electronic components known as capacitors and inductors are used for passive crossover networks due to the way they control frequencies. Resistors are used in some of the more exotic crossover networks and are also used in notch filters, Zobel networks and driver attenuation circuits. Capacitors have unique properties that make them extremely valuable to mobile electronics and audio equipment in general. A capacitor can store a charge for a short period of time and, therefore, will take in noise and ripple in a voltage and release it later as smooth, steady voltage. In series with a device, a capacitor will pass AC but will not pass DC. A capacitor will always try to charge up to its working voltage. If you exceed the working voltage, the capacitor may possibly explode. When presented with an audio signal, a capacitor will pass only the frequencies that its value will allow. As lower values of capacitors are used, higher frequencies are allowed to pass through the capacitor. This is called capacitive reactance, which causes higher resistance at lower frequencies. Coils (inductors) exhibit nearly the opposite effects of capacitors, but also have some of their own unique properties. Inductors pass steady DC but will not pass AC. Rapidly pulsating DC will be amplified to a high voltage for a brief period until the pulsations begin to saturate the inductor. At that point, the inductor will block the voltage. When voltage is first delivered to or interrupted from an inductor, it will increase the voltage for a brief instant (like an ignition coil on a car). When voltage is first delivered to an inductor, it will produce a magnetic pulse around itself. Two or more inductors wrapped around the same core will alter AC voltage from one coil
Passive crossovers
are made up of non-polar capacitors and/or inductors. Other passive filter networks may use power resistors as well.
Axial Electrodes
Radial Electrodes
Figure 131. Axial and Radial Electrode Capacitors
189
Margin Notes
to another. This is the basis of a transformer. Transformers will also convert impedance between two mismatched components. When presented with an audio signal, an inductor will pass only the frequencies that its value will allow. This is opposite to how a capacitor functions. As higher values of inductors are used, lower frequencies are allowed to pass through the inductor. This is known as inductive reactance, which causes higher resistance with higher frequency. These passive components are highly inefficient at lower frequencies due to insertion loss. They also can create phase distortions that can have a dramatic effect on the quality of sound as volume increases. Passive crossover components can vary in tolerance and quality, which can change the frequency of the crossover points of your drivers and can affect the amplitude of each of these frequencies as they interact in the crossover region. This can cause some frequencies to be delayed with respect to other frequencies. This delay is called phase-shift. This is particularly important with the tweeter crossover, where only high quality capacitors should be used. A tolerance of +/- 10 percent could change the crossover point by 500 Hz or more, causing either major frequency interaction between the tweeter and mid-range, or a 2 dB to 3 dB acoustic hole to occur at the crossover point. Phase-shift is inherent in most passive crossovers, and some designs (such as the third-order Butterworth) can change the radiation angle of the loudspeakers to be off-axis. Crossovers are usually referred to by the name of the inventor or by the mathematical model that the crossover represents. The most common types are the Butterworth, Chebychev, Bessel, Bullock Equal Compromise (BEC) and Linkwitz-Riley Butterworth filters are known for their flat frequency response and limited tendency to create peaks. A second-order (12 dB per octave slope) Butterworth reduces the demand on the loudspeakers but operates 180 out of phase. Reversing the tweeter polarity in a two-way system and the midrange polarity in a three-way system overcomes this problem. A third-order (18 dB per octave slope) Butterworth filter results in fast roll-off and correct phase in either polarity but does not accept the use of time delays for correcting problems caused by speakers not radiating on the same vertical plane. A fourth-order (24 dB per octave slope) Butterworth returns the same phase problem as second order and is quite inefficient at lower frequencies. You can find Butterworth filters in many crossover component charts from manufacturers as well as on various websites. The Linkwitz-Riley filter in fourth-order configuration minimizes interaction between drivers due to its steep slope, while maintaining correct phase and allowing time correction for drivers that are not on the same physical plane (time aligned). This crossover yields the best sonic performance above 3 kHz over other configurations.
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ORDERS OF RESPONSE
Margin Notes
The order of response for a crossover is its degree of effect on the signal. A high ordered filter does its job within a narrow segment of the musical band. A low ordered filter reacts much more smoothly but does not attenuate quickly enough for some applications. The order is a measure of attenuation measured in dB. A 6 dB filter will reduce the output of the signal by 6 dB every time the octave doubles or halves. For example: a signal at 100 Hz will be reduced in volume 6 dB at 200 Hz and 12 dB at 400 Hz, etc. The number of orders is the quantity of equal 6 dB attenuation effects on the audio signal passing through the filter network. A second order crossover attenuates at 12 dB per octave. For example: a signal at 100 Hz will be reduced in volume 12 dB at 200 Hz and 24 dB at 400 Hz. Different orders of filter are created by simply cascading basic filters. A first order filter has either a single inductor on the woofer (for low pass applications) or a capacitor on the tweeter (for high pass applications). Second order filters have one of each component on the woofer and tweeter. Third order filters have two capacitors and a single coil on the tweeter (for high pass applications), while the woofer has the opposite (for low pass applications). Fourth order filters have two of each component.
Note: With passive components it is easy to cascade components because the component values are decided before the passive filter is constructed. Active crossovers, on the other hand, are difficult to align by simply guessing the rotation of the adjustment knob or the accuracy of the components for fixed filter values.
A passive bandpass filter has twice as many components as a passive high pass or low pass filter. For example, a second order (12 dB) bandpass crossover has two inductors and two capacitors, which results in a secondorder filter when the pass band begins and second order when it ends.
Speaker Types and Enclosures

SPEAKER TYPES
Over the past 10 years, auto manufacturers have adopted fairly standard speaker sizes. The most common are:

3.5 round (8.7cm) 4 round (10cm) 5.25 round (13 cm) 6.5 round (16 cm) 165mm Euro round (16.5cm) 4 x 6 oval 5 x 7 / 6 x 8 oval 6 x 9 oval 4 x 10 oval
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Margin Notes
Mounting patterns are relatively standard, with the exception of the 6.5 speaker, which has always been tricky. Many so-called 6.5 aftermarket speakers are actually a 6 (also called a 6 three-hole). This was a common speaker for pre-1996 Fords and some Asian imports, particularly Honda. Most modern American vehicles have a standard 6.5 or 6 x 8 speaker. The 6.5 three-hole speaker usually has a smaller cone (usually 5.25) and a 6 frame with a generous 1/4 mounting lip. The other size is a true 16.5 cm loudspeaker. This size has a true 6.5 cone and usually a much larger frame. Many European and Japanese vehicles take this size. The standard drop in sizes are the 3.5, 4 x 6, 5 x 7 (commonly referred to as 5 x 7/6 x 8) and 4 x 10. These speakers are usually used to replace factory speakers and do not normally come with grills or mounting hardware. More and more often, OEM speakers have integrated frames that are shaped as a unique module, specifically intended for the application into which they are installed. Many Toyota, Chrysler, Mercedes Benz, Audi and Volkswagen vehicles follow this trend. To install an aftermarket speaker in place of an OEM speaker, you will need an adaptor in some cases. If no commercial adapter is available, you will have to fabricate a suitable mounting baffle. There are many types of speakers. They can be classified by application or by type. Applications include woofer, midbass, mid-range and tweeter. Types include multi-elements (coaxial) or dual cone. Speakers packaged as components are often two-way and three-way separate systems. Technically, subwoofers are even components because they are intended for use with other speakers to complete a full range audio system. With component speakers, each has a job and all work together to create a complete sound. In a component system, a crossover is required either using passive components or an active crossover with discrete amplifier channels (meaning a dedicated channel for each frequency range). An active crossover, though more expensive, is the easiest to adjust and optimize for quality sound. The advantage of this system is frequency separation and overall superior sound quality, if designed properly. The different pre-assembled or pre-designed passive crossover systems are the most widely used, especially where midrange and tweeter component speakers are concerned. The passive crossover networks are optimized to work with the speakers as an entire system and are easy to install. Using a pre-designed passive crossover network alleviates the guesswork. Remember to keep the passive crossover networks away from potential sources of radiated noise when installing them!
SUBWOOFER ENCLOSURES TYPES
Component mid/tweeter
sets should be installed relatively close together to achieve the best hand-off between speakers in the range of the crossover.
It is not necessary to
mount a subwoofer near mid and tweeter speakers to get a good blend of sound. You can mount subwoofers in many places throughout the vehicle with great results.
Remember to keep
passive crossover networks (especially large inductors) away from any radiated noise sources. This includes batteries, alternator charging cables and high current power and ground distribution blocks.
Of all the aspects installers must consider for car audio system design and installation, designing and executing accurate low frequency reproduction is one of the most difficult. So many black magic tales surround this topic that talking to two or three people can bring two or three different ideas about the ideal low frequency reproduction techniques. The truth is that there is no one single perfect low frequency system.
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Each type of low frequency system for the car has its own set of advantages and disadvantages. Each system is well suited for some users and perhaps a poor choice for others. It all depends on what the customer expects. The customer usually is not trained enough in low frequency reproduction techniques to walk and say something like I need two 15s and 1000 watts to run them. The whole reason they are seeking professional service is because they really do not know what they need. That is where understanding the details of low frequency reproduction becomes essential for the Professional Mobile Electronics Installer. Before you can spend time interpreting the users requirements into data, try to find a language in which to do the conversing. No customer seems to have a particular way of doing this, as you may have found out. Instead, you get terms like Id like more boom or tighter bass or even I want to hit hard when Im cruising. That is simply not enough information to fill a sound system design requirement-not yet anyway. To begin building a language to talk about low frequency system design, you must look at the critical points that will be in nearly every situation you will encounter. First, understand that it is not just the parameters discussed in this section that make the magic happen. It is also the way in which they interact with one another that sums up the performance of the final product. The points of particular interest include, but are not limited to: Resonance - The resonant frequency of a low frequency system is the easiest natural point of work, expressed in units of frequency. Resonance is the musical note that the low frequency system plays with the least amount of effort. Do not confuse this with the note that plays the loudest, because these are not always the same. Resonant frequencies are noted by abbreviations in Hz. There are several low frequency systems with more than one resonant point because of enclosure and port resonance. Half Power or F3 - Half power is the point at which the low frequency system achieves a -3db down point in the attempt to extend into the lowest frequencies the system is capable of (how low it will play). The point of reference for which the -3db down point is judged varies with the enclosure type and calculation method. Half power, for some, is judged from the resonance point, while for others it is taken from the 0db reference after resonance has occurred. For now, just understand that half power is when the system begins to roll off. Since all low frequency systems are high-pass or bandpass systems (regardless of additional protective filtering on the low side), the half power point is where the actual rate of attenuation of the low frequency system begins. System Q - System Q is very similar to Q in the signal processor section. The Q of a low frequency system describes the shape of the response curve around the resonance point(s). A flat, wide Q is referred to as a low Q, while a peaked, narrow Q is referred to as a high Q. The lower the Q, the lower
Margin Notes
There is no single perfect

enclosure design. Each type has inherent benefits and drawbacks and should be chosen based upon the customers requirements, vehicle and equipment choices.
Resonance-the easiest
natural point of work-is the frequency (in Hz) at which the object naturally resonates.
is the point at which
the low frequency system experiences a measurable and continued reduction in power handling as frequency decreases. This is known as the roll off of the enclosure. Actual F3 values are typically lower once the enclosure is installed into a vehicle.
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Margin Notes
the group delay of the low frequency system. Group delay is the frequency dependent variation in signal delivery time from the audio component or speaker system. Besides these three parameters, there are many more. Things like phase angle, frequency response, maximum excursion (Xmax), impedance both at resonance and nominal points (Zmax and Z), impedance damping, out-of-vehicle response vs. in-vehicle response, power handling, efficiency, distortion and, of course, the installers own time and effort are all things to consider. The three parameters highlighted previously will predict several of these things for you. Building enclosed subwoofer systems helps the subwoofer to be more effective at moving air. Moving air at low frequencies is how we create bass, whether in a car or in a room at home. The enclosure has a lot to do with the phase of a low frequency system. It has a lot to do with cancellation. Without enclosures of some type, subwoofers are literally moving air against themselves. Enclosures trap the air on at least one side of the woofer (usually the back) and keep cancellation to a minimum, thereby allowing the subwoofer to move large amounts of air without creating equal and opposite pressures to cancel itself. This section explains different types of low frequency systems that are common in mobile audio systems. While some may seem simple, they also may be well suited to matching up with a particular design goal.
ENCLOSURE CONSTRUCTION
The Q of an enclosure
describes the concentration of energies at one frequency relative to other neighboring frequencies.
Planning is the first step in constructing a great subwoofer enclosure. Every subwoofer is designed to operate in a specific range of enclosure volumes. The recommended volume range for almost any brand of subwoofer is available with the data sheet included with the woofer, on the manufacturers website, or by calling the manufacturers technical support department. Often, there are several slightly different recommended enclosures for each subwoofer, each one tailored to a different listener preference or application. There is no one magic enclosure volume or type, but rather a range of possibilities. No matter how well conceived, a subwoofer enclosure must be soundly constructed to realize its maximum potential. This portion of the MECP Advanced Level Study Guide covers the basic methods of constructing, bracing and sealing subwoofer enclosures. Subwoofer enclosures are commonly constructed from medium density fiberboard (MDF). MDF features low air permeability and high rigidity, while being easy to manipulate. Particleboard is less expensive, but should never be used in the construction of a subwoofer enclosure. It is air permeable and susceptible to chipping and cracking. Marine grade plywood is also a viable material, however it is slightly more difficult to manipulate than MDF In general, choose MDF in most applications because you can cut and . sand it easily, buy it at nearly all wood supply outlets, and pay less compared to other materials.
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Fiberglass is the ultimate material from which to construct the enclosure. It is extremely rigid, completely air tight, and able to take on almost any shape imaginable. You can increase rigidity by adding thickness and by changing the shape to minimize the flat unsupported surfaces. Fiberglass is much stronger at a given thickness when it has a curve. Because the polyester-based resins used in fiberglass work are toxic, be sure to use proper ventilation, respirator and skin protection. Composite construction is an advanced technique that can yield excellent enclosures. A composite is merely a combination of two different materials. A composite is stronger and better damped than a wall of the same thickness constructed from only one material. MDF glued to marine grade plywood is one example of a composite wall. A layer of fiberglass over MDF is another common composite. In addition to the added rigidity and damping, the adhesive joining the layers further seals the surface of the enclosure. While their complexity adds extra time to the construction process, composite enclosures offer amazing performance. MDF rings suspended within stretched forming materials on custom enclosures are an example of using composite construction to achieve unique shapes of a subwoofer enclosure. Internally bracing the enclosure is vital to maximize the output of a subwoofer. Enclosure wall flexing reduces the amount of pressure the subwoofer can generate. As enclosure walls flex in unison with the subwoofer(s), some of the acoustic energy is converted to mechanical energy and lost. Bracing adds extra rigidity to the enclosure wall at places where it flexes most. It is also necessary to use bracing or increased wall thickness where MDF rings are suspended within stretched forming materials on custom enclosures. Placement of the brace is critical to its performance. The wall bows in and out as the subwoofer pressurizes the enclosure, with the greatest movement at center. In very large enclosures, wall motion can be radically increased through the phenomenon known as coincidence. When the frequency being played by the subwoofer has a wavelength identical to the length of the enclosure wall, a standing wave occurs. Additional standing waves occur for wavelengths that divide evenly into an enclosure wall dimension. Fortunately, they dissipate much less energy, and are mostly irrelevant. While the enclosures flexing behavior is daunting to describe, it is easy to eliminate. Place braces at the one-third, one-half and two-thirds points on the wall to address the significant coincident bending modes. During the design process, remember to account for the volume of any braces. Building thicker, more rigid walls improves any design tremendously, but rigorous bracing becomes increasingly vital as the enclosure size increases. While bracing adds a level of complexity to the construction of the enclosure, it pays off in sound quality and pressure. When in doubt, add more bracing!
Margin Notes
Add additional bracing and

wall thickness to the area where MDF rings are joined to forming material in a custom composite enclosure design. This will help eliminate surface material cracking due to extreme wall pressures inherent in many enclosures.
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Margin Notes
Sealing the enclosure is the next step. Air leaks cause the speaker to behave as though it were in a larger enclosure, adversely affecting its output and sound quality. All of the walls, braces and dividers must fit snugly if they are to seal properly. Therefore, cutting the pieces precisely is mandatory to achieve a tight seal. An adhesive such as silicone caulking can fill any tiny gaps that may exist between the walls. Be certain to allow adequate time for the glue to dry before testing the enclosure. Avoid using a flammable adhesive such as Liquid Nails for sealing purposes. Such an adhesive may cause an explosion if not completely dry while a woofer with a vented voice coil is installed and driven to high excursion (potentially sparking the voice coil and igniting the residual fumes).
Figure 132. Speaker Enclosure Construction
Although difficult to tell,

MDF is a leaky material. For optimum results, seal the inside cavity with polyester resin, sealer paints or rubberized undercoating. The greater the woofer excursion, the greater the leak experienced in the untreated MDF.
Though they are too tiny to see, millions of microscopic gaps in medium density fiberboard allow air to pass through. To stop that flow of air, the entire inner surface of the enclosure should be coated with a sealant such as fiberglass resin. It is also possible to treat the interior of the enclosure with rubberized undercoating. Make certain to cover the entire surface evenly, and allow adequate curing time before installing the subwoofers. The subwoofer must form a tight seal with the enclosure to prevent air from leaking under the mounting flange. At high volume, it is easy to check for air escaping around the edge of the subwoofer. You can fix leaks with adhesive foam gasket tape. Silicone caulking can also be used, but makes the subwoofer difficult to remove. When possible, use the adhesive foam gasket instead of silicone or other sealants dispensed from a tube. Covering the enclosure is the final phase. Carpet, vinyl and laminate are the most commonly used materials on MDF enclosures. With fiberglass enclosures, many installers are able to paint the enclosure with a catalyzed primer, followed by epoxy primer, and then normal automotive paint to match the paint on the vehicle. Whatever material you choose, use a straight edge to trim vinyl and carpeting precisely and be certain to do any spray
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primer and paint in an OSHA-approved ventilated location. When using carpet, gently tapping along the seams with a mallet makes them much less visible. Take time to finish the appearance of the enclosure carefully, so that its appearance will reflect its outstanding performance. Subwoofers totally depend on their enclosure to produce good sound. No matter how well it is engineered or how pretty it looks, a subwoofer requires a carefully constructed enclosure to achieve its maximum performance. A little extra time and effort during the construction process can make the difference between sounding good and sounding great. Often the best sounding enclosures do not have the prettiest interiors. Bracing and various vibration treatments can leave the inside looking less that show quality, yet the sound benefits are unmistakable. Remember that neon lighting and clear acrylic viewing windows will not make an enclosure sound good if it is not constructed correctly. Plan ahead and take the time to build it right!
THE IDEAL SUBWOOFER ENCLOSURE?
Margin Notes
It seems like everyone who listens to or installs mobile audio systems has an opinion about which type of enclosure is the best one. Who is right? In racing the saying exists, What wins on Sunday, sells on Monday. In car audio, what does well in sound quality (SQ) or sound pressure level (SPL) contests will do well on the sales floor. So, what kinds of boxes win in the contests? Is there one enclosure that always wins? The answer is NO. If one enclosure was truly superior in every way, that would be the only enclosure installers used, but that is not the case. Mobile audio systems use sealed boxes, ported boxes and bandpass boxes. Each type has inherent advantages and disadvantages. Throughout this section you will see that there is no magic box that does everything well. Rather, each type will have a compromise in one or more areas. Each enclosure type is referred to by its mechanical (moving parts) orientation with the airspace rather than the acoustic and/or electrical order it exhibits. This is done to avoid confusion, because what is one persons second order is another persons third or fourth order-depending on the crossover used. The enclosures in this section simply relate to the woofer and the box. The key to proper enclosure design is deciding which factors are important for the system that you are working on and selecting a subwoofer that will perform well in that type of enclosure. Remember that all subwoofers do not necessarily work in all enclosure types.
INFINITE BAFFLE DESIGNS
Infinite baffle designs (sometimes referred to as free-air) technically are just very large sealed enclosures. As the size of the box changes, certain inherent trade-offs become evident. Each type of box in the sealed category of low frequency enclosure designs has its advantages and disadvantages. A speaker in an infinite baffle relies solely on its suspension for the restoring force required to return the cone to rest and to protect the speaker from over
"Free Air"
Figure 133. Infinite Baffle Design (also called Free-Air)
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Margin Notes
excursion. The resulting sound is determined entirely by the speakers parameters, and there is no acoustic way to alter it during installation because there is essentially no box-just a baffle. A speaker created for infinite baffle application must be carefully designed for optimum performance in that application. It will typically handle less power than an acoustic suspension driver and is more susceptible to over excursion when driven hard below the resonant frequency of the driver (Fs). In fully enclosed sealed enclosure designs, the air inside the box supplies a part of the restoring force, as well as protecting the woofer(s) from over excursion. The resulting sound can be changed by adjusting the enclosure volume, either by increasing or decreasing the actual size. A theoretical infinite baffle would extend in infinite dimensions to absolutely isolate a speakers front airwaves from its rear airwaves. In reality, an infinite baffle does have limiting dimensions, although it still appears to be infinite relative to the speaker. The idea is that the longer the baffle, the longer the path for the airwaves to travel before they can mingle and interfere with each other. In other words, to hear bass to a desired low frequency, the infinite baffle dimensions must be greater than half the wavelength of the lowest reproduced sound. For example, assuming a woofer can reproduce a 20 Hz tone, its infinite baffle would have be greater than 28.3 feet in either direction to keep the front and rear airwaves from canceling each other. In mobile applications, real infinite baffles are much too large, so we may use a door or a rear deck as an infinite baffle with the enclosed trunk space acting as the enclosure. In these applications the infinite baffle is nothing more than a large, sealed enclosure where the size of the trunk has little effect on the woofers low frequency response. Smaller trunks, for example, may sound different if loaded up with groceries or golf clubs because the apparent volume of the trunk changes. A common misconception is that infinite baffle applications are easier to build and less expensive than sealed or vented enclosures. This is absolutely not true. In mobile audio applications, it is imperative that the front wave be completely isolated from the back wave of the speaker. For this reason, rigid baffles must be installed under the package tray and behind the rear seat. Remember that an infinite baffle in a car is really a just a big sealed enclosure and any leak between the trunk and interior will result in a loss of sound output. Any surface that vibrates between the trunk and the interior will transfer energy from back to front waves, causing cancellation. This vibration or movement of vehicle components is completely useless as a means of producing bass. In other words, any time you see a vehicle driving by with a license plate vibrating, body panels buzzing, or trunk lid vibrating, you immediately know that the SPL inside the vehicle could be much higher
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if these vibrations could be eliminated. As a result, a well-designed infinite baffle will often cost as much as constructing an enclosure and take at least as much time to construct, if not more. As you can see, a good infinite baffle low frequency system involves much more than cutting a hole and mounting a speaker. The main advantage of an infinite baffle application in a car is no loss of trunk space. However, the disadvantage is that this type of enclosure cannot be acoustically tuned to adjust the system frequency response or the power handling. If the customer wants more flexibility in sound contouring, you will need to look at other enclosure types, such as sealed, vented or bandpass designs. Infinite baffle systems exhibit approximately 6dB (1st order) per octave of roll-off if not otherwise filtered or coupled to resistive damping material. This type of infinite baffle system can-depending on the driver power handling and the system Q-have medium to low power handling if no additional filtering is used.
Benefits of infinite baffle Designs - Saves trunk space. Good low to medium output. Generally good sound quality.
Margin Notes
Drawbacks of infinite baffle Designs - Low power handling. Low bass response. Not possible in a hatchback, truck, etc. Typically as much labor, if not more, than constructing a sealed enclosure.
SEMI-CLOSED APERIODIC DESIGNS
A speaker becomes aperiodically damped when it is required to pass its energy through a resistively leaky material. In this way an infinite baffle subwoofer that fires through the back seat of a sedan or coupe will often provide the benefits of an aperiodic system. The seat material is a crude but effective form of aperiodic damping, allowing the speaker to perform better than if it had been installed firing up through the rear deck if the enclosed space of the trunk is unusually large. Unobstructed mounting is good for pressure transfer into the passenger listening area, but large enclosed trunk spaces of 20 or more cubic feet may provide limited power handling and an erroneous frequency response. Putting a speaker in an enclosure adds resistance to the speaker cone movement, but the resistance can still improve with a calculated density of leaky enclosure materials. In a semi-closed periodic system, the installer places a resistively leaky material on the back of a subwoofer that fires through the unobstructed rear deck. In this case, the aperiodic material is held in place by a box-shaped framework surrounding the rear speaker. Aperiodic applications have used simple fiberglass insulation (as used in many attics), Dacron, and polyester pillow stuffing. The importance is the relative density for a given thickness. The denser the material, the more slowly air passes out of the leaky semienclosed subwoofer cavity to neighboring air spaces. The amount of cone movement (or pressure) created by the subwoofer influences the resistivity of the air leak.
High Pressure Inside
Low Pressure Outside
Figure 134. Semi-Closed Aperiodic Design
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Margin Notes
Some have commented that an aperiodic enclosure for a subwoofer is very small, when in fact, the enclosure is not a complete enclosure at all; it is simply a support for the resistively leaky damping material. This system is technically still an infinite baffle system, with an aperiodic damper on the back of the speaker. It is for this reason that a small, semi-closed aperiodic system will not function in a hatchback. Aperiodic designs are still used in some SQ competition mobile audio systems as well as in certain home audio speaker designs. The vast majority of consumers looking for bang for the buck would find that a sealed or vented enclosure design gives better results. Sound quality aficionados may find the semi-closed aperiodic designs to be an ideal compromise between an infinite baffle design and the control of an infinitely variable sealed enclosure.
Benefits of Aperiodic Designs - Improved power handling and efficiency over an infinite baffle design. Improved bass response. Easy to build and tune with inexpensive test equipment. Drawbacks of Aperiodic Designs - Causes F3 point to rise slightly, trading off a small amount of low bass loss for an improvement in overall performance. Can be counteracted by using larger woofers and more amplifier power in many cases.
SEALED ENCLOSURE DESIGNS
The sealed box is also referred to as air-suspension or acoustic-suspension. With the possible exception of some infinite baffle designs, the sealed box is the easiest to design and build, which makes this a good all around design if the subwoofer is suited for a sealed enclosure environment. The sealed enclosure design earned a patent in 1949 for Harry Olson, the man who worked out the design details. In 1954, a company known as Acoustic Research made this design very popular, in part because of its size. Sealed enclosures are typically much smaller than the other designs. Back in the 1950s, this was especially nice as the age of bookshelf speakers was born! The idea behind a sealed enclosure design is that the air trapped inside the box will work to assist the speakers suspension, which gives us the term air-suspension. As the speaker moves outward, the air behind it is pulled with it, creating a decrease in pressure inside the box. This acts like a vacuum and pulls the speaker back inward. Similarly, when the speaker moves in, the air that is compressed pushes out on the speaker. Logically, the more the speaker moves in or out, the greater these forces are. If the speaker were designed with a loose suspension and a long excursion, the sealed enclosure would provide smooth bass response, since the stiffer air pressure within the enclosure would control speaker excursions. The performance of a sealed box is a result of the relationship of the speakers parameters and the volume of the box. In 1972, Richard Small
"Acoustic Suspension"
Figure 135. Sealed Enclosure Design (also called Acoustic Suspension)
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(of Thiele-Small fame) published the most definitive work to date on sealed enclosure design. Most of what we know about predicting the performance of sealed enclosures is based upon his work. When calculating the ideal sealed enclosure volume (Vb), you are in fact calculating for the correct vacuum and pressure for that particular speaker. Sealed enclosures are known for their tight sound. A properly designed sealed box can have excellent transient response characteristics. The upper end of a sealed boxs response is relatively unaffected by the enclosure itself, allowing for excellent midbass transition as well. The amount of low frequency content of sealed enclosures can vary based on box size. The volume of air trapped in the enclosure controls how freely the speaker can move. Sealed enclosure designs tend to exhibit roll-off 12 dB (2nd order) per octave depending on the ratio of the physical size of the environment (Vb) versus the driver compliance (Vas). By making the enclosure smaller, the air spring is tighter (higher Qtc), and the cone travel is more controlled. This will limit low frequency excursion problems, but small boxes can also limit low frequencies altogether. Very low Q sealed enclosure systems (.45 and lower) exhibit roll-offs only slightly different from that of infinite baffle designs, making them a high consumer of available space without much increase in frequency response or power handling of an infinite baffle system. Basically, making the enclosure larger decreases the air spring in the box. This allows the speaker to move more freely (lower Qtc). This also allows the speaker to play lower frequencies more effectively. By enlarging the enclosure too much, however, the speaker can more easily move beyond its excursion (Xmax) limit, opening the door to distortion and possible mechanical problems. These changes in enclosure size will affect how smooth the frequency response is in the lower frequencies. In general, at frequencies below 30Hz, sealed boxes will exhibit very good control over the speakers motion, improving mechanical power handling and reducing distortion. Between 30 and 80Hz, sealed boxes typically have a slight knee in their excursion. If additional power were used, this would be the first area to exceed the linear excursion limits of the speaker, which results in higher distortion. This higher excursion can put a lot of stress on the speakers suspension as well. If you are not sure how to judge which environment a driver prefers, use these hints: Find the efficiency bandwidth product (EBP) of the driver. EBP = Fs / Qes (This information should be on the speaker specification sheet or is available from the manufacturer.) Numbers below 90 indicate a sealed enclosure design is acceptable, while numbers of 50 and below mean a sealed enclosure design is preferred.
Margin Notes
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Margin Notes
Perhaps the biggest drawback to sealed enclosures has to do with efficiency. For a given speaker in a sealed enclosure, efficiency will decrease with a smaller box size. As the box size increases, the low frequency output increases while the upper frequency output decreases. As the box gets smaller, the low frequency output decreases but a peak is created in the upper end. If you average the output at every frequency from 10 Hz to 100 Hz, the larger box would have a higher overall output. Keep in mind that a speaker in a large box does not handle power as well as it would in a smaller enclosure. If you are interested in creating a strong peak in the upper frequency range for an SPL system, the output gain at those frequencies combined with the improved power handling of the smaller box can be a benefit. Speakers that share an enclosure baffle in a sealed enclosure are called acoustically coupled. This basically means that their acoustic output is combined to create more output than each working on its own. The most common acoustic-coupled enclosure is simply two identical woofers in one box. Ideally, the enclosure would have a divider between the woofers to keep the airspace separate for each woofer. If installing a divider is not practical or possible, multiple woofers can still share the same airspace. When sharing airspace, calculate the overall box volume as the optimum volume for a single woofer multiplied by the number of woofers to be used. For example, if you calculate that one 10-inch woofer requires a 0.75 cubic foot box, two woofers (same make, model, nominal impedance, etc.) will need 1.5 cubic feet, three will need 2.25 cubic feet and so on. Some people contend that since the woofers actually share each others airspace, the overall box volume can be made smaller than the sum of two separate acoustic suspension boxes. This is absolutely not true. While the woofers do share the boxs interior, there is no real benefit to this type of enclosure design over a box with a divider. The woofers will interact with the air inside the box according to their relative distances from each other and interior walls. At higher frequencies, standing waves may form pockets of irregular air pressure around the cones, thus causing them to deform and produce distortion. This effect will be greater in very small boxes where there is a lot of cone excursion due to high amplifier power. Using a divider to isolate each individual woofer is ideal whenever possible. The divider also adds the be nefit of interior bracing to solidify the speaker baffle and enclosure walls. If constructing an irregularly shaped box using fiberglass, make sure that the walls are thick enough to prevent flexing, or add an interior brace and affix it to the walls with more fiberglass. When a sealed enclosure with one or several subwoofers reproduces sound, the air inside the sealed enclosure actually increases in temperature. This in
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turn makes the air spring stiffer. If you fill the airspace with a fiber stuffing, the material will not only help dissipate the heat, it will make the system work as though it is in a larger box for decreased F3 and Qtc. Using this technique, you have an easy way to increase the apparent volume of the box without having to actually build a new one. Depending on the stuffing density (and the size of the enclosure), you can increase performance up to 36 percent. Stuffing a poorly designed enclosure, however, will not make it into a well-designed one. Think of stuffing an enclosure as fine-tuning it. Three types of stuffing are in use today: fiberglass insulation, long-fiber wool and polyester fiberfill. Standard polyester fiberfill is recommended since it is easy to use, easy to find and inexpensive. Standard polyester fiberfill is available at any craft or fabric store. Interior suppliers use a polyester fill sold in rolls called Dacron. If your enclosure design specifies 50 percent fill, line all interior walls of the box (except the baffle) with 1-inch thick stuffing material such as Dacron. If your enclosure design specifies 100 percent fill, loosely stuff the box with bulk fiberfill. After all the homework has been done, sealed enclosure designs can be the easiest to actually construct Good construction techniques are relatively easy to perform, even for an amateur. Note that changes will occur when a speaker enclosure is fired into another enclosure (the car) and that change will differ depending on the physical size of the car interior or trunk and loading method (unaffected path, bouncing off rear window, facing into rear seat, etc.) This boundary effect is caused by the transfer function of the car, and is true with any speaker system in a vehicle. (See the transfer function section in this chapter for more information.)
Margin Notes
Benefits of Sealed Enclosure Designs - Box volume is small in comparison to other enclosure types. Good output for all music types. Easy to build and tolerant of small errors in design. Many well built pre-fabricated sealed enclosures available that offer good results.
Drawbacks of Sealed Enclosure Designs - Poor response below 30 Hz when compared with a vented enclosure. Low-end response gets worse as enclosure size decreases. Typically requires more power for a given output when compared to a vented or bandpass type enclosure.
VENTED ENCLOSURE DESIGNS
The vented enclosures beginnings can be traced back to acoustic work done by Hermann Ludwig Ferdinand von Helmholtz, a late 19th century German physicist. By altering the size of a tuning hole, Helmholtz discovered he could construct an acoustic resonator that would tune to a unique pitch. You can hear this principle at work by simply blowing air across the opening of a filled soda bottle. In this case the tuning hole is fixed, but you can change the length of the resonator by taking a drink. Blowing air again, you will hear a lower pitch. If you could alter the size of the opening or use a different size bottle altogether, the pitch would also change.
"Ported" or "Bass Reflex"
Figure 136. Vented Enclosure Design (also called Ported or Bass Reflex)
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Margin Notes
Early loudspeaker designers around the 1930s used the vented enclosure principle when they coupled the mechanically resonant speaker to the acoustically resonant box to create the bass reflex. Here the acoustic resonance was combined with the mechanical resonance to further extend a speakers bass response and, at the same time, reduce cone excursion for lower distortion. However, the resulting sound was boomy and reproduced voices that sounded muffled. Vented enclosures have actually been around longer than sealed enclosure designs. A.C. Thuras received the original patent describing driver and vent interaction. While several people throughout the 1950s did extensive work on the mathematical models for ported boxes, it wasnt until the late 1960s that acousticians and engineers fully understood the interacting dynamics involved in creating a successful vented design. A.N. Thiele did perhaps the most comprehensive and detailed work on the relationship of the speaker and vent in an enclosed air space. Vented enclosures are also known as ported enclosures and bass-reflex enclosures. The basic idea behind a vented enclosure is to take advantage of the rear wave energy of the speaker. In a sealed box, the energy from the rear of the speaker is used to restore it to its original center (rest) location. In ported boxes, this energy is coupled with the energy from the front of the speaker. When using a port or a vent, the column of air that is created by the port has a certain resonant characteristic that will determine the tuning frequency. By changing the size of the opening, the length of the port, or the volume of the enclosure, you will change the resonant characteristic as well as the tuning frequency. Passive radiator enclosure designs can be thought of as a vent or port substitute. Rather than a tuned vent, an auxiliary drone diaphragm is used in place. These systems have performance characteristics similar to a vented enclosure. The passive radiator device looks like a cone or flat shaped speaker without a voice coil or magnet assembly. The pressure inside the box forces the passive radiator to move back and forth in tandem with the speakers motion, like the air inside the port in a vented enclosure. Ideally, this radiator should have a high compliance. You can tune these enclosures by varying the mass of the passive radiators diaphragm. Greater mass equals a lower tuning frequency. Vented enclosures are more complicated to analyze than sealed enclosures. There is a delicate relationship between the enclosure size (box volume), port size (both the opening and length) and the speakers parameters. By changing any one of those parameters, you will alter the performance of the subwoofer system. One of the possible advantages of a ported box over a sealed box is output. For a given box size, a ported box will have additional output capabilities over most of the usable sub bass range. This additional output is compliments of the port. Essentially the port only has usable output over a very narrow range of frequencies. At the center of those frequen-
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cies, the speakers output and the ports output are in relative phase with each other. When two sound sources-like the port and speaker-are in phase with each other, they combine to give you that additional output. When you play frequencies below the tuning frequency of the box, the combined output from both the port and speaker begins to drop rapidly, causing a sharper roll-off than the sealed box. This is because their output is out of phase with each other. The roll-off from a vented enclosure design is around 24 dB per octave, compared to around 12 dB per octave for a sealed enclosure design. Physically, a port can be PVC pipe, ABS plastic tubing or even a thick cardboard tube. A port can also be a square duct or any other shape so long as you follow the general rule of vent diameter. The recommended minimum vent diameter is typically one third of the cone diameter. Choosing too small a diameter can result in a whistling sound known as vent noise. Additionally, at high power levels when a lot of air is moving through the port, the friction between the air and the ports walls diminishes the ports ability to pass air. At this point, the resonance frequency of the box is actually reduced, and the vented box operates more like a sealed box. This happens gradually as the box plays lower, below its vent and speaker resonant frequency (Fb). Large ports are great, but there is also the practicality consideration of getting the large port into the enclosure. As you increase a given diameter, the port must be longer to maintain the same resonant frequency (Fb). If you change the enclosure size and keep the vent tuning frequency (Fb) the same, the port size will still have to change. However, because of the inverse size relationship between the enclosure and the port, using this method to tune very small boxes can become quite difficult. For example, to achieve a tuning frequency of 35 Hz, a one cubic-foot enclosure would require a 3-inch diameter port that is 10.4 inches long. If you decrease the size to 0.5 cubic feet and keep the port diameter the same, you would have to increase the port length to 23.3 inches to keep the same tuning frequency. To make matters even more difficult, the volume of air inside the port cannot be considered as enclosure volume, so you must subtract it from the volume of the box. For the 0.5 cubic-foot box, the port volume is 0.1 cubic feet, and subtracting it from the box volume leaves only 0.4 cubic feet, resulting in a revised tuning frequency of 40 Hz. To keep the tuning frequency at 35 Hz, you must increase the box size to 0.6 cubic feet, which may be possible if there is extra space in the car. Constructing a vented box is not just making a sealed enclosure and cutting a hole in it if it does not sound good. A good installer must consider many design parameters. If you are not sure how to judge which environment a driver prefers, use these hints. Find the efficiency bandwidth product (EBP) of the driver. EBP = Fs / Qes (This information should be located on the speaker specification sheet or is available from the manufacturer.)
Margin Notes
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Margin Notes
Numbers above 50 indicate a vented enclosure design is acceptable, while numbers of 90 and above mean a vented enclosure design is preferred. When the vented enclosure reaches the F3 point, it has fallen 3dB in output from other relative upper frequencies. This is usually near the vent/speaker/ enclosure resonance (Fb), depending on the actual alignment used. Ripple rather than Qtc describes the shape of the response curve around and at the tuned frequency. Ripple is expressed in dB (either + or -) and represents the amount of increase or decrease in amplitude from the 0dB level of reference (flat response). Ripple values can be applied in these guidelines:

-2.5 to 0dB = an audiophile listener 0 to +2.5 dB = a normal or variety listener 2.5 to 3 dB = an extended bass listener 3.5 + dB = Boom freaks, cruisers and dB monsters
A ripple of -2 to +2 will maintain the best transient response and accuracy; most listeners can only hear an increase or decrease of 3dB or more. Power handling below Fb is poor since the air inside the vent no longer pushes against the woofer and thus allows it to easily exceed maximum excursion. To avoid this distortion-producing artifact, add active subsonic filtering to the audio chain feeding the amplifier that powers the vented enclosure. Use an active 12 or 18 dB per octave high-pass filter, with the cutoff frequency set slightly below F3, to eliminate the danger of over excursion. Many signal processors and application-specific subwoofer amplifiers feature subsonic filtering.
Benefits of Vented Enclosure Designs - Usually have lower bass response than a sealed enclosure. Great power handling above the F3 point.
Drawbacks of Vented Enclosure Designs - More complicated to build. Less tolerant of errors in design or construction. Easy to damage the woofer with excessive bass boost below Fb unless you use a subsonic filter.
BANDPASS ENCLOSURE CHARACTERISTICS
Bandpass boxes experienced a huge wave of popularity in car audio a few years back. Many people will be surprised to know that they have actually been around for quite a long time. The first patent for a bandpass enclosure was issued to Andre dAlton in 1934. Since then, and especially over the past 10 to 15 years, the industry has made significant strides in defining and predicting the way they work. Many companies are now using bandpass enclosures as part of a home subwoofer/satellite setup. Designs from companies like Bose, KEF and Acoustic Research have become quite popular in home audio.
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Tuning a bandpass enclosure involves changing conventional enclosure design mentality-and that requires enclosure design software to efficiently predict the outcome. Many car audio manufacturers have taken the liberty of offering computer-aided bandpass enclosure designs to their customers and dealers. The term bandpass comes from a rather unique characteristic of these enclosures. In addition to affecting the low frequency of the speaker, these enclosures affect the higher frequencies as well. Bandpass enclosures are usually constructed with dual chambers and share the following design criteria:
Margin Notes
A bandpass enclosure has a woofer in a sealed or vented primary chamber that fires into a secondary vented chamber. The woofer in a bandpass enclosure is enclosed on both sides. The secondary chamber acts like a high-frequency attenuator or acoustic low-pass filter with a 12 dB per octave roll-off. For a single reflex bandpass enclosure, the low frequencies follow a second-order network response, rolling off at approximately 12 dB per octave, depending on the bandwidth of the response. For a dual reflex enclosure, the low frequencies follow a fourth-order network response, rolling off at approximately 24 dB per octave, depending on the bandwidth of the response.
Bandpass designs essentially only allow a certain band of frequencies to pass through the enclosure. In bandpass enclosures, the woofer no longer plays directly into the listening area. Instead, a port or ports channel all of the output into the listening area.
SINGLE REFLEX BANDPASS DESIGNS
With the single reflex bandpass enclosure, the speaker is mounted in a sealed chamber and fires into a ported chamber. By altering the size of the chambers, and the area and length of the port, you can alter the speakers performance. The interaction between the two chambers and the port is very involved. The sealed section will determine the low frequency limit of the system while the ported side determines the amount of gain or loss and the shape of the response. The port needs to be tuned to the resonant frequency of the sealed box to ensure a centered, symmetric response shape. Single reflex bandpass designs are often called fourth or fifth order enclosures because of their roll-off characteristics. They exhibit about +/- 12 dB per octave (second order) on the low end (high pass side) and another +/12 dB per octave (second order) on the high end (low pass side), which is how the fourth order term evolved. Putting a first order crossover in series with the enclosure increases the electrical roll-off by another order, hence the term fifth order. In either case, variables make the order different each time, which is why you should become familiar with the term single reflex bandpass.
Fourth Order
Figure 137. Single Reflex Bandpass Enclosure Design (also called Fourth Order)
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Margin Notes
Single reflex bandpass enclosures exhibit some extremely attractive attributes for the average consumer. While maintaining a relatively small enclosure size, this low frequency system has excellent low frequency and efficiency. In other words, it plays real low and real loud. No wonder this is a popular enclosure design. These enclosures also have the ability to mask the problem areas of a particular driver. While this is good in some cases, it usually ends up being bad overall. Often the listener cannot hear the speaker destroying itself-when in fact, it actually is. Turning up the bass knob or sliding up the bass EQ is a very real example of how bandpass systems can be harmed without ever really knowing it until it is too late. As with the vented enclosure designs, the single reflex bandpass system is unforgiving of errors in its design. Exceeding tolerances of even 10 percent can be fatal in the long run, and-in the short run-sound bad. Although the single reflex bandpass system does not need a crossover, it is a good idea to limit the signal fed into the system with a filter. Filtering the signal reduces resonant harmonics from the vented chamber of the box (sometimes called pipe organ resonance), which will ultimately color the mid-range frequencies in the system.
Benefits of the Single Reflex Bandpass Enclosure Design - Great bass from reasonable sized enclosures. Single driver systems work well to reduce costs. A lot of bang for the buck. Drawbacks of the Single Reflex Bandpass Enclosure Design - Much harder to build. Speaker distortion is difficult to hear and damage to the speaker can easily occur without notice.
DUAL REFLEX BANDPASS DESIGN
These enclosures are similar to a single reflex bandpass except that both chambers are vented. This has the benefits of the vented side for the low pass acoustic filter (front chamber) as well as the boost in the low end from the vented rear chamber. Note that with the dual reflex bandpass design, the driver mounted inside has no connection to the outside listening area. The driver is merely a piston causing the two vents to produce sound in much the same way that a speaker does. It does not matter if the driver mounts with its cone facing out or in. It is important to note that the two vented cabinets are 180 out of polarity from each other. Vents must be tuned at least an octave apart to reduce cancellation. Dual-reflex bandpass low frequency systems generally exhibit a roll-off of about 18-24 dB per octave on the high pass and 12 dB per octave on the low pass. This enclosure is often called a sixth order box because of its acoustical characteristics. The term dual reflex bandpass provides a more accurate description, since the orders of this system will vary when active or passive crossovers are incorporated.
"Sixth Order"
Figure 138. Dual Reflex Bandpass Enclosure Design (also called Sixth Order)
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Dual-reflex bandpass systems are very bass heavy, especially near the tuned frequencies. This may be a good choice for a listener who places a high value on tremendous amounts of low frequency in the playback of their music. For the audiophile, this type of enclosure may just be too much of one thing and not enough of the other, creating an imbalance in what the customer would consider ideal. As with any type of low frequency system, loading it into the cabin of a vehicle changes its low end drastically. This effect that the vehicle has on the response is called transfer function. Be sure to factor transfer function into your design, otherwise you may end up with more bass than you will ever be able to use. Computer design programs usually allow curve overlays to simulate this, which is just another good reason to use software in designing these. As with single reflex bandpass systems, dual reflex bandpass systems have the ability to mask the problem areas of a particular driver. While this is good in some cases, often the listener cannot hear the speaker destroying itself-when in fact it actually is. In dual reflex bandpass designs, exceeding tolerances of even 10 percent can be fatal. Again, computer simulation is recommended to save you from errors. Although dual reflex bandpass designs exhibit a bandpass acoustical response, you should limit the signal fed into the system by using a filter. This reduces resonant harmonics from the vented chamber of the box, which will ultimately color the mid-range frequencies in the system. These systems will also benefit from a high pass filter that will limit musical information below the F3 (-3 dB down point). Information below the F3 can cause serious excursion and power handling problems. Remember that the masking effect of the bandpass system hides these problems until it is too late. Benefits of the Dual Reflex Bandpass Enclosure Design - Amazing bass from even small drivers.
Drawbacks of the Dual Reflex Bandpass Enclosure Design - Very difficult to design and build correctly. Not as good in accurate sound quality because of the many vents sound must travel through.
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THE BASIC DIFFERENCES BETWEEN SINGLE AND DUAL REFLEX DESIGNS
The differences between single reflex and dual reflex bandpass boxes are similar to the differences between sealed and ported boxes. Single reflex boxes, with their sealed rear section, have better transient response, better control in the extreme low frequency range and less efficiency. Dual reflex boxes have higher output capability, and are typically larger in size for similar low frequency extension. This should show you how flexible bandpass boxes can be. You have the option of shifting the response curve higher or lower in frequency, up or down in amplitude, and as wide or narrow as you need. With all those variables come complications.
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Bandpass boxes are very complicated to design and build. Single-reflex bandpass designs are the easier than dual reflex bandpass designs, yet both types are still considered tricky. Making a mistake with a bandpass box can have dramatic results on enclosure performance, usually for the worse. In either type of bandpass enclosure, a speaker can literally distort itself to death-and listeners could hardly tell it from the front seat of the car. Avoid excessive bass-boosting opportunities in the signal chain because additional damaging distortion may go unnoticed until one day, the speaker simply quits working. Single reflex bandpass enclosure designs do not require a subsonic filter because of the sealed chamber shallow roll-off. Use active (preamp level) subsonic filtering on the amplifier powering a dual reflex bandpass enclosure. Be sure to specify an active 12 or 18 dB per octave high-pass filter (with the cutoff frequency set slightly below F3) to eliminate the danger of over excursion.
Sound in the Vehicle

LOW FREQUENCY TRANSFER FUNCTION
Sealed Enclosure (Out of Car)
Sealed Enclosure (In Car)
Anyone who has experienced a dramatic increase in the bass output of a low frequency system when it was loaded into the car from the shop floor has got the basic idea of the transfer function concept. The phenomenon is not new; it has been around as long as sound itself. Transfer function is simply the overall effect that the environment has on the frequency response and amplitudes of a sound pattern. While transfer function mostly involves increases in low frequencies when we apply it to car audio, there are also times when decreases in output occur and/or frequency responses overlap or have wide gaps. This is all a part of complex sounds bouncing around in an automobile environment. Low frequency systems are the most radically affected. Years ago, many car audio experts began to faithfully use special computer software to help design and predict the response of speaker box applications. This was a tremendous timesaver, with almost guaranteed results. Computer designs were-and still are-very useful. What most installers and system designers never bothered to note was that the computer-generated design was not taking into account any other space but imaginary infinite free space. The computer did not account for reflections, absorption or boundaries within the usable frequency range of the speaker. That type of space is called an anechoic space and the chance of finding an anechoic environment in a mobile application is just about impossible. So installers live with the very real fact that the sound from a speaker changes as you put it in different rooms, car interiors and speaker enclosures. With this in mind, would it not make sense to add that analysis to our sophisticated computer-generated designs? You bet it would! Although it could never compensate for the passenger/cargo load and other random variables, predicting the transfer function with some reasonable accuracy could paint a clearer picture of the final outcome.
Vented Enclosure (Out of Car)
Vented Enclosure (In Car)
Figure 139. Low Frequency Transfer Function Examples
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Transfer function measurement, or mapping, involves exactly that, adding the vehicle effect to the overall design of a low frequency system. Doing this means you can come much closer to a very accurate sound in a car than you could have by simply guessing or ignoring it all together. If someone has never had bass in his vehicle, the idea that it just gets louder when you load a speaker box into the vehicle sounds like a novel idea, certainly appealing at car shows and cruise nights. However after a while, listening fatigue sets in, and the beautiful music and pleasant drive soon are not so beautiful and pleasant anymore. Automobile manufacturers certainly take transfer function into account when implementing an OEM system design into new vehicles, so should MECP certified installers be doing it too? If you already use computer enclosure design software, it may be easier than you think. If you do business with consumers who do not install, heres a great reason to encourage them to work only with a trained professional car audio installer. The results for the customer will be well worth the effort, especially since money does not grow on trees and they should be able to enjoy their music for more than 15 minutes without extreme listening fatigue. Believe that it is possible! Although everyone will prefer a different sound, a good finished mobile audio system should always have good balance from frequency to frequency, including midbass, mid-range, and high frequencies. You will find that simple sealed and vented enclosure designs often yield the most predictable and controllable responses. Done properly, these simple enclosure designs can produce some outstanding in-vehicle results that rival well-built home audiophile systems.
UNINVITED NOISES
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The amount of ambient noise in a vehicle while it is traveling also affects the audio system. If, for example, there is 90 dB of road noise, the audio system would have to play at a level of at least 93 dB for the listener to hear it over the noise. For most listeners, the difference of 3 dB is the minimum increase in output perceivable by the human ear. Several factors affect the noise floor in a vehicle. Air movement past the vehicle, tire noise, engine and chassis noise and the resonance of the vehicle interior all affect the amount and nature of the noise floor. The less road noise present in the vehicle, the more effective the audio system will be at lower power levels. Although some cars have more cabin noise than others, any high-powered car audio system will attempt to transfer energy into air movement or vibration, whichever is easier. All materials have a tendency to vibrate when subject to specific frequencies or sounds. Most vehicles are made up of thin metals and light plastics that can easily vibrate or resonate, causing destructive interference either in the form of masking (the vibration overpowers or colors the audio) or absorption (the vibration is actually stealing energy from the sound waves resulting in lower audible output).
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IMPORTANCE OF DAMPING VIBRATIONS AND RESONANT PANELS
Damping vehicle surfaces-such as door, floor and rear shelf sheet metal-often help to keep the noise floor low enough so that it seems that the system has become more powerful. Lowering the noise floor will make the audio system have to do less work to achieve a certain sound level. Making the surfaces more solid in the car also helps to keep road noise to a minimum. Remember, smart system designers figure out how to make an audio system waste less power instead of always trying to make more! One of the best methods of reducing destructive interference due to resonance is to damp the panels that surround the speakers. This means increasing the mass of the material, and lowering its resonant frequency. This is most commonly achieved with the application of a damping mat, a selfadhesive rubber or tar-like material that adds more weight to the panel. Damping materials also come as spray-on liquids, roll or brush-on liquids and non-adhesive foam mats, some of which include a layer of lead foil to increase the damping properties.
SPEED OF SOUND
The speed of sound depends on the density of the transmission medium and somewhat on its temperature. For air at 70 F or 21C, sound travels at 1,130 feet per second (or 344 meters per second). Sound travels much faster in dense material like wood, metal, acrylic plastics and glass than it does through air. Transmission Medium Air @ 70F (21C) Water (fresh) Wood Steel Aluminum Glass Acrylic (Plexiglas) Speed (feet per sec.) 1,130 4,856 10,991 16,568 16,896 17,060 5,906 Speed (meters per sec.) 344 1,480 3,350 5,050 5,150 5,200 1,800
Speaker Installation
Replacement of factory components makes up the majority of todays mobile audio system installations. Whether the installation is a source unit or replacement speakers, the goal is always the same: improve the sound quality of the audio system. Most OEM systems are not designed with sound quality as the primary focus. Automobile manufacturers develop their sound systems around the existing framework of the vehicle, placing speakers wherever they fit best, not necessarily where they sound best. Placement of the sound system rarely takes into consideration the effects of the physical environment or placement and frequency response of the components. Manufacturers generally use the minimum number and size of components they can to limit the production cost of the vehicle.
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As a professional installer, you can do better than just replace the factory equipment with similar, better sounding products. You can design and install a considerably more entertaining audio system using multiple speakers that are more efficient and better sounding than any factory replacement speaker. Component speaker systems offer more flexibility and creativity. They allow you to overcome many of the challenges facing modern car audio systems. Moreover, the choice of placement for the speakers is often just as critical as the choice of speakers themselves. Good speakers in poor locations will almost never sound as good average speakers in prime locations. The quality of the speaker plays an enormous role-but only after the position is optimized.
Dash Locations
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In older automobiles, the dash was a popular speaker location but that is less so in newer vehicles. Dash locations generally produce good stage height perception since the sound is in your face but are limited with regard to the stereo image. The limitations are due to the considerable differential between the left and right speaker path lengths. In addition, facing speakers into glass makes the dispersion harder to control or anticipate. Dash locations offer significant installation concerns because the openings are fairly small, usually accommodating 3 1/2, 4 or 4 x 6 oval speakers with significantly shallow mounting depths. Dash locations can also be very difficult to seal or isolate the rear wave from the front wave since many dash locations are open around and underneath the speaker. Achieving good sound quality will require additional time to address these concerns. Dash locations also present other installation challenges. They are usually very close to the windshield, limiting access for tools and maneuvering of the speakers in and out. Stubby screwdrivers and small ratchets with socket attachments are necessary to complete most dash installations. Always be extremely careful with tools so you do not accidentally crack the windshield.
Door Locations
Most new automobiles have factory provisions for speaker locations in the doors. Even if the factory does not provide for a door location, many times you can cut your own hole and install a speaker in the door. This can easily be accomplished with a reciprocation saw, a metal nibbler, or hole saw and drill motor. It is critical that you verify the mounting location for clearance before cutting. It is also good practice to mark and cut the door panel on the bench first. After cutting the panel, you can relocate it on the door, mark the metal skin of the door to ensure proper alignment and then remove the panel before cutting the metal. Door locations are difficult in both stereo imaging and staging because the speakers dispersion is generally directed toward the center of the vehicle and not directly at the listener. The left speaker is also much closer to the listener than the right speaker, which influences side biasing.
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Door locations generally can accommodate larger speakers (5 1/4 to 6 1/2), making them perfect locations for mid-bass or mid-range speakers. When installing a coaxial or full range type speaker, try modifying the speaker mount to angle it slightly toward the listener. You also can use speakers with a swivel-mounted tweeter than can be aimed toward the listener. Component speakers are also a good alternative, since the mid woofer can be mounted in the door and the tweeter can be located higher up on the door panel, in the mirror trim cover, or even in the A-pillar (aimed at the listeners). Take care not to separate the component tweeter too far from the mid-range or the sound will seem as if it is coming from two places rather than from one single focused placement. Other challenges associated with door locations are the moving parts in the door, such as windows, locks and door handles. When installing speakers in doors, make sure that they do not interfere with any moving parts. High-end aftermarket speakers can be very deep and may cause clearance issues with the mechanisms, window tracks and the glass itself. One way to overcome clearance issues is to build or install a depth reduction spacer. The spacer can be made of wood or plastic. Remember that wood needs to be painted to protect it from moisture. When adding spacers, make sure the speaker remains sealed and verify that there will be enough clearance for the door panel to be put back on over the speaker. To further protect against moisture in door locations, cover the top of the speaker with something to shield the voice coil and cone material from water that may come in from the top of the door around the window sash opening. Moisture shielding is available in foam or plastic baffles installed into the speaker opening. Such baffles create a barrier between the inside of the door cavity and the speaker itself. If no speaker baffles are available, you can make a moisture shield using a simple piece of duct tape over the top of the speaker. Some door applications may require you to cut the door panel and mount the speakers on the outside of the door. Always solicit the customers permission before modifying the door panel in this application.
REAR DECK LOCATIONS
Rear decks are very common factory speaker locations. If factory locations are not provided, many times you can cut your own holes to install speakers in the rear deck. Often the rear deck metal may be pre-cut but the package tray is not. You can use a rotary tool or razor knife to cut the tray. If the metal is not pre-cut you may need to use a reciprocating saw or hole saw and drill motor to cut a hole. Always cut from the underside up to provide the most room and control of the cutting device. Also pay special attention to the cutting blade so you do not strike the glass when cutting.
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be painted to protect it from moisture. When adding spacers, make sure the speaker remains sealed and verify that there will be enough clearance for the door panel to be put back on over the speaker. To further protect against moisture in door locations, cover the top of the speaker with something to shield the voice coil and cone material from water that may come in from the top of the door around the window sash opening. Moisture shielding is available in foam or plastic baffles installed into the speaker opening. Such baffles create a barrier between the inside of the door cavity and the speaker itself. If no speaker baffles are available, you can make a moisture shield using a simple piece of duct tape over the top of the speaker. Some door applications may require you to cut the door panel and mount the speakers on the outside of the door. Always solicit the customers permission before modifying the door panel in this application.
REAR DECK LOCATIONS
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Rear decks are very common factory speaker locations. If factory locations are not provided, many times you can cut your own holes to install speakers in the rear deck. Often the rear deck metal may be pre-cut but the package tray is not. You can use a rotary tool or razor knife to cut the tray. If the metal is not pre-cut you may need to use a reciprocating saw or hole saw and drill motor to cut a hole. Always cut from the underside up to provide the most room and control of the cutting device. Also pay special attention to the cutting blade so you do not strike the glass when cutting. Mounting speakers behind the listener can seriously affect the overall sound quality and staging of the speaker system, drawing the sound away from the dash and toward the center or rear of the vehicle. Speakers mounted in the rear deck should be attenuated to provide ambient fill rather than dominate sound. There is usually an abundance of space on the rear decks to fit any size speaker, although there may be depth issues with the trunk supports in some vehicles. Rear deck speakers may also offer the same restrictions as those mounted in the dash, due to the close proximity of the back glass to the rear deck. Always be cautious when installing rear deck speakers so as not to damage the glass.
KICK PANEL LOCATIONS
Figure 140. Custom Center Channel Speaker Installation
Attempt to install a center

speaker in a location that does not face directly into the front windshield. The glass affects the sound dispersion of the center channel, many times in a negative fashion.
Very few manufacturers use kick panels as factory speaker locations, but kick panels are one of the better locations. They allow for the speakers to be aimed at the listener and generally offer the most similar distances between the speaker and the listener, providing good stereo imaging and staging. Since few automobiles have factory kick panel locations, you will most likely
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The Direction of Sound
Humans use both ears to locate a sounds direction. Assuming a head diameter of 6 inches (or 0.5 feet), humans can determine the direction cue frequency as 2,260 Hz. Above 2,260 Hz, they will identify a sounds direction primarily by amplitude differences at each ear. Since there is negligible diffraction, sound arriving at one ear will not bend around to the other ear. Between 700 and 2,260 Hz there is a transition zone, where direction is determined by both amplitude and time-of-arrival differences at both ears. Below 700 Hz, internal time-of-arrival analysis no longer works because diffraction becomes more prominent and our ears cannot tell where the sound is coming from. At bass frequencies, sound becomes completely non-directional.
Stereo Imaging
The primary concern with stereo imaging is equalizing the path length (distance from the speaker to the ear) of the sound waves coming from the speakers. Proper stereo imaging occurs when left and right speakers, with the same phase and polarity, are equidistantly placed and aimed at a center listening position. If the left and right channel information reaches the ears at the same time, the imaging should be fairly accurate. Ideally in the mobile environment, reproduced music should be perceived to extend outside dashboard boundaries, above, below and side-to-side for a three-dimensional effect. You should be able to locate individual instruments relative to each other in the stereo track. This is especially important in high-end mobile installations, since component systems are often specified, with tweeter/mid-range placement and correct wiring polarities being critical concerns. To favor a drivers listening position, stereo imaging can be adjusted with a left/right fader or through an external DSP component that stores settings for different passenger positions (although there is no real substitute for absolutely equidistant path lengths).
6 frequency = speed of sound/one wavelength at head diameter frequency = 1130 / 0.5 = 2,260 Hz Above 2,260 Hz, sound direction is detected by amplitude to closest ear. Between 700 and 2,260 Hz, sound direction is detected by amplitude and time-of-arrival differences at both ears. Below 700 Hz, sound direction is harder to detect, since diffraction of bass frequencies around head causes similar amplitudes at both ears.
Equidistant left and right speaker placement is difficult to achieve physically. The mid range of the frequency band is easiest to notice when the sound appears biased to one side. Side biasing is a common problem when using some factory speaker locations. Electronic DSP or time delay can compensate for an offset in physical alignment by delaying the sound coming from the closest speaker by a few fractions of a second (measured in milliseconds). Generally a delay of
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1 millisecond will be required for each 12 of offset between the left and right speakers. Remember though, whatever time delay is implemented to better suit one listening position will have an inverse effect for other listening positions. This is why the widespread use of time correction processors in the vehicle is not common.
Staging
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The mobile environment offers a unique sound perception effect known as staging. Staging defines the speaker systems accuracy in conveying audible information about the height and depth of the sound stage, placing the artists and instruments correctly across the vertical sound field in front of the listener. In addition to a left/right balance control, a number of premium source units also provide a front/rear fader to help create the staging effect. The primary concern with staging is placing the front speakers on axis with the listener so that the sound is directed at the listener in a more upward or head-on dispersion. This may be difficult to achieve physically but should be taken into consideration, tilting speakers toward the listener whenever possible. Ideally, ambient sounds like reverberation effects (via an external DSP) enhance the sound coming from the front speakers without drawing your attention to the location of the rear speakers. The rear speakers may be much more pleasant to listen to when the output levels are 3-6dB lower than the front speakers. This represents a difference of 25-50 percent of the power level driving the front speakers if the same speaker sensitivity applies to both pairs of speakers. The recording industry is promoting discrete, multi-channel encoded CDs, DVD-Audio and SACD as viable music playback formats for the car. The assumption is that some music discs could have a home and car mix to better suit each listening space, but it remains to be seen what effect this will have on the mobile environment.
Absolute Phase
The term absolute phase represents the physical relationship of sound waves to each other using a known reference, and is measured in degrees from 0 to 360. This term also considers all sound sources in the listening space. The simple version of speaker phase relationship is more clearly understood as polarity in a single speaker. If a speaker pushes the air (compression) first and then pulls the air (rarefaction) second, this is considered positive phase or in polarity. This is positive-to-positive and negative-to-negative, electrically speaking.

If a speaker pulls the air first and then pushes the air second, this is considered negative phase or out of polarity. This is positive-tonegative and negative-to-positive, electrically speaking.
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When two speakers are mounted next to each other and push and pull at the same time, this is considered absolute phase. Both speakers are doing the same thing and are working complementary to one another. The sound waves work together as exact copies, adding acoustic output (or SPL). This is also known as constructive interference. If the speakers are not playing the same thing at the same time, the speakers are often assumed to be out of phase by 180. In this case, the sound waves are acting against each other-exact opposites canceling each other out. This is known as destructive interference. Unfortunately the true pursuit of absolute phase is not always that simple. Phase problems can exist anywhere between 0 and 360 degrees as a result of the physical relationship between speakers in a system. If a mid-range speaker mounted in a door is directed toward the center of the vehicle and the tweeter is mounted in the A-pillar directed toward the listener, the distance and difference in mounting orientation can put the sound waves coming from each speaker out of phase from one another. This may cause undefined mid-range and high frequencies that do not sound natural. Absolute phase problems are most common and noticeable in the sub-bass frequencies as a result of the placement of the subwoofer in contrast to the other speakers. It is possible the sound from the mid and high speakers will reach your ear in a forward pressure wave (positive phase) and-due to distance the sound from the subwoofer must travel from its location-may arrive as a vacuum wave (negative phase) when it reaches your ears. That results in a delayed, sluggish sounding bass called a node of low pressure. The node of low pressure comes about because of the physical differences in distance between the speakers, not because you hooked up positive and negative terminals incorrectly. This happens in many vehicles. The easiest way to identify absolute phase issues is to listen to the system. These guidelines demonstrate some methods to compare results when changing the polarity of an audio signal:
If the mid-range and high frequency speakers sound blurry or undefined, try reversing the polarity-one speaker at a time-and listen again. If no noticeable change takes place or the sound becomes more undefined, reverse the polarity back into the original position on the selected speaker and move on to a different speaker. Remember it is easier to identify phase anomalies in mid-range speakers than in high frequency tweeters. If the bass sounds sluggish or delayed, try reversing the positive and negative wires going to the subwoofer(s) and listen to the system again. If the sound is cleaner and more accurate, leave it wired this way. You may be able to complete this test without physically rewiring the speaker, since many amplifiers or sub woofer pre-outs on a headunit have a 180 phase switch that can accomplish the same polarity reversal.
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It is important to understand that switching phase exactly 180 is nothing more than inverting the polarity of the audio signal going into the audio component or speaker. The physical distance of each speaker to the listener will have an inherent absolute phase difference from other speakers in the system. Your goal is always to have all speakers creating the same movements (pressure or vacuum) at the same times. This results in absolute phase, yields the best use of amplifier power, and creates the opportunity for the best sound with the least amount of unnecessary equalization.
Effects of Differences in Multiple Path Lengths
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The precedence effect-or Haas effect, named after German researcher Helmut Haas-describes the ability of our ears to lock onto the first arriving sound even though other, louder sounds may follow. As long as the delayed sounds arrive no later than 25 milliseconds afterward and are no greater than 10 dB, the human brain will fuse them together as a single reinforced sound. Other sounds that do not meet these two conditions and are not masked will be heard as distinct echoes. In mobile installations, speakers cannot be mounted far enough away to produce distinct echoes at the listening position. However, in lower end systems, you may hear a left- or right-side bias (caused by amplitude reduction) based on the increased distance of one speaker from the listening position. More subtle effects are cloudy placement of images that move from left-toright and front-to-back as the frequency from the recorded instrument changes. For a pair of tweeters, the wavelengths are really too short to cause serious anomalies in frequency response (as measured by a one-third octave RTA), but the sound may peak in one listening position and yet sound different for a slightly adjusted head position because of comb filtering. This can cause narrow-band suckouts at frequencies when wavelengths correspond to the difference in distance from the two sources to the listener.
Sound Quality
The quality of the received sound depends on a number of system performance measurements, including distortion, noise and separation, as well as factors such as direction, imaging and staging. You can optimize the latter with proper placement of speakers and enclosures in the vehicle. It is impossible to overstate the importance of proper installation techniques, such as wiring, enclosure construction and acoustic treatments.
INSTALLATION OF FACTORY REPLACEMENT SPEAKERS
Always make sure that a

replacement door speaker is equally well coupled to the opening in the panel through which the sound will travel. Poor coupling results in unnecessary cancellations.
Identify the polarity of the wires using the factory speaker and a 1.5v battery or, preferably, a phase checker. You may also look up the proper wire colors on a vehicle-wiring diagram, though you should always verify polarity. Connect the speaker wire to the speaker. Secure the speaker in the factory location. Aim coaxially mounted tweeter (if applicable).
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Make sure that the speaker is completely baffled (sealed front from rear). Observe and maintain adequate speaker-to-panel opening coupling for maximum performance.
NON-FACTORY LOCATIONS
Double-check that the speaker will indeed fit in the proposed location. Make sure that the speaker will not interrupt operation of factory mechanisms such as window cranks, motors, windows and control arms. Using a template or a hole saw, mark the opening on the panel. Make sure both left and right speakers are mirror imaged (located in exactly the same place on both sides of the vehicle). Use a razor knife to cut cloth, vinyl or carpet type materials before cutting the hole in the panel.
Note: Always demonstrate caution and care when cutting and use the appropriate safety devices such as eye and ear protection. No matter what cutting method you use, be sure to support the panel so that vibration does not damage it. Be sure that the window is completely rolled up before cutting in a door.
Cut the panel using an air saw, razor knife or hole saw. If using a hole saw, pre-drill the pilot hole before sawing.
Replace the panel on the door or body part and transfer the hole onto the metal. Remove the panel and inspect the area to ensure clean cutting; look for wire harnesses, etc. Cut the metal using an air saw, metal nibbler, hole saw, etc. When adding speakers in a non-factory location you generally will need to run speaker wire to that location. Neatly secure all wiring to factory harnesses with wire ties, or affix duct tape to the floor every 12-18 under the carpet and behind factory panels. When running wire into a door, always use the factory wire boot where applicable.
If it is not possible to run the additional wire through the factory boot or if a factory boot does not exist, you will need to create your own boot.

Always locate the entry hole into the door at lower than the entry hole into the side of the vehicle. That will prevent water from following the boot into the kick panel, where it may damage sensitive vehicle electronics. Always install a grommet in both holes.
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Always protect the wire with a clear nylon tube or split loom tubing.
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Never drill the access hole on the vehicle side in the face of the door jam. Always drill your access hole through the side of the door jam or kick panel area to prevent damaging the wire when the door is closed. Connect the speaker wires. Maintain proper polarity! Secure the speaker in the opening.
Try to ensure all screws are secured into metal or use speed clips if not securing into metal. Make sure that the speaker is completely baffled (sealed front from rear). Install the grills and make sure that they are straight and symmetrical. Install and set up the provided crossover network with a component set. Adjust tweeter level and phase. Adjust axis mount settings as required.
Make your connections to the radio or amplifier as necessary. Observe proper polarity. Reassemble the vehicle. Verify proper cosmetics, fit and finish before delivering the vehicle to the customer
TIPS FOR COMPONENT SPEAKER PLACEMENT
When installing a component speaker there are some common installation concerns. 1. Locate the tweeter as close to the woofer as possible, not to exceed a distance that is more than the diameter of the mid-range woofer. For example: If you are installing a 61/2 component set, the tweeter should be no more than 61/2 away from the mid-woofer. This will help prevent phasing issues. 2. Mount the tweeter on the same vertical plane as the woofer. This will help avoid time alignment issues. 3. Mount the tweeter below the mid-woofer when applicable, such as in a kick panel application. This addresses a time alignment concern known as the zero-delay plane. If the tweeter is mounted below the woofer the combined psycho-acoustic effect will actually lift the sound stage.
INSTALLATION OF FULL RANGE SPEAKERS AND MID-WOOFERS
It is important to make sure the speaker has a good seal around its mounting location. Do not allow any air to leak by the speaker because the speaker gasket is defective, or the mounting surface is larger than the speaker.
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Remember to keep
passive crossovers away from sources of radiated noise. Additionally, install them in a location for ease of tweeter level adjustment (when so equipped).
If the sound waves from the back of the woofer reach the sound waves from the front of the woofer, you will get cancellation of the low frequencies. If you encounter small gaps around the woofer you can use duct tape to seal the gaps. If there are large gaps all the way around the woofer, cut a baffle board out of wood or plastic that will cover all the gaps. If the baffle board is wood, make sure to paint it to protect it against moisture.
INSTALLATION OF TWEETERS
Flush Mount - Flush mounted tweeters are one of the more visually pleasing mounting applications. Flush mounting will require you to verify clearance before any cutting. Depending upon the panel material to be cut, use the template provided by the manufacturer in conjunction with a razor knife, reciprocating saw or a hole saw of the correct diameter. Flush mount tweeters will generally have a mounting cup or assembly into which the tweeter itself is mounted. After cutting the hole, be sure to securely mount this cup or assembly into the panel before installing the tweeter. Use common sense if using sharp tools around upholstered surfaces and protect the upholstery accordingly.
Surface Mount - Surface-mount tweeters are not as visually pleasing as a flush mount because the tweeter will protrude from the surface. Surface-mount tweeters will generally have a mounting cup or assembly into which the tweeter itself is mounted. This mount will need to be screwed or bolted from the back side of the panel. If mounting to a plastic surface, use a nut, bolt and washers, or speed clips to prevent the tweeter mount from falling off the panel over time.
Axis Mount - An axis mount is one of the easiest tweeter mounting applications since the tweeter is mounted on top of the woofer. Follow the manufacturers guidelines when installing an axis mount tweeter. Most component systems that offer an axis mount application should have some type of switch or jumper inside the crossover to configure the frequency response of the speaker systems. This compensates for the change in frequency response of the woofer once the tweeter is suspended over it.

Crossover - The crossover should be mounted where it can be easily accessed. Some internal adjustments on the crossover need to be accessible when tuning the system. Some good locations for mounting the crossover are in the kick panel, under the seats and under the dash. You can also mount them in the door panels if you install them between the vapor barrier and the door panel. Never mount the crossover by any power wires. If the crossover is mounted near power wires, you will get induced noise through the speakers.
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Digital and Multi-Channel Sound

AUDIO ENCODING FORMATS Pulse Code Modulation
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PCM (pulse code modulation) is a digital scheme for transmitting analog data. The signals in PCM are binary. As you learned in Chapter 1, binary numbers are represented by only two digital possibilities, either a 1 (high) or a 0 (low). Digital audio is just ones and zeros no matter how complex the analog waveform is. Using PCM, it is possible to digitize all forms of analog data, including full-motion video, voices and music. To obtain PCM from an analog waveform at the source of the audio path (like a microphone or multi-track recording console), the analog signal amplitude is sampled at regular time intervals and converted into a digital representation. This is the analog to digital (or A/D) conversion. The sampling frequency-the number samples per second-is several times the maximum frequency of the analog audio waveform. The theory known as the Nyquist Limit states that the sampling frequency of the audio signal must be twice the upper limit of the highest audio signal, so that the sampling is indistinguishable to the human ear. This is why PCM audio is sampled at 44.1kHz (exactly twice 22.05 kHz, which is well beyond the capability of human hearing). The instantaneous amplitude of the analog signal at each sampling is rounded off to the nearest of several specific levels. This process is called quantization. The number of binary levels is always a power of 2. The digital output of a pulse code modulator is now a series of binary numbers, each represented by some power of 2 bits. The compact disc format uses 16 bits of data. DVD-Audio uses 24 bits of PCM data. The theory is that having a greater amount of bits (audio data) increases the overall sonic realism of the recording, both in audio content and signal-to-noise ratio. At the destination of the audio software signal path (such as a CD player), a pulse code demodulator converts the binary numbers back into pulses having the same quantum levels as those in the modulator. These pulses are processed to restore the original analog waveform. This is the digital to analog (or D/A) conversion process. A signal does not have to be a PCM signal to move between the analog and digital domains. PCM is a linear format, which means there is no additional encoding for distribution of the digital information into any other form than it was originally sampled. In addition to PCM, another form of converting analog signals into digital signals exists. This is known as delta-sigma or one-bit A/D and D/A conversion. Delta-sigma is employed in some D/A converters of early mobile CD players. The technique is now the basis for the SACD (super audio compact disc) data format. The type of delta-sigma A/D conversion used in making SACDs is called direct stream digital (DSD). The advantage of this technique is the amount of data that can be throughput in a particular amount of sampling time. Read more about SACD and delta-sigma conversion in the subsequent SACD sections.
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Compressed Digital Audio (Perceptual Coding)
In 16-bit PCM encoding systems, the goal is to digitally reproduce the waveform of an audio signal as accurately as possible, given the storage space. The fact is, though PCM encoding is a great way to transfer high quality digital audio, it is rather bulky when lots of music needs to fit into a somewhat small space. This is why various forms of digital audio compression have become popular. Compression allows more music to fit into a smaller space, but at what cost to the quality of the sound? MP3 (MPEG 1, Layer 3) audio compression is arguably the best-known compression format in use today. MP3 uses some inevitable truths about human hearing to figure out how to compress the audio with the best audible results. Since human hearing has all sorts of factors that are not linear, some areas of audio reproduction can be manipulated to achieve a good-but not perfect- result. Audio compression formats use a technique known as perceptual coding, which encodes an audio signal so the human ear will perceive it as close to the original without actually consuming the same space as a PCM digital audio conversion. You might say that PCM attempts to capture an audio waveform as it actually is while perceptual coding (as in MP3) attempts to capture an audio waveform as it sounds to the human ear. Though some humans have more refined ears than others do, it is safe to say that you can achieve some balance between audio quality and storage space. Perceptual coding is done by making a reference to a psychoacoustic model, essentially a mathematical representation of the way in which humans both hear and perceive changes in sound. When psychoacoustics are in place, it becomes interesting to see what humans hear versus what we think we hear. The process of thinking as we are hearing means that humans prioritize some sounds while we ignore others. This is called masking. By using masking techniques that are similar to human hearing, audio compression techniques such as MP3 allow some of the audio that the human ear does not recognize anyway to be discarded. Audio that is not recognized is considered irrelevant in the compression process. Irrelevant audio information is therefore not necessary to store and that is how MP3 makes file sizes smaller. Masking occurs because human hearing is adaptive and adjusts to suit the dominant levels of sound and noise in a given environment, such as an automobile. Here is an example: a sudden handclap in a quiet room may seem loud, but if that same handclap had been preceded by a gunshot, it would not seem nearly as loud. Here is another example: while in a quiet recording studio, the sound of an electric guitar might seem to dominate the mix, up until the moment the drummer hits a particular cymbal, at which point the guitar seems to briefly drown out because the cymbal is the new sound the ear identifies. Both of these are examples of masking in the time domain and the frequency domain. When two sounds occur simultaneously (or nearsimultaneously), one is partially masked by the other. This phenomenon depends on the relative volume and frequency content of the sounds.
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The Haas effect describes the relationship of time domain variations between two sounds. It states that as long as the delayed sounds arrive no later than 25 milliseconds from the primary sound (and are no different than 10 dB sound pressure level), the human brain will fuse them together as a single reinforced sound. This is one element of masking that enables perceptual coding to get away with removing much of the irrelevant data that conventional audio signal coding stores. This does not mean that all audio data deemed irrelevant in perceptual coding is completely discarded; it is simply assigned fewer bits of data than the audio data deemed relevant. This has the effect of introducing some distortion, but the distortion is typically confined to the masked elements and is barely audible. The audibility of the distortion is simply a function of the audio content (voices are easier to compress than full musical performances) and the resolution of the listeners ears. Using fewer bits of data to represent the masked elements in a recording means that fewer bits overall are required. This is how MP3 coding succeeds in reducing audio files to be less than 1/10th of their original PCM size, with little or no noticeable degradation in sound quality (depending on your ears and the system on which the MP3 audio is played back). MP3 encoding supports native sampling frequencies of 32 kHz, 44.1kHz and 48 kHz. The bit rate of the encoding is chosen at the time of encoding and can be as much as 320kbps to as little as 16kbps. Higher bit rates are recommended for music and lower bit rates are suitable for the spoken word or background music (such as music on hold for a telephone system). The very best listeners may still notice differences between a native CD format and a compressed MP3 format, even at high bit rates. Dolby advanced audio coding (AAC) is a new perceptual coding technique with similar bit rate capabilities as MP3, but claiming to have file sizes up to 30 percent less in high resolution (128 kbps) formats. AAC is part of the MPEG 2 and MPEG 4 digital media standards. (Remember MP3 reflects MPEG 1, Layer 3). Given the software size, encoding application and playback device, AAC provides sample rates of up to 96 kHz and broadcast quality audio at 320 kbps for a 5.1-channel encoded material. Microsofts Windows Media Audio (WMA) is much like MP3. The Windows Media compression codec is similar to MP3 but produces smaller files. WMA performs very well at lower bit-rates and is reported to produce quality indistinguishable from the original CD at 128 kbps, which then compresses to around 48 kbps (about a third of the size of MP3). WMA is designed to cope with a variety of sounds, from low bandwidth speech to CD-quality music. Recent developments in audio compression and decompression technology enable WMA to be much faster and to take up less file space than older compression formats. While not all in-dash MP3 capable headunits will play WMA files, many hard drive-based mobile audio storage devices will store and play back many file formats including MP3, WMA, WAV and others.
Margin Notes
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Margin Notes
Wave files (.WAV) are a standard audio file format that traditionally uses PCM for full audio resolution. WAV files are typically four to five times the size of an MP3 or other compressed 2-channel audio file format. A typical 700MB CD supports about 80 minutes of PCM audio in a .WAV file format. Recently the WAV file format has been adapted to store its audio data in other compressed formats.
Lossless Compression Techniques
Lossless compression
schemes aim to recreate the original audio material with few (if any) negative audible effects.
Uncompressed PCM linear conversions are somewhat limited on storage space if more than two channels are required. The 16-bit audio CD as we know it is simply a 2-channel source format. Lossless compression allows a greater number of channels to be put into the same space as two channels normally occupy, without compromising the overall audio reproduction quality. One current 2-channel format known as FLAC (free lossless audio codec) is available for use in several popular encoding software packages. FLAC files will play on any FLAC-enabled mobile audio playback device, though the file sizes are considerably larger than a WMA or MP3 file. Still, a FLAC file is about half the size of a .WAV file with few negative audible effects. Lossless compression is especially useful in the new DVDA and SACD formats. Here is an analogy to describe lossless compression: If you had a load of bricks to transport to a building site, you could just throw them in the back of a truck and carry them, or at least some of them, to where they were needed. However, if you took the time to stack them neatly, you would get more bricks in the same truck and could transport them more efficiently- perhaps all in one trip! That is the principal advantage of lossless compression. You transport the bricks in the most efficient manner by packing them closely together. And you still have all the bricks at the end of the ride. Read more about DVDAudio and SACD in the Discrete Multi-Channel Encoding (Lossless Compression) section.
Matrix Audio Encoding (Dolby Surround)
Dolby Surround is an analog-based matrix encoding process that essentially packs four individual channels (left, center, right and surround channels) onto 2-channel stereo soundtracks. Each of the four channels has been specially encoded onto the 2-channel stereo soundtracks of Dolby Surround program material such as VHS movies and TV shows. A Pro Logic decoder unpacks the four channels upon playback. Dolby Pro Logic is a matrix-decoding process that decodes four channels of surround sound. If there is no Pro Logic decoder, the matrix-encoded program material simply plays in normal 2-channel stereo. Matrix encoding is an analog process that simply mixes a left and right audio signal together and may limit the bandwidth upon decoding for certain applications. Depending on the applications (front channels or rear channels), the matrix can be decoded as L+R (left plus right) or L-R (left minus right).
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Front center channels or mono subwoofers are typically L+R while rear speakers are typically L-R and bandwidth-limited.
Discrete Multi-Channel Audio Encoding (Lossy Compression)
Margin Notes
Taking the idea of perceptual coding a step further, many multi-channel formats offer discrete channels above and beyond the 2-channel world. This is all made possible (as well as practical) by technologies of digital audio and perceptual coding. Two of the most recognized multi-channel formats are from Dolby Labs and Digital Theater Systems (DTS). Dolby Digital 5.1 and DTS 5.1 are methods of transmitting and storing 5.1channel soundtracks via newer digital media such as DVD, digital cable, digital broadcast TV (DTV) and satellite transmissions. Unlike the Dolby Surround encode/Pro Logic decode process, which sacrifices channel separation to get surround onto any stereo soundtrack, Dolby Digital 5.1 and DTS 5.1 are discrete digital encoding systems that keep the multiple channels fully separated throughout the encoding and decoding process. In addition to having full-range front left, front center, front right, left surround and right surround channels, Dolby Digital 5.1 and DTS 5.1 soundtracks carry a sixth (.1) channel recorded with low-frequency effects (those bass rumbles and booms you feel as well as hear in a well-equipped cinema). The sixth channel is called the LFE channel for low frequency effects.
Discrete Multi-Channel Audio Encoding (Lossless Compression)
When connecting a DVDVideo player into a Dolby Digital or DTS decoder via POF cable, all six channels are digitally contained within that single connection. The decoder must unpack and decode each channel to provide the discrete 5.1 channels of output.
DVD-Audio and SACD software formats also use discrete channel encoding and proprietary decoding methods to carry six separate channels of digital audio. The main difference between DVD-A and SACD and other formats is that the encoded multi-channel audio signal is generally a music selection rather than a surround sound movie soundtrack. In addition, the inherent losses of perceptual coding techniques are virtually eliminated in what both DVD-A and SACD call lossless compression. DVD-A uses a lossless compression format called Meridian Lossless Packing (MLP) to reproduce its superior audio playback with a frequency response of 5-50 KHz. DVD-Audio requires a DVD-A player for true playback of the MLP audio tracks. Some special discs are available that have Dolby Digital or DTS-encoded audio material in the video zone of the disc. A normal DVDVideo player can access the video zone. Read more about DVD-Audio in the Multi-Channel Audio Formats section. Like DVD-Audio, SACD offers 5.1-channel surround sound in addition to 2channel stereo mix on a single disc. SACD uses Direct Stream Digital (DSD) recording, a proprietary Sony technology that converts an analog waveform to a 1-bit signal for direct recording, instead of the PCM and filtering used by standard CDs. DSD uses a lossless compression scheme (different than MLP) and a sampling rate of 2.8MHz to improve the complexity and realism of sound. Read more about SACD in the Multi-Channel Audio Formats section.
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Margin Notes
To read more about each of the unique methods of each format for encoding and decoding, please read the additional topics in this chapter regarding Audio Source Formats, Video Source Formats and Multi-Channel Decoders.
Fully Discrete and Discrete plus Matrix (Hybrid Formats)
With respect to soundtracks, such as those on movies and DVDs, 5.1 means that the soundtracks are recorded with five main channels: left, center, right, left surround and right surround, plus a low-frequency effects (LFE) bass channel. Some movie soundtracks use a variation on 5.1, either Dolby Digital Surround EX or DTS Extended Surround (ES). With the Dolby Digital Surround EX format, a third surround channel is matrix-encoded onto the left and right surround channels of 5.1 soundtracks, and may be decoded at the cinemas or home listeners option due to the channels inherent compatibility. Because the left and right surround channels carry the extra surround information as matrixed information, Dolby Digital Surround EX encoded soundtracks are still regarded as 5.1 soundtracks. As of this writing, Lucasfilm/THX hold the rights to market this technology for home use. DTS-Extended Surround (ES) also adds a center-surround channel to the existing 5.1-channel array, but is fully discrete. DTS-ES is the only format that can deliver all 6.1 channels as discrete. DTS-ES is fully compatible with all types of multi-channel playback systems. All sounds will be heard, whether played back as discrete 6.1, matrix 6.1 or on a 5.1 system. In 5.1 systems, the encoded rear center channels are spread to the left and right surround channels. Currently, no mobile A/V processors offer DTS-ES decoding for the automobile. With respect to playback in a home theater, the terms 5.1, 6.1 and 7.1 mean that there are five, six or seven main speakers, plus a subwoofer, in the playback system. The subwoofer reproduces the LFE channel recorded on 5.1 soundtracks, plus any bass the main speakers cannot handle. The difference is in the number of surround speakers: two in a 5.1 system, three in a 6.1 system and four in a 7.1 system. Obviously, a 5.1-channel soundtrack can be played on a 5.1-speaker system. But it can also be played on a 6.1- or a 7.1-speaker system. To do this, the two surround signals on the 5.1 soundtrack are spread across the three or four surround speakers. This distribution can be accomplished by a Dolby Digital EX decoder, DTS-ES decoder, a THX quality Surround EX decoder or other proprietary methods in home theater equipment. The number describing the soundtrack (i.e., 5.1) does not have to match the number applied to the speaker system. It is even possible to play 2-channel stereo content over these multi-speaker systems by using a matrix surround decoder such as Dolby Pro Logic 2 or Lexicon L7. The delivery format and
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the speaker configuration are independent, and it is the decoders job to bridge them effectively. Dolby Pro Logic 2 processors are available from several aftermarket mobile electronics companies as well as being built into many of the hideaway sub chassis of many flip-up screen headunits. If a mobile audio component contains Dolby Pro Logic 2 matrix processing, it will certainly indicate that. OEM mobile audio systems already feature matrix decoding that allows the surround effect with normal 2-channel audio formats such as CDs or cassette tapes. Many Volvo vehicles feature Dolby Pro-Logic or Dolby Pro-Logic 2 and the 2002-2004 BMW 7 series features a premium option of the Lexicon L7 audio system.
MULTI-CHANNEL AUDIO SOFTWARE FORMATS DVD-Audio
Margin Notes
DVD-Audio is a new 24-bit format that delivers high-fidelity audio content on the DVD media format. It offers stereo and surround sound capability, as well as a maximum of two hours of 2-channel audio per layer at 24bit/192kHz sampling or 1.5 hours of 5.1 surround audio per layer at 24bit/96kHz sampling. As with the DVD-Video format, two layers per side are possible, although DVD-Audio will commercially begin as single side, single layer when it appears in stores, at least for the immediate future. Once the market penetration increases (as DVD-Video has), the potential exists for a wider variety of configurations. The 24-bit DVD-Audio format has a maximum of 8 channels per layer (a 5.1-audio track with an additional 2-channel audio track). A 24-bit DVDAudio track uses MLP, a lossless compression format, to get more data into the allotted space while still being linear on the other end. DVD-Audio will support 16-, 20- or 24-bit formats and sampling rates of 32, 44.1, 88.2, 96 and 192kHz to maintain flexibility with existing formats of audio data.
SACD
The Super Audio Compact Disc (SACD) format is another multi-channel audio software format that is heavily backed by Sony and Philips (who invented the conventional CD). Although the format differs from DVD-A with respect to A/D conversions and sampling rates, both are considered lossless compression carriers for multiple discrete channels of audio. SACD offers only a single-sided format, but also has the potential of a second layer and a red book within the second layer, which is a data layer that will play back on a conventional 16-bit CD player. The future of mobile audio will contain many avenues for getting multiple channels of sound into the vehicle. Via discretely encoded software or matrix processing, the future of car audio is more entertaining because the experience of listening to surround sound can be taken on the road.
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Margin Notes
STAND ALONE DECODERS
Dolby Pro Logic 2 takes

two channels of stereo audio input and provides five channels of output. It does not have a .1 or LFE channel all by itself, although an integrated component may offer supplemental subwoofer outputs with a LP crossover and level control.
Dolby Pro Logic is a matrix decoder that decodes the four channels of surround sound that have been encoded onto the stereo soundtracks of Dolby Surround material such as VHS movies and TV shows. Dolby Surround is a matrix-encoding process that in essence folds left, center, right and surround channels onto stereo soundtracks. A Pro Logic decoder then unfolds the four channels on playback. When a Pro Logic decoder is not present, the encoded program simply plays in regular 2-channel stereo. Dolby Pro Logic 2 is a more robust matrix-decoding technique that derives five full range channels from a 2-channel source, even it has not been specifically Dolby Surround-encoded. It is an improvement over Dolby Pro Logic because the rear channel decoding is done in stereo, rather than mono, and the channels are full range (20Hz to 20kHz) whereas the rear channels are bandwidth-limited in the older Dolby Pro Logic format. When processing encoded material such as movie soundtracks, the sound is somewhat like Dolby Digital 5-without the point 1. When processing standard 2-channel stereo material (such as 16-bit audio CDs), the effects present a wider, more spacious field of sound. These advancements make Dolby Pro Logic 2 especially well suited to deliver surround sound in the car with current 2-channel audio source formats as well as with DVD-Video movies. Remember though, that the Dolby Pro Logic 2 matrix processing does not provide bass management (the subwoofer crossover and level control) unless it is contained elsewhere in a built-in (integrated) preamp processor. The potential advantage of the Dolby Pro Logic 2 processor hardware in the car is that it takes standard 2-channel RCA audio inputs. With RCA inputs on board, a digital input is not required to process a Dolby Pro Logic 2 effect, whereas a Dolby Digital 5.1 or DTS 5.1 format would require a digital processor with a digital input to function in a mobile A/V surround system. Dolby Pro Logic 2 is well suited for any source delivered in-or originating in-a 2-channel format. This means MP3 and WMA compressed audio, FM or satellite radio (but not AM), cassettes, CDs, DVD-V discs outputting 2-channel PCM data through a D/A converter, and many other common audio formats can all benefit from multiple channels where originally only two channels were input. Dolby Pro Logic 2 processors are available from several aftermarket mobile electronics companies. Again, the bass management function may be part of a feature set within the particular unit (not normally part of the Pro Logic 2 processing matrix), especially if Pro Logic 2 is controlled exclusively from the headunit. DTS Neo:6 is an advanced matrix decoder. It will take any 2-channel source and expand it into five or six channels, depending on the speaker layout of the audio system. Two-channel sources include VHS tapes, broadcast television, 16-bit 2-channel stereo CDs, and 24-bit DVD-Video discs. DTS Neo:6 provides separate, optimized modes for stereo music source material and matrix surround motion picture soundtracks. DTS Neo:6 also decodes a
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center-surround channel from extended surround matrix soundtracks such as Dolby Surround EX. Currently there are no signal processors for mobile audio applications featuring DTS Neo:6 decoding capabilities. It is important to note that any standalone decoder, regardless of format, depends on a dedicated center speaker to fully reproduce the intent of the decoding process. Without center channel speakers, the entertainment experience of a multi-channel mobile audio system is going to be only moderately more entertaining.
Margin Notes
An integrated mobile A/V

system is more complex than a simple rear seat entertainment system.
Vehicle Disassembly for Mobile Video System Installations

When a video system installation is taking place, many different levels of integration and disassembly may be necessary. The key to understanding the disassembly task is to establish which type of video installation is to be installed. There are two distinct categories of mobile video installations:
Integrated Mobile Audio/Video Systems - In some applications, a fullblown mobile theater experience is the intent. In an integrated mobile A/V system, both the video and audio portions are a part of the main audio system. Typically the in-dash headunit controls them, allowing the audio portion of the video experience to play through the amplifiers and speakers in the audio system. If a system contains processing such as Dolby Pro-Logic 2, Dolby Digital or DTS, the system installation also will likely involve the same scale of disassembly as a large audio system installation. Rarely, if ever, is the fully integrated mobile A/V installation a quick one-day installation.
Rear Seat Entertainment Systems - These systems are almost entirely separate and standalone from the existing main audio system, whether OEM or aftermarket. The rear seat entertainment system essentially allows a visual entertainment source for rear seat passengers and typically involves an alternative listening method such as wired or wireless headphones. Many rear seat entertainment solutions offer a simple selfcontained monitor and source unit with headphone transmitter circuitry built in to facilitate quick installation. Some rear seat entertainment installations may connect into the main audio system with simple methods such as an FM modulator or AUX input. Most rear seat entertainment installations are completed the same day.
Here are the parts that are common for removal in integrated mobile audio/video system installations:

Center dash panels (surrounding headunits, HVAC controls, etc.) Center console panels and complete center consoles Underdash panels (both driver and passenger sides) Glove boxes (and surrounding area) Front seats (both sides) Headrests
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Margin Notes
Middle and rear seats Door panels (front, rear, and cargo doors) Kick and threshold panels A, B and C pillar panels Headliners Rear side panels Rear deck panels Front and rear seat belts (typically held in with large Torx bolts) Trunk cosmetic panels
Seat and seatbelt anchor

bolt removal is often a necessary part of running wires in a vehicle.
Parts common for removal in rear seat entertainment system installations include:

Underdash panels (both driver and passenger sides) Front seats (both sides) Headrests Middle and rear seats Kick and threshold panels A, B and C pillar panels Headliners Rear side panels Front and rear seat belts (typically held in with large Torx bolts)
Though it is generally not necessary to entirely remove the floor carpet to facilitate running wires in a rear seat entertainment system installation, correctly running the wires may necessitate seat belt and B pillar panel removal as well as entire seat removal in some cases. This removal is almost certainly necessary in an integrated mobile A/V system installation. In vehicles with a trunk or under rear seat-mounted battery, always avoid running audio or video signal cables down the same side of the car as the battery-to-alternator connection cable. This battery cable carries high current and will almost certainly be a source for some kind of electromagnetic interference (EMI)-related noise problem. In video system installations, this can be especially troublesome with both audible and visual noise. Video noise results in fuzzy and poor picture quality. Using the appropriate 75-ohm shielded video cable helps to avoid unnecessary video noise.
Avoid any sharp bends in a

POF cable used for discrete multi-channel audio in an integrated mobile A/V system
Another concern when choosing wiring paths in an integrated mobile A/V system is the use of plastic optical fiber (POF) cabling connecting DVD players to Dolby Digital or DTS processors. This cable is impervious to EMI-related noise, but it does not tolerate sharp bends. You should therefore avoid using it around any sharp surfaces or wire paths that create severe bends in the cable.
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Most important in any vehicle disassembly-regardless of the mobile video installation task-is to put back the original hardware for panel attachment as it was originally assembled from the factory. Often the easiest way for an automotive mechanic to blame a video component installation for a vehicle electrical problem stems from looking at the attention to detail given to correct reassembly of the vehicle interior panels. To avoid damaging any panel clips, always use the appropriate panel removal tools, and always be aware of where panels are stored while they are out of the vehicle. Laying a blanket or strip of carpet across a storage shelf helps ensure that the panels will not get scratched while in your care. Also make sure to use two installers for any headliner removal, so you avoid any unnecessary bends or creases in the factory headliner. There is nothing worse than handing the customer the keys, only to have him or her notice the big crease or dent in the felt headliner surrounding the new video component. Some of the methods by which interior dash and trim panels are removed for installation and/or modification are covered in Chapter 2 of this MECP Study Guide, Advanced Installation Knowledge and Technique.
Margin Notes
Mobile Video Entertainment Systems

VIDEO SOURCES VHF/UHF TV TUNERS
TV tuners have been offered for the mobile audio/video market since the mid-1980s. Mobile tuners can be standalone units or incorporated into other mobile video products. In either case the tuner consists of the two main components-the channel coverage and the antenna section. The channel coverage includes local stations that broadcast their signal to surrounding areas. The stations operate on different frequency ranges. The ranges are split into two categories, VHF and UHF . Very High Frequency (VHF). Refers to frequencies between 30 and 300 MHz, which includes TV channels 2-13. Ultra High Frequency (UHF). Refers to frequencies between 300 and 3000 MHz, which includes channels 14-69. The antenna section of the tuner brings in the signals over the air in the same way your AM and FM radio functions. Mobile TV antennas come in various shapes and sizes, and also differ for various applications. Fixed-mount boomerang antennas have been used in the limousine and executive transportation market for years. In modern systems, many of the mobile TV antennas are window-mounted units, allowing for more mounting options without drawing additional attention to the vehicle. Some tuner packs have a diversity tuner that allows the installation of several antennas located away from each other, connected to a single receiver via an internal antenna switch. At regular intervals, the receiver stops receiving, looks at the antennas and selects the one with the best signal as the input.
If you must use a VHF/UHF

TV tuner in a vehicle, choose diversity tuners with a dual or quad diversity antenna for best reception while on the move.
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Margin Notes
Advantage of using TV tuners in mobile applications. TV tuners are an inexpensive way to receive local channels on a monitor. Since many mobile video monitors and VCPs have a tuner built in, it is a cost effective alternative to more costly external video sources such as DVDs or video game consoles. Disadvantages of using TV tuners in mobile applications. Because of the nature of using airwaves to receive the signal, many times the picture and sound quality are less than adequate due to the fluctuation of the antenna ability to pick up the stations signal. The FM band is located between channels 6 and 7 on VHF and is closest to channel 6. , A strong FM station might cause interference on channel 6 because of its close proximity. Most customers find mobile TV reception only adequate at best.
SATELLITE TELEVISION
Satellites are used for voice, data and TV communications worldwide. Signals are beamed from the uplink sites to the satellites, which then beam the signal back down over a target area such as the United States, Canada or other parts of the world. Most network and cable programs are transmitted on a series of C-band satellites and some Ku-band satellites. These two types of satellites use different frequencies, much like VHF and UHF broadcast TV use different frequencies. Communications satellites were originally designed for sending telephone, radio, TV and other signals across the country and around the world for re-transmission to businesses and homes by local telephone companies, TV stations or cable companies. Enterprising individuals soon built satellite dish receivers to pick up these signals at home, and began making and selling these systems to homeowners, thus beginning the era of home satellite TV. During the 1980s and early 1990s, several million of these C-band systems were sold with dishes generally around the 10 diameter. As home satellite systems became more popular, program providers such as HBO realized that they could not continue to give away their programs free to millions of home dish owners. They developed a scrambling system so their signals were no longer broadcast in the clear for everyone with a dish to pick up without any payment to the program developers. A few channels were broadcast on the higher frequency Ku-band satellites, and some hybrid C/Ku-band systems were sold. Ku reception never became very popular due to the difficulties in receiving the Ku channels and to the lack of sufficient programming on these satellites. In 1994, the GM Hughes DIRECTV system launched using a newly designed high power Ku-band satellite and an 18 dish. This system provides a great picture and stereo sound on 150-200 video and audio channels, and made it possible for the small dish era to begin in a serious way. In 1996, the Echo
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Star Dish Network system launched. Both systems (Direct TV and Dish Network) use four main components: the uplink site, satellite, dish antenna and the receiver. Common Satellite Terms:
Margin Notes
TV Satellite - An electronic communications relay station orbiting 22,237 miles above the equator, moving in a fixed orbit at the same speed and direction as Earth (about 7,000 mph east to west). Satellites relay audio/video signals to your receiver, where information is unscrambled and converted. Parabolic Dish - The most common satellite TV antenna, named for the shape of the dish (a mathematical parabola). The parabolic shape focuses the weak microwave signal, hitting the surface of the dish at a single focal point where the communications pickup (also called the LNB) is usually located. Satellite Receiver - The component that converts the digital satellite signal to a signal displayed on your television screen. The receiver also allows you to change DSS channels.
To date, mobile applications for satellite television on the move are still very few. Often the most common mobile application is in RVs that travel to a destination, set up and calibrate the dish to the appropriate southern-facing coordinates, and enjoy the satellite broadcast as long as the RV is parked there. To keep a dish aligned with the exact satellite signal while a vehicle is in motion along city streets and mountainous terrain is a challenge that has yet to be overcome. Additional challenges are the physical size of the antenna on a moving vehicle and the DC-AC electrical conversion to power the satellite receiver in a 12-volt environment. Still, if a customer absolutely must have a satellite system while on the move, solutions are currently available.
VHS TAPES (VCP, VCR)
The VCR (video cassette recorder) or VCP (video cassette player) is one of the most popular home electronics products ever built. The VHS (video home system) VCR has found its way into nearly every home in the country, and many homes have more than one. When video began in mobile applications, VCPs were the most common and least expensive video source that gave reliable, reasonably good picture quality without an antenna or moving reception. A VCR or VCP can play movies from VHS tape. It can play back movies created on video camcorders, and VCRs can tape programs from television broadcasts or other sources for later viewing. Even with all the advances in digital mobile video source units, the VHS format is still an essential element of many mobile video entertainment systems.
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Margin Notes
Many VHS players are

specifically engineered for the mobile environment and release the magnetized video head from the tape when not in play (even while power is still on). This eliminates unnecessary wear due to moisture and vibration.
Even though the VHS VCR is common to many mobile and home video systems, its limitations will be apparent once a viewer has compared it to digital formats such as DVD-Video discs or HDTV broadcasts. The VHS image quality is noticeably poor, due mainly to its limitations in resolution. VHS tape has a resolution of approximately 240 lines (horizontal), which is about half the resolution the North American NTSC TV system can display. Newer formats take advantage of higher resolutions, for example 500 lines for DVD-Video. This lack of resolution appears as softness in VHS image details and bleeding of adjacent colors. The tape format itself is prone to noise-disruptions in the purity of the signal-often described as snow.
S-VHS TAPES
S-VHS was introduced in response to the criticism of the poor video quality of standard VHS recordings. S-VHS is not just a buzzword, but an entirely different system of recording video signals on VHS tapes. However, it has never become a widely accepted format for consumers, so it is a subject of confusion. S-VHS records luminance and chrominance (BandW picture and color information, also called Y and C) separately, rather than as a composite signal. By doing this, the deck is able to record and play back a wider bandwidth, or a much higher resolution signal than a normal VHS deck. The signal is also output via a S-Video connector that also keeps the Y and C signals separate. The result is a much clearer, higher definition picture than VHS. The horizontal resolution of S-VHS is around 400 lines, compared to 240 lines of normal VHS in SP mode. S-VHS is most often used by commercial or educational organizations. They can record video with an S-VHS camcorder at 400 lines and then edit it on S-VHS editing equipment. This allows editing with a very good signal. Even after making multiple copies, the final result is still higher than the quality of broadcast television. With standard VHS, the end result would be noticeably poor, even to an untrained eye. Unfortunately, S-VHS rarely finds its way into mobile applications or homes because it is nearly impossible to find movies to rent in that format. Also, if you make your own recording on the required special S-VHS tapes, most standard mobile VHS VCRs will not play them. Perhaps most important is that DVD-Video is now widely available and getting more accessible to consumers each day.
DVD-VIDEO
DVD is an optical storage media format that is primarily used for playback of movies with high video and sound quality. A DVD disc can be DVD-Video (containing movies), DVD-Audio (containing high-definition sound) and DVD-ROM (containing data). Many consumers and installers assume DVD stands for digital videodisc, which is merely one of many applications for the DVD media. But the V stands for versatile.
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A DVD can contain up to 150 minutes of video on a single side, allowing continuous playback of most feature-length movies. However, because some movies are longer, the only way to achieve continuous playback is to spread the movie and other contents over more than one layer within the same side. DVDs that do this are known as dual-layered or RSDL (reverse spiral dual layer). RSDL technology allows for more than three hours of material on a single side. This is desirable when a film is particularly long, or contains a wealth of extra materials, which can be accessed without having to flip the disc. In addition to extra materials, certain DVDs contain both the full-frame and widescreen versions on the same side. You can select the appropriate version from the discs main menu. All of this is only possible with dual-layer technology. All DVD players can play dual-layered discs, which are identified by the gold tint of the playing side (the side that faces down in the player). The layer transition often occurs during the running time of the movie, at which point your player will pause (showing a still frame) for approximately 1-2 seconds and then continue playing. In certain cases, layer transitions occur as the image fades to black, so there is no noticeable pause. DVD-Video discs require a DVD-Video player, which is similar to a common VCR, but cannot record onto the discs as standard. Commercial DVD movies are encoded using a combination of MPEG-2 compressed video and Dolby AC-3 audio (often in multi-channel formats.) Typical data rates for DVD movies range from 3-10 Mbps, and the bit rate is usually adaptive.
THE VIDEO PORTION OF A DVD-VIDEO DISC
Margin Notes
MPEG-2 Video Compression Using a digital compression called MPEG-2, DVD can provide between 475 and 500 lines of visible resolution, more than double the resolution of standard mobile VHS players. This level of sharpness and clarity eliminates video noise, and ensures deep blacks and vibrant colors. Like the CD, the DVD never wears out after repeated use. MPEG stands for Motion Picture Experts Group. Anamorphic Transfer Another feature exclusive to DVD is the 16:9 anamorphic transfer, currently employed by most of the major studios. Because most DVDs include both full-frame and widescreen versions, the viewer has a choice. Widescreen video monitors are 33 percent wider than regular televisions. Now that widescreen video monitors in the mobile environment are becoming more prevalent, DVDs digital technology is being used to produce widescreen versions that are not letterboxed but rather specially formatted to fit widescreen televisions, thereby producing an image 33 percent sharper than standard DVD (16:9=1.78:1 just as 4:3=1.33:1). The aspect ratio of widescreen television is 16:9 (1.78:1), while regular television is 4:3 (1.33:1).
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Margin Notes
The term anamorphic describes the fact that an image wider than a square has been squeezed into a square frame (a television screen, for example). Any film that has been made in an aspect ratio of 1.78 or wider can be anamorphically mastered to DVD, because this is the aspect ratio of widescreen televisions. Not all DVDs that are mastered in this format will mention it on the box, but those that do refer to this as 16X9 enhanced or enhanced for widescreen televisions. When producers letterbox a movie, they waste valuable screen space by taking up part of the screen with those black bars. With small screens in the mobile environment, the black bars on a video screen can eat up valuable viewing space, making movie watching much harder for passengers. By squeezing the sides of the picture in, you would not have to letterbox the picture-if there were a way to unsqueeze the picture later. You can do this with widescreen video monitor. An anamorphic DVD squeezes the picture in on the sides, making it look tall and squished. When this is done to movies wider than 1.78, small black bars still appear above and below the image, but this is necessary. Because DVD is a digital format, you still get all the benefits of anamorphic even with wider movies. If the installation has a widescreen video monitor, you can unsqueeze this image to make it look normal on the screen. Because black bars take little or none of the picture, more of the screen is used to display the image. As a result, the sharpness and detail increase by approximately 33 percent. If a widescreen video monitor is not present, the DVD player will automatically convert the image into a letterboxed picture. In this case the DVD player will generate the black bars, meaning that all the available resolution will be used to display the movie image and not the black bars. Therefore, no matter what size of screen is being installed into the vehicle, you can view both anamorphic and non-anamorphic DVDs with relative ease. Aspect Ratio The term aspect ratio describes the degree to which an image is wider than it is tall. Since movies are filmed wider than the video screen on which they will eventually be displayed, letterboxing preserves the image with black bars on the top and bottom. However, from movie to movie, the size of the bars will change. For example, the black bars on the letterboxed version of Jurassic Park are smaller than the black bars on the letterboxed version of Jaws, but both versions display the entire filmed image as it was released for the theater. This is because there are a number of widescreen processes, which determine how wide the movie image will be. The number to describe an aspect ratio is read as width to height, the height always being 1. 1.33:1 - Also known as 4:3, this is the aspect ratio of a television screen and of standard 35mm film. Movies made before 1952 were mostly filmed in 1.33 and will transfer normally to video. Examples: Gone With The Wind, Citizen Kane and The Wizard Of Oz.
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1.85:1 - This is called standard, or flat, because it requires no special lenses. Movies produced in this format are 33 percent wider than standard televisions. All movie screens in North America have an aspect ratio of at least 1.85:1. Examples: The Fugitive, Batman and Men In Black. 2.35:1 (Anamorphic) - This format produces an image that is nearly twice as wide as it is high, and therefore it is also twice as wide as your television screen. Special lenses squeeze this image onto standard 35mm film and the same lenses produce a viewable image during theatrical projection. This format is still widely in use for action/adventure and fantasy films, and is denoted by the appearance of the words Cinemascope or Filmed in Panavision. Other international formats work the same way but under different names. Examples: Star Wars, Blade Runner and Heat. 70mm 2:1 - Event movies of yesteryear were often filmed in the 70mm format, which uses a very large frame to capture extremely clear, grain-free images with a sweeping grandeur. Today, only a handful of movies are made in this format. The 2:1 aspect ratio falls between standard flat and 2.35 anamorphic, and can be altered to appear closer to 2.35 if the filmmaker desires. Examples: Lawrence of Arabia, Far And Away and 2001: A Space Odyssey. Super 35 2.35:1 - also known as Super Scope 235, this uses modified 35mm film to produce a slightly wider image, with the director framing for a 2.35:1 image within the Super 35 frame. This takes advantage of the fine quality of Super 35 lenses without dealing with the distortion inherent in anamorphic lenses, while still achieving the widescreen aspect ratio. Examples: Titanic, The Abyss and Terminator 2. A note about IMAX: IMAX movies are actually photographed on 70mm film turned sideways, and as a result achieve a nearly square frame. Due to the size of IMAX screens, it is not necessary for the format to be widescreen, and this is why video transfers of IMAX material are not letterboxed. You may find that certain letterboxed movies deviate from these formats, but you can be certain that no matter what the aspect ratio, a letterboxed edition lets you see what the filmmakers intend for you to see. Another feature that is becoming widespread is the audio commentary, which first appeared on the laserdisc format. DVD is uniquely capable of presenting audio commentary in clear, digital sound with easy access to different scenes and audio tracks. The audio commentary is a chance for you to essentially watch the film with the voice of the director guiding you through the making of the movie. Never before has it been possible to preserve these valuable observations on the nature of filmmaking from the luminaries of the industry. Even a casual film fan can learn a lot. Sometimes these audio commentaries are spiced up a bit by including some of the films stars along with the director. Some DVDs offer two or three separate running audio commentaries, allowing the director to have his say without being interrupted by other members of the filmmaking team who offer their own
Margin Notes
DVD-V discs may feature

a screen aspect ratio that appears squashed and stretched when displayed on some screens not configured for adaptive aspect ratio settings. Additionally, widescreen DVD-Video disc formats may appear to be missing content on the sides when displayed on standard 4:3 ratio screens.
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Margin Notes
commentary on a separate track. Consider such a feature a seminar with filmmaking greats, and you will undoubtedly come away with a deeper understanding of the creative process. In addition to documentary footage, many DVDs contain deleted scenes and/or outtakes from the movie, which provide insight into the directions that the movie could have taken. Often, such scenes will feature a secondary audio track with commentary from the director explaining why that particular scene was cut.
THE AUDIO PORTION OF A DVD-VIDEO DISC
Digital Audio Coding Techniques The audio data on a DVD movie can be in the format of PCM, DTS, MPEG-2 audio or Dolby AC-3. In the NTSC countries (North America, Mexico, Canada and Japan), any DVD movie should contain a soundtrack in PCM or Dolby AC-3 format, and any NTSC player must support at least these two formats. All the others are optional. This ensures any standard compatible DVD-Video disc can be played on any standard compatible player. PCM (Pulse Code Modulation) This audio format addresses the applications where a discrete or matrixed surround sound application is not in place. PCM data is essentially 2-channel, just like most mobile audio source units. The difference is that PCM audio is digital in nature. Remember the binary representation and conversion back into an analog waveform? PCM data requires a D/A conversion to create a traditional 2-channel RCA type analog audio output. Most mobile DVD players have this output option. Some less costly mobile models only have an analog RCA output with an internal, inexpensive PCM D/A converter. Dolby Surround 2.0 This sound format matrixes four channels of sound from a 2-channel stereo mix: center, left front, right front and rear channel. This differs from Dolby Digital in that the four channels are not full-range, and the rear channel, which still requires two speakers, is a mono channel without directional effects. Dolby Surround can be very dynamic. Some DVDs will provide separate Dolby Surround and Dolby Digital soundtracks, so you can choose which one you would like to hear. Those DVDs that only provide a Dolby Digital soundtrack will still play normally through any stereo receiver or television because your DVD player will automatically convert the digital mix to a matrix surround mix. DTS DVD-Video discs all contain a separate Dolby Surround version. Dolby Digital 5.1 This means that the movie soundtrack is presented in full-range digital surround, with fully separate or discrete sound in five channels: left front, center, right front, left rear and right rear. The .1 indicates that there is a fully separate bass channel for low-level sound, which feeds a subwoofer.
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This is often called the LFE channel (low frequency effects). The Dolby Digital format is encoded with AC-3, a universal format for Dolby Digital signals to transfer into and out of consumer audio/video equipment. All DVD players can output a Dolby Digital/AC-3 encoded signal, but a Dolby Digital decoder/receiver is required to decode the signal and process it on the receiving end. Because of Dolby Digital 5.1, older movies with 70mm 6-track split surround mixes or early digital sound mixes can now be presented on DVD with accurate discrete stereo sound. DTS Digital 5.1 Surround The DTS (digital theater systems) version of discrete multi-channel audio encoding works similar to Dolby Digital but with a different bit rate, which can allow for subtle differences in the sound mix. Most DVD-Video players can output the DTS digital audio signal, but a DTS decoder/receiver is required to decode the signal and process it on the receiving end. Currently most DVD-Video discs with digital sound use Dolby Digital, but many DTS DVDs are available. DTS-ES (Extended Surround) DTS-Extended Surround (ES) adds a center-surround channel to the existing 5.1 channel array. DTS-ES is the only home format that can deliver all 6.1 channels as discrete. DTS-ES is fully compatible with all types of multi-channel systems. You will hear all sounds, whether played back as discrete, matrix or on a 5.1 mobile audio/video system. Currently, no mobile A/V processors offer DTS-ES decoding for the automobile. Older Mono Soundtracks Not all movies are in stereo. Older movies may be in mono, or 2-channel stereo without surround information. In these cases, Dolby Digital encoding may be used to contain these versions. This means that not all DVDs that say Dolby Digital are actually in 5.1 surround. Dolby Digital is a digital sound storage format, with the option to hear mono, stereo, matrix or 5.1 surround depending on how the movie was originally mixed. With the Dolby Digital AC-3 perceptual coding, sampling rates of 32kHz, 44.1 kHz and 48kHz are supported, while data rates range from as low as 32kb/s for a single mono channel to as high as 640 kb/s for multiple channels, thereby covering a wide range of requirements. Most important with blending old and new video entertainment soundtrack formats, all Dolby Digital and DTS-encoded DVD-Video discs will sound normal no matter what sound system you use, provided the signal gets from the source unit to the amplifiers. RMIC Regional Numbering System All DVD titles are marked with a number, the regional management information code (RMIC), which appears in a globe on the disc cover. This number indicates in which countries the DVD will play. Region 1 (NTSC) DVDs play in Canada and the United States only. There are a handful of DVDs that are coded to all regions, but this is rare. Just as rare are DVD players that are capable of playing DVDs from all regions, though some players with an
Margin Notes
To use the TosLink optical

digital output of a Dolby Digital or DTS-encoded audio signal on a DVD-Video player, you must have a decoder or processor with a digital input. This typically features multiple discrete outputs for the amplifiers that support a 5.1 mobile surround system.
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Margin Notes
internal switch or a programming routine allow you to choose or enable the country code. Most likely the DVD player you install into a customers vehicle will be coded only to the region in which the customer lives. Region 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Video CD
Areas U.S., Canada Europe, Middle East, Japan, South Africa South Korea, Taiwan, Hong Kong, ASEAN Australia, New Zealand, Latin America Former Soviet Union countries, Indian sub-continent, Africa China Reserved International territory (airplanes, cruise ships, etc.)
Most mobile DVD-Video

players are backward compatible with video CDs and play them in addition to other media such as music CDs. Video CDs do not feature Dolby Digital or DTS-encoded audio, however.
Philips and Sony introduced video CD (VCD) in 1993. VCD, a digital movie format, is basically a primitive version of DVD. A video CD looks the same as a music CD or a CD-ROM, but it holds movies, using compressed MPEG1 video. The resolution of a video CD is 352x240 (NTSC) or 352x288 (PAL), which is roughly comparable to VHS. Compared to video CD, DVD provides much higher resolution (700x480), comparable to laserdisc or even better. DVD movies use MPEG-2 compression, rather than the MPEG-1 compression used by video CDs. A single VCD disc can only hold about 70 minutes of video, so for a typical movie, you need two discs. You can play VCDs back on a video CD player connected to a TV, or on a fast PC with a CD-ROM drive. Most mobile DVD players can also play VCDs.
Video Game Consoles
A video game console is a dedicated electronic device used to play video games. Often the output device is a separate television. Once video game consoles were easily distinguishable from personal computers: consoles used a standard television for display, and did not support PC accessories such as keyboards or modems. However, as consoles have become more powerful, the distinction has blurred. Some consoles can have a full Linux OS running with hard drives and keyboards. The console market has steadily developed from simple games, such as Pong, to full-featured games systems. Sony PlayStation The PlayStation is a video game console produced by Sony; it was launched in Japan in December 1994 and in the U.S. in September 1995. It is important in the history of video games, being the first popular console to have the power to do 3D graphics using its 33MHz custom CPU (MIPS R3000A). It was hugely popular and spawned a PlayStation generation. Sony now makes a compatible console in a smaller, curvier case called the PSOne.
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Sonys successor to the PlayStation is the more powerful PlayStation 2, which is compatible in the sense that it can play most PlayStation games unmodified. The most important parts of the PSOne are embedded inside the PlayStation 2 design, so you get two systems for the price of one. The PS2 can read CDs, for playing audio CDs and original PlayStation games, and DVDs for DVDVideo and PS2 games. Its ability to play DVD movies was an important selling point at a time when few people owned a separate DVD player. The PS2 had many features-including its USB and IEEE 1394 expansion ports-that were not present in other video game consoles at the time. Nintendo Game Cube Game Cube is Nintendos next-generation console. The Game Cube has been widely anticipated by many who were shocked by Nintendos decision to design another cartridge-based system after their previous game system. The Game Cube uses a unique storage medium, a proprietary DVD format that holds 1.5 GB of data. The Game Cube does not have any DVD movie support. Microsoft X-BOX The X-BOX is Microsofts game console, released in November 2001. It is Microsofts first venture into the console market. Microsofts X-BOX is basically a stripped-down PC running a version of Microsoft Windows that allows for robust graphics and fast processing of interactive gaming commands. Of all the gaming systems, the X-BOX has the fastest processing speed, but still does not have the game availability of other, more established game systems.
DC-AC Power Inverters
Margin Notes
Virtually all 110v gaming systems require a DC-AC power inverter to operate in the vehicle. A power inverter connects to +12v and chassis ground (like an amplifier) and provides a 110v, 60Hz AC output sufficient to power devices that fall within its power rating limits. In most cases a DC-AC power inverter has one or more electrical outlets so the AC device just plugs in. It is important to note that power inverters are available in many shapes and sizes, both physically and electrically. Power inverters are very much like power amplifiers in that larger capacity inverters require larger gauge cabling and more attention to heat dissipation, just as large power amplifiers do. The need for heat dissipation and the length of the power cords on the AC devices typically dictate installation location of the DC-AC power inverter. While there is no hard and fast rule about the installation, here are a few guidelines: 1) Provide adequate airflow. Install the DC-AC power inverter in a location that provides adequate air circulation. Larger capacity inverters need more attention then small capacity inverters do. As a rule of thumb, provide the same air circulation to a DC-AC power inverter that you would to a mobile audio power amplifier.
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Margin Notes
The composite video

output is the yellow RCA connector on most video source components.
2) Keep away from sensitive audio cables/components. Install the DC-AC power inverter in a location away from sensitive preamp level audio cables or preamp level signal processing components. The oscillation of the 60Hz frequency may superimpose a low frequency hum on the low signal levels in preamp level components. 3) Connect directly to the battery. Connect a DC-AC inverter directly to the battery. If no power switch is provided, use a relay to activate the connection whenever the inverter will be used. Remember that traditional Bosch-type SPDT relays have a reliable switching current of 30 amps through the contacts, so if the current requirement on the power inverter exceeds that, choose a higher current relay. 4) Avoid modifications. Whenever possible, avoid modifications to a DCAC power inverter if it needs to be removed for a warranty repair. Any modification, external or internal, typically voids any warranty. If you do make modifications, assume that any warranty on the device is void. Additionally, only a qualified professional installer should perform any modifications.
Video Output Formats

COMPOSITE VIDEO OUTPUT (YELLOW RCA PLUG)
Composite video signals are connected between products with a single 75-ohm coax cable, usually with yellow RCA connectors on each end. Composite video inputs or outputs are present on almost all contemporary mobile video equipment. Composite video signals can also be modulated onto an RF carrier, along with an audio signal, and transmitted over-the-air or on coax cable, by broadcast stations and cable TV systems. RF video signal cables are usually 75-ohm coax terminated with screw-on F-connectors, such as those found on some mobile VCR/VCP and TV tuner inputs. Picture Quality: Good This is the lowest quality cable for a video source, but again, it is also the most common. Most mobile video products support the composite video input and/or output format because it is easy and only requires one simple cable to connect between a video source and screen.
S-VIDEO
Most mid-range and premium home video equipment provides the option of using S-video connections. The S-video (or Y/C) cable terminates at each end with a four-pin DIN connector. Although it may appear to be a single cable, internally it has two 75-ohm coax or twisted pair cables to carry the separate Y (luminance) and C (chrominance) signals. Many companies offer an in-dash video monitor with a hideaway sub-chassis that holds the actual video processing circuitry. This kind of monitor uses a modified S-video connection (with its own proprietary cable) between the in-dash unit and the sub-chassis.
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Picture Quality: Better The S-video cable offers marked improvement over a composite cable. Few if any applications of mobile video products use commercial S-Video input and output formats. Almost all aftermarket mobile video LCD monitors accept only composite video inputs.
COMPONENT VIDEO (RGB)
Margin Notes
Component cables look just like composite cables, but where a composite cable carries the entire video signal on a single cable, component cables split the signal in three. The signal itself is either Y, Cr, Cb or Y, Pb, Pr. Most manufacturers make connecting these cables easy by color coordinating them. The tips of the cables and jacks are red, green and blue. Unfortunately, this can be a bit confusing because computer RGB connections are colored the same way. A good rule of thumb is that if the connections are the RCA type, the cable is usually a component cable. Computer RGB cables will usually be BNC type. Most high-end home DVD players and HDTV tuners will have component connections. Sadly, component video applications almost are never found in the mobile environment due to manufacturing cost increases to support the component video format. Small screen sizes in the mobile environment make it difficult to recognize enough difference to justify increases in product costs. Picture Quality: Best This connection gives a superior image over composite or S-video connections. Unfortunately, it is almost never seen in dedicated mobile video products due to manufacturing expense versus measurable results to the consumer. Due to the small screens in mobile applications, much of the component video resolution would go unnoticed.
NTSC, PAL and SECAM Video Standards
Three major TV standards are used in the world today: the American NTSC color television system, the European PAL and the French-former Soviet Union SECAM. The largest difference among the systems is the vertical lines. NTSC uses 525 lines (interlaced) while both PAL and SECAM use 625 lines. NTSC frame rates are slightly less than half the 60 Hz powerline frequency, while PAL and SECAM frame rates are exactly half the 50 Hz powerline frequency.
NTSC
NTSC stands for National Television System Committee, the video transmission standard for North and Central America and Japan. It was developed in the U.S. as the worlds first color TV system and first broadcast in 1954. Its technical format has a fixed vertical resolution of 525 horizontal lines stacked on top of each other, with varying numbers of lines making up the horizontal resolution, depending on the electronics and formats involved with roughly 30 fps (frames per second) refresh rate.
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Margin Notes
Basic parameters Line/field Horizontal frequency Vertical frequency Color sub carrier frequency Video bandwidth Audio carrier
Advantages of NTSC
NTSC 525/59.94 15.734 kHz 60 Hz 3.579545 MHz 4.2 MHz 4.5 MHz (FM)
Higher Frame Rate - Use of 30 frames per second (really 29.97) reduces visible flicker. Atomic Color Edits - With NTSC it is possible to edit at any 4-field boundary point without disturbing the color signal. Less Inherent Picture Noise - Almost all pieces of video equipment achieve better signal-to-noise characteristics in their NTSC form than in their PAL form.
Disadvantages of NTSC
Lower Number of Scan Lines - Reduced clarity on large screen TVs; line structure more visible. Smaller Luminance Signal Bandwidth - Due to the placing of the color sub-carrier at 3.58MHz, picture defects such as cross-color and dot interference become more pronounced. This is because of the greater likelihood of interaction with the monochrome picture signal at the lower sub-carrier frequency. Susceptibility to Hue Fluctuation - Variations in the color sub-carrier phase cause shifts in the displayed color, requiring that the TV receivers be equipped with a hue adjustment to compensate. Lower Gamma Ratio - The gamma value for NTSC/525 is set at 2.2 as opposed to the 2.8 defined for PAL/625. This means that PAL/625 can produce pictures of greater contrast. Undesirable Automatic Features - Many NTSC TV receivers feature an auto-tint circuit to make hue fluctuations less visible to uncritical viewers. This circuit changes all colors approximating flesh tone into a standard flesh tone, thus hiding the effects of hue fluctuation. This means that a certain range of color shades cannot be displayed correctly. Upmarket models often have this switchable feature, whereas cheaper sets do not.
PAL
PAL stands for phase alteration line and was adopted in 1967 as the European counterpart to the NTSC standard. It has 625 horizontal lines making up the vertical resolution and displays 50 fields interlaced per
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second, making for a 25 frame per second system. It is the standard for the United Kingdom, Western Europe (except France), the Middle East and parts of Africa and South America. Basic parameters Line/field Horizontal frequency Vertical frequency Color sub carrier frequency Video bandwidth Audio carrier
Advantages of PAL

Margin Notes
PAL 625/50 15.625 kHz 50 Hz - 60Hz 3.575611 MHz - 4.433618 MHz 4.2 MHz - 6.0 Hz 4.5 MHz (FM) - 6.0 Hz (FM)
Greater Number of Scan Lines - more picture detail.
Wider Luminance Signal Bandwidth - The placing of the color subcarrier at 4.43MHz allows a larger bandwidth of monochrome information to be reproduced than with NTSC/525. Stable Hues - Due to reversal of sub-carrier phase on alternate lines, any phase error will be corrected by an equal and opposite error on the next line. In early PAL implementations it was left to the low resolution of the human eyes color abilities to provide the averaging effect. Higher Gamma Ratio - The gamma value for PAL/625 is set at 2.8 as opposed to 2.2 on NTSC/525. This permits a higher level of contrast than on NTSC/525 signals. This is particularly noticeable when using multi-standard equipment, since the contrast and brightness settings need to be changed to give a similar look to signals of the two formats.
Disadvantages of PAL
More Flicker - Due to the lower frame rate, flicker is more noticeable on PAL/625 transmissions, particularly for people used to viewing NTSC/525 signals. Lower Signal to Noise Ratio - The higher bandwidth requirements cause PAL/625 equipment to have slightly worse signal-to-noise performance than its equivalent NTSC/525 version. Loss of Color Editing Accuracy - Due to the alternation of the phase of the color signal, the phase and the color signal only reach a common point once every 8 fields/4 frames. This means that edits can only be performed to an accuracy of +/- 4 frames (8 fields). Variable Color Saturation - Since PAL achieves accurate color through canceling out phase differences between the two signals, the act of canceling out errors can reduce the color saturation while holding the hue stable. Fortunately, the human eye is far less sensitive to saturation variations than to hue variations, so this is the lesser of two evils.
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Margin Notes
SECAM
SECAM stands for Systeme Electronique Couleur Avec Memoire, which was adopted in 1967 and is very similar to PAL. It specifies the same number of scan lines (625) and frames per second (25), but the chrominance (color) is FM modulated. It is the broadcast standard for France, Russia and parts of Africa and Eastern Europe with French influence. Basic Parameters Line/field Horizontal frequency Vertical frequency Video bandwidth Audio carrier
Advantages of SECAM
SECAM 625/50 15.625 kHz 50 Hz - 60Hz 5.0 MHz - 6.0 Hz 5.5 MHz (AM) - 6.5 Hz (AM)
Stable Hues and Constant Saturation - SECAM shares with PAL the ability to render images with the correct hue, and goes a step further in ensuring consistent saturation of color as well. Higher Number of Scan Lines - SECAM shares with PAL/625 a higher number of scan lines than NTSC/525.
Disadvantages of SECAM
Greater Flicker - Same as PAL/625 transmissions; particularly so for people used to viewing NTSC/525 signals. Mixing Synchronous SECAM Color Signals Impossible - Most TV studios in SECAM countries originate in PAL and transcode before broadcasting. More advanced home systems such as SuperVHS, Hi-8 and laserdisc work internally in PAL and transcode on replay in SECAM market models. Patterning Effects - The FM sub carrier causes patterning effects even on non-colored objects. Lower Monochrome Bandwidth - Due to one of the two color subcarriers being at 4.25MHz (in the French version), a lower bandwidth of monochrome signal can be carried. Incompatibility between different versions of SECAM - SECAM has a range of variants, many of which are incompatible with each other. For example French SECAM uses FM sub-carrier and MESECAM uses AM sub-carrier.
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Basic Elements of a Video System Installation

Video Source
Margin Notes
Mobile video systems incorporate at least one video source component, most often a VHS or DVD-Video player. Though many in-dash units feature DVD-Video playback, the majority of mobile video systems rely on a separate video source component mounted elsewhere in the vehicle. Many mobile video systems use more than one source component. For example, a video system may contain a VHS player, DVD-Video player, CD/DVD changer, TV tuner or video game console. These video sources must all have a manageable format in which to interconnect with the video screen(s). Often such a system can be challenging to install in a way that is easy for the customer to use and enjoy. When selecting mounting locations, consider accessibility to video source components. Because of their somewhat large dimensions, most video source components are not intended to be mounted in the dashboard (with the exception of DIN-sized DVD-Video headunits). Locations that offer accessibility and convenience also must not infringe upon the vehicles normal safe operation. Typically video source components are mounted in these locations:
A video source component

can often be controlled by a wireless remote through the use of an IR repeater.
Under the front seats (if space allows) - TV tuner packs and hideaway sub-chassis are often able to fit under seats. Larger components such as DVD-Video players, DC/DVD changers, VHS players and video game consoles may only fit under front seats in large SUVs, trucks and mini-vans. Consider elevating any video source component off of the floor so that it will not be damaged in case a beverage spills. Under the middle or rear seats in SUVs and mini-vans - This is a logical place for video source components in most installations. Remember to install the source component so that a passenger can easily load and unload a disc or tape. In the center console - Many components can be effectively mounted in a center console and accessed when needed, yet sit safely out of sight while not in use or when a movie gets underway. In the trunk - The trunk is not ideal for single play video source components because it is hard to get to while traveling, but sometimes there may be few other choices. Trunk mounting is suitable for a CD/DVD-Video changer since passengers control them from within the vehicle. Depending on the number of discs the changer accommodates, there is no need to get out of the vehicle to rotate disc selections. In the glove box - Though this mounting location is less likely with bulky components, some glove boxes are spacious enough to conveniently accommodate a video source component. Additionally, many mini-vans and SUVs have additional storage spaces throughout the vehicle where a video source component might fit.
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Margin Notes
The majority of locations that are not directly accessible in the dashboard area will require some method of control other than physically pushing buttons on the unit. Most video source components have the option for an infrared (IR) remote control and the IR receiver can extend so that is more convenient for those passengers commanding the equipment. This IR extension is called an IR repeater and is commonly placed in the dashboard, center console or overhead console. Overhead and headrest screens may also have an IR repeater to increase the flexibility of operating the video system. Customers routinely point a remote control at the screen, even though the component they want to control is mounted elsewhere. Take these facts into consideration when selecting a location for the IR controls if they are not already built into the headunit itself.
VIDEO SCREEN TYPES CRT (Cathode Ray Tube)
A cathode ray tube (CRT, or picture tube) is a specialized vacuum tube in which images are created when an electron beam scans across the back side of a phosphor-coated screen. Each time the beam makes a pass across the screen, it lights up a horizontal line of phosphor dots on the inside of the glass tube. By rapidly drawing hundreds of these lines from the top to the bottom of the screen, it creates images. CRT screens in the mobile environment are losing popularity for several reasons. They are heavy and difficult to secure, sensitive to vibrations, and have extremely deep installation requirements that do not generally allow dash, headrest or console mounting. Some console applications accommodate CRTs in custom floor or overhead van conversion installations. CRTs are also a popular choice for RVs that have generous space for both the weight and depth requirement of the screen. Many CRTs used in 12v DC automotive applications have integrated VHF/UHF television tuners.
LCD (Liquid Crystal Display)
Liquid crystal display technology is one of the methods used to create flatpanel video screens. Light is not created by the liquid crystals; a light source (bulb) behind the panel shines light through the display. The display consists of two polarizing transparent panels, called electrodes, and an electrically reactive liquid crystal solution sandwiched in between. An electric current passed through the liquid causes the crystals to align so that light cannot pass through them. Each crystal acts like a shutter, either allowing light to pass through or blocking the light. The pattern of transparent and dark crystals forms the image. Thin film transistor (TFT) is the prevalent technology for building the LCD screens for desktop displays, laptops and some high-end mobile video products. TFT screens are brighter and more readable than dual-scan LCD screens but consume more power and are generally more expensive.
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In general, more expensive components, such as in-dash retractable video screens integrated with a headunit, feature TFT screens because the cost can be justified along with other features of the component. Due to superior LCD sharpness, smaller screens look better at higher resolutions than CRTs can comfortably display. With LCD screens, the optimum resolution is termed the native resolution. The native resolution defines the optimum resolution of the LCD and dictates that any other resolution may not be compatible. The luminance, or brightness, of LCD panels is also an important specification that indicates picture quality. Luminance is measured in candelas per square meter (cd/m2, otherwise known as nits). This is not an easy number to find, but it is worth digging up on a manufacturers website since more nits generally mean a more pleasing image, particularly in difficult lighting conditions common to mobile video systems. The range stretches from around 170 nits for an inexpensive LCD panel to around 300 nits for the best LCD panel (nearly equal to a bright CRT). Another important consideration for viewing an LCD screen is the horizontal and vertical viewing angles. In the mobile video environment, approximate viewing angles should be at least 120 horizontal and 100 vertical. About the widest available on a mobile video LCD screen is 160 for both horizontal and vertical viewing angles.
Comparison of CRT and LCD
Margin Notes
With LCD monitors, there is a limit on colors, typically 16.7 million (also known as 24-bit color). CRTs have no such limit, which in itself is no big deal since few applications go beyond 24-bit color. The real difference is in color accuracy, a quality not reflected in manufacturer specs. CRT monitors far outperform LCD monitors when it comes to color. LCDs use magnetic fields to twist particles floating in a liquid, which is an inherently less precise process than the variable intensity electron beams of CRTs. LCDs are slower than CRTs. Typically, it takes 20-50 milliseconds (ms) for an LCD pixel to respond, while it takes a CRT 8-12ms. The difference shows up in DVD movies, where fast-moving objects (particularly dark objects across a light background) may leave a slight trail of ghost images on an LCD. LCD panels draw less than half the electrical power a CRT does. This is a concern when several screens are in use within the vehicle, since the video system often plays with the engine not running for extended periods of time. Perhaps the biggest consideration is the installation-friendly depth of LCDs, along with more affordable pricing. The installation flexibility of the LCD screen makes it the clear choice for nearly every video system installation.
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Margin Notes
Source Control Method
Touch screen control

capability of video source components is generally manufacturer-specific and not widely available for systems with a mix of brands.
The method by which the video and/or audio source(s) are controlled is important to consider as you are installing and/or integrating video source components. Many devices have direct front panel control from a dash or console location while others require a separate controller, either wired or wireless, to perform control functions. Whatever the method, it is important to make it easy for the driver or passengers to operate. Avoid the situation, such as in many home theater systems, where multiple remote controls are necessary to operate each individual device. That gets clumsy and dangerous. The system must be easy and intuitive for the customer to operate. When wireless remotes are part of the source control method, many devices will be mounted out of sight and require an IR repeater installed in a location that makes it sensible for normal operation of the video source. For example, if a DVD player is trunk-mounted, the IR repeater should be installed on the dash, overhead console or center console so that the user can easily point the remote at the device. It would be inconvenient and unsafe to require customers to point a remote under a seat or behind them toward the component. Several mobile video products offer touch screen control directly on the front panel of the screen. While this is a useful feature for control, many applications for this function require the use of that particular manufacturers equipment as the both the source and video display components. In other words, touch screen control of a la carte video devices is not a turnkey option with current technology and product compatibility.
AUX INPUTS AND OUTPUTS
Many video source components, particularly mobile VCs and VCPs, offer additional inputs so that another video component can plug in, pass through and go on to the main video source input of the system. This offers a convenient way to add an additional component with no additional switcher or circuitry. Just about all self-contained A/V products with a source component and video screen offer an additional audio and video output. Examples include DIN-sized DVD players with a motorized flip-up screen, DVD overhead LCD consoles, DVD or VCP in a traveling bag or backpack and personal DVD players. The audio output is necessary because few applications perform well with a built-in speaker in the chassis of an LCD monitor. Also, the additional audio output offers compatibility with amplification as well as external wireless headphone transmitters. The video output is almost a composite video output in the mobile environment and sends a video signal to any additional screens in the system.
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If the AUX inputs and outputs on a self-contained video device are used properly, operation of multiple A/V sources becomes easy and intuitive. Be sure to explain the control and switching methods to the customer upon delivery of the vehicle.
Margin Notes
OEM Audio Integration with a Video System Installation

FM Audio Signal into an OEM Headunit The easiest method for getting an audio signal generated by a video component (such as a VCP or DVD player) into an OEM audio system is by FM modulation. The FM modulator, widely available in many forms, has inherent drawbacks in channel separation and frequency response. If the OEM audio system is otherwise stock, using an FM modulator is an option. The majority of rear seat entertainment systems that have headphones are suitable for implementing an FM modulator if the customer wishes to play the audio portion of the video source through the speakers. With the FM modulator, only the audio is provided to the OEM headunit, therefore the headunit can only control volume. For the FM modulator to operate properly, the appropriate FM station must also be selected. The video source component still needs its own method of control for functions such as play, pause, stop, etc. Auxiliary Preamp Inputs on an OEM Headunit (CD Changer Plug) Often CD changer plugs on an OEM headunit offer an audio input normally used by the CD changer. If the changer is not present, there may be an adapter that plugs into this output to allow the audio signal from the video component to pass into the preamp section of the OEM headunit and provide better sound quality. If a changer is present, a skilled professional installer may be able to interrupt the audio input from the changer and switch to an alternative source component, such as an aftermarket DVD player. An audio switching device will be necessary. In either case, only the audio is provided to the OEM headunit, therefore the headunit can only control volume. The video source component still needs its own method of control for functions such as play, pause, stop, etc. Auxiliary Preamp Inputs on a Signal Processor When an external signal processor is used with an OEM audio system, a second set of inputs may be suitable for the addition of an additional source component. The in-dash signal processors such as equalizers and preamplifiers typically feature such an input. Since these are preamp level devices, a line output converter (LOC) also will be necessary for the OEM headunit in most cases. Switching control between sources occurs on the front panel of the in-dash signal processor.
FM modulation is an easy
and cost-effective solution for getting audio from a video source component into the OEM audio system.
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Margin Notes
IR headphones are
line of sight so the transmitter must see the headphones for the best results in various seating and ambient lighting conditions.
When using a second input on a preamp level signal processor, only the audio is provided to the signal processor, therefore only volume and source selection can be controlled by the processor. The video source component still needs its own method of control for functions such as play, pause, stop, etc. External Switching System Interfaces Some specialty devices from third-party interface manufacturers may provide a customized solution on certain vehicles. Additionally, if schematics for the preamp loop inputs are available, a skilled installer can construct his or her own switching interface using a 4-pole double throw relay (or 4 SPDT relays) and spike suppression diodes to minimize unnecessary pops when switching sources. The installer also may need to create the trigger for the OEM headunit to go to an AUX mode. Other solid-state switching applications are possible as well, however each solution depends on the vehicle and the installers skill level. An installation shop could quite literally charge whatever the market will bear for these types of advanced level OEM integration applications. Infrared and RF Wireless Headphone Systems Many vehicles with stock OEM audio systems getting a rear seat entertainment system will never have any connection between the two. These systems are often intended to operate independently of one another so that rear seat passengers can enjoy a completely different source than those seated in the front. This is best accomplished by using wireless headphones. Wireless headphones offer the flexibility to be used virtually anywhere in the vehicle and to receive the audio broadcast for the corresponding video displayed on the screen(s) in the rear seat entertainment system. Wireless headphones operate by two basic methods. One is radio frequency (RF) and the other is infrared (IR). The main difference is that IR requires a line of sight between the transmitter and the headphones themselves. Though this is not usually a problem in the traditional vehicle, motor homes and buses may find limitations. Many video devices intended for installation in the headliner of the headrest provide an integrated IR transmitter to enhance the coverage of the infrared line of sight. Whenever installing a stand-alone IR transmitter, always locate it in an overhead location. such as the headliner or overhead console, so that it transmits the best possible line of sight to the headphones. RF-based headphones do not have the line of sight limitations of IR headphones, but like anything operating on radio frequencies, there is always the possibility of RF interference nearby. Mobile phones, AM/FM tuners, satellite radio tuners, FM modulators, LAN devices and even switching amplifiers may present interference. The newest RF headphone technologies offer broadcast in very high bands to minimize RF interference in many new products.
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Video Signal and Power Cabling

Video Noise and Interference Video noise? It seems as though noise should be audible rather than visible, but the fact is that any type of signal in any frequency range is susceptible to noise. Video noise is identified by scrambled video imaging on the screen, unnecessary lines, ghosting of the images, color problems and so on. Just like any other type of noise superimposed on to a pure signal, video noise is unwanted. Although the source and screen components have something to do with the video quality, cables that interconnect video devices are equally important. The same cautions that exist for audio cables apply to video cables. In fact, because video content is at much higher frequencies, shielding in video cabling is even more important than in audio cabling. Remember that audio frequency ranges extend only to 20kHz (or 50kHz with DVD-Audio) but video frequencies extend into the megahertz ranges. 1Mhz is 1,000 times more than 1kHz. As frequencies increase into the megahertz bandwidth, shielding becomes more important in signal cabling. 75 ohm Coaxial Cable Composite video signals are transmitted over a single cable. To maintain the purity of this video transmission, use impedance-matched coaxial-shielded cable suited for video frequencies. The appropriate type of cable is 75-ohm coaxial cable with a braided outer shield. The term 75 ohm means that the cable has an impedance of about 75 ohms between the center conductor and the braided shield within the video bandwidth. This allows the appropriate impedance-matching of composite video outputs from a DVD or VCP to plug into a composite input on a video display device, such as an overhead LCD screen. The cable will not measure 75 ohms of DC resistance between the center conductor and the braided shield just lying on a bench. That is where the term impedance comes in. Impedance denotes a frequency-specific resistance, which means that a video frequency must be applied while the cable is connected to the appropriate devices. For the best results on video system installations, be sure to use 75-ohm video cables when connecting video source components to switchers, signal boosters and video screens. Avoid using standard audio RCA cables to connect video devices since there is a potential for unwanted video noise. The longer the cable run and the more screens in the system, the more potential there is for video noise and interference, especially when the incorrect cables are used. Video Signal Amplifiers A video output will not drive an unlimited number of video screens. At some point the video image quality suffers and continuing to add screens only makes the problem worse. When many screens are used in a video system all fed by a single composite video output, there may be times when you
Margin Notes
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Margin Notes
need to amplify video signals. This is accomplished by one of two types of signal splitters: Passive Video Signal Isolation - Passive splitters are small, transformerbased video signal splitters that essentially isolate each output because the input drives a primary transformer winding and each output is connected to a secondary winding. This is known as inductive coupling. The passive video signal splitter helps to avoid small video signal problems, but it will not increase the signal strength. A passive device only provides isolation. Active Video Signal Boosters - Active boosters work much the same way as line drivers work in audio systems for weak preamp level audio outputs. To increase the signal strength of a composite video signal into several screens, an active video signal booster is often necessary. The active signal booster has power connections to drive the amplification in the device, whereas a passive device only has video RCA jacks and no power connections. By increasing the video signals amplitude, the device can adequately drive each video screen. Most video devices output a 1-volt peak-to-peak video signal, so most screens have a maximum input of 1-volt peak-to-peak. The video signal booster optimizes each output to the 1-volt peak-to-peak signal. Many switching and multi-source, multi-zone video devices have active signal boosters built in to maintain optimum video signal strength.
Video Component Mounting Considerations

There are many points to consider when choosing and implementing video component locations. Perhaps the most important point is that placement must be safe for both the driver and other occupants. Also, video source components should be in convenient places and screens should be easy to view. Choosing a Mounting Location for the Screen There are many choices for locating a single screen in a video install. Once the system increases to multiple screens, the choices change based upon how the occupants intend to use the video coverage. What is most important is safety for the occupants. The viewing angle and resistance to glare from sunlight are important as well. Due to the relatively small size of mobile video screens (compared to video displays at home), the distance from the mounting location to the occupant(s) is also a consideration. Ideally, the detail of the screen image, including colors and subtitles, should always be visible. In large vehicles such as Chevrolet Suburbans, Ford Excursions and minivans, several screens may be necessary to provide adequate viewing for all rows of seating. (Think of the many screens necessary to serve the number of seats and passengers on a commercial airline.) Each overhead LCD screen
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covers just three or four rows of seating.) In a vehicle, a single overhead screen supplemented by individual monitors further back in rear seat headrests may provide the best results. Of course (if budget allows) the optimum placement is one screen for each occupant behind the driver. Many companies offer LCD screens that are application-specific (or have application-specific mounting kits available) so that the screen(s) can be installed with a fit and finish that appears factory-installed. Though these are typically more expensive for the customer, the installation time is much less than when the installer must create screens must have mounting provisions. An additional benefit of application-specific LCD screens is that they often are perfectly matched in color and texture to the original interior panels. Application-specific LCD screens are available (depending on the application) for overhead locations, headrest locations, sun visor locations and center console locations. Installers with limited experience in custom fabrication may find that application-specific video screens offer an effective solution to achieve the intended results. Although video installations will be unique in each application, some common sense guidelines guide overall installation:
If there is only one screen, it will make the most sense to install it in a central location from which everyone behind the driver can see it. The flip down overhead screen is the most popular choice; be sure to choose one that has a good screen image from a wide range of viewing angles. When you install headrest screens, be sure to mount them so that curious children or thieves cannot easily remove them. Safety is a prime concern for headrest or seat back mounting locations. In an accident, the screen can become airborne and injure an occupant, so never rely on hot glue, pressure fitting or Velcro as the primary mounting method for a headrest- or seat back-mounted video screen. When installing headrest screens, choose a screen with an extended lip or flange surrounding the screen housing so that the screen and the OEM headrest upholstery blend together. The extended flange allows the OEM trim material to terminate under the screen housing and provides a finished look. Of course if the installer can implement custom upholstery services, there are many opportunities to flush mount or rear mount the screen with a trim ring that the OEM upholstery wraps into. Keep in mind that any custom upholstery modifications should allow the screen to be removed for service or repair if necessary. Raw LCD screens may not indicate which way is up. Where raw screens are used with no mounting provisions, make sure the screen is not installed upside down in the headrest by connecting a test video signal before the final installation. Once again, solid and safe mounting is especially important with these screens, largely because little, if any, mounting provisions are provided. These screens are typically the most labor-intensive screens to install in mobile video.
Margin Notes
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Margin Notes
Whenever installing a CRT screen (either in a center console or in an overhead location for RVs and vans), always securely mount the screen. In an accident, the CRT screen can fly around inside the vehicle, causing serious injury to the occupants. In addition, the breaking glass from a CRT screen can cause injury as well, so consider a location that is not directly at the occupants face level. Where governed by law, absolutely, positively do not install video screens where they will be in view of the driver while the vehicle is in motion. If the video screen is contained in a dash-mounted location, be certain to connect all of the safety precautions (such as the foot and parking brake inputs) so that the entertainment video signals are disabled from the view of the driver while the vehicle is in motion. Generally, navigation systems remain operable and the driver can see them while the vehicle is in motion. Entertainment screens (such as DVD, VHS, TV tuners, etc.) are disabled while the vehicle is in motion, although other screens behind the driver remain enabled for other occupants. This requirement may not agree with an installers personal tastes, but the legal liabilities to do otherwise-for both the shop and the installer-are much too great to ignore.
Video Screen Mounting Restrictions (By State) State Alabama Arizona Arkansas California Colorado Connecticut Delaware District of Columbia Florida Georgia Hawaii Idaho Illinois Indiana Iowa Kansas Kentucky Louisiana Restriction (*Exemption for navigation) Not visible to driver Not visible or located in front No laws Not visible or located in front Not visible or located in front Not visible to driver No laws Not visible to driver Not visible to driver* No laws No laws No laws Not visible to driver Not visible to driver No laws Not visible to driver* No laws Not visible or located in front
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State Maine Maryland Massachusetts Michigan Minnesota Mississippi Missouri Montana Nebraska Nevada New Hampshire New Jersey New Mexico New York North Dakota North Carolina Ohio Oklahoma Oregon Pennsylvania Rhode Island South Carolina South Dakota Tennessee Texas Utah Vermont Virginia Washington West Virginia Wisconsin Wyoming
Restriction (*Exemption for navigation) Not visible to driver Not visible or located in front Not visible or located in front Not visible to driver Not visible or located in front No laws No laws No laws Not visible to driver Not visible to driver Not visible or located in front Not visible to driver Not visible to driver Not visible to driver No laws Not visible or located in front No laws Not visible to driver Not visible or located in front Not visible or located in front Not visible or located in front Not visible or located in front Not visible to driver Not visible to driver Not visible to driver Not visible to driver Not visible to driver Not visible or located in front Not visible or located in front Not visible or located in front Not visible or located in front Not visible to driver
Margin Notes
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Margin Notes
Multi-Zone / Multi-Source Audio/Video Entertainment Systems

In a mobile video installation using multiple video source components and multiple screens, you must manage the sources and screens in a practical fashion. This is the intent of any well-planned multi-zone, multi-source audio/video installation. The occupants should have intuitive access to whatever source they choose to view on the screen in their zone. This requires that the source inputs and video screens each connect into a common, central management device so that each screen can view any of the connected video sources. This device may be an external multi-zone, multi-source switcher or may be a built-in part of a multimedia source unit controller.
HOW MANY SOURCES ARE POSSIBLE OR PRACTICAL?
The majority of multi-source systems have two or three sources, most commonly a DVD and VHS player. Since many consumers still own movies on both formats, this is a practical set-up. A popular addition is also a video gaming console. The number of possible sources is limited only by the imagination of the installer and the wishes-and budget-of the customer. VHF/UHF TV tuners, digital satellite (DSS/DBS) tuners, video gaming consoles, DVD-Video players, VHS players, navigation systems and rear view cameras can all be connected into a multiple video source installation. Most mainstream video installations have just two or three of these devices connected into the whole system. Navigation or rear view cameras, for example, may only have an input to just one screen for view by the driver. Each installation will be unique in this regard, based upon the video sources in the systems and the number of screens installed.
HOW DO THE SOURCE AND SCREEN SELECTIONS WORK?
In true multi-zone, multi-source mobile A/V installations, there are really just two solutions that offer the source selection and A/V output capabilities.
Dual Zone Multimedia Headunits - Where headunits incorporate multimedia capabilities, there are often provisions to control several audio and video inputs and to route those separately to two distinct zones in the vehicle. This explains the term dual zone. The maximum number of zones in a system such as this is two. Typically one zone is the main audio system (connected to the system amplifiers and speakers) and a second zone is for rear seat entertainment with an audio output that will normally connect to an IR or RF headphone transmitter. This allows the switching and source/screen selection to take place in one convenient location without adding cost or installation complexity to the A/V system.
External Multi-Zone A/V Switchers - With external control of multiple sources and outputs for both audio and video into multiple zones, the possibilities for additional sources and screens are only limited by the
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capabilities of the switching device. Typically these external switching devices feature three or four source inputs. Some may even contain an integrated TV tuner. As far as outputs, each zone is segmented to a station. Each station in the vehicle has an output for video, 2-channel audio and a controller. The controller is generally a proprietary keypad that allows the user to select each of the input sources one at a time. Some control keypads also allow for independent volume control and track or disc selection, where applicable. These feature-laden multi-zone, multi-source controllers may offer the most robust integration when used with other sources and screens in the same brand family. The number of stations varies by switching device, but two to four stations are common and will suit most multi-source installations. Many IR and RF wireless headphone transmitters also feature multiple audio inputs and allow the listener to select his or her preference of audio broadcast. Multi-source headphones offer two to four input sources depending on the brand and model.
Margin Notes
Troubleshooting Common Video System Installation Problems

A number of common problems arise in video systems installations. Primarily problems relate to audio and video noise, video signal strength, audio level matching between multiple sources, and mounting challenges for various source components and screens. Since most video devices operate on low current, heat is not a major concern for the components; however, direct sunlight on a video screen affects picture visibility, so install screens in locations where that will not happen. Symptom: Noise on the video screen(s). Solution: Check the cable(s) connecting the output to the screen input(s)

Be sure the cables are 75-ohm video cables.
Substitute the cable path with a different 75-ohm cable to establish if the cause of the noise is related to the placement of the original cable. Establish if the noise is common to all screens or only one screen. If only on one screen, the cable path may be the problem. If on all screens, the source component may be mounted in a noisy location or lack adequate shielding and isolation from external interference.
Symptom: Noise on the audio system ONLY from the video source. Solution: Check the cable(s) connecting the audio output to the preamp inputs or switching device.
Substitute the cable path with a different audio cable to establish if the cause of the noise is related to the placement of the original cable.
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Margin Notes
If the noise is ONLY present when the offending source component is selected, the source component may be mounted in a noisy location or lack adequate power supply isolation from the audio circuitry. Isolation transformers (ground loop isolators) or a power supply noise filter may be necessary.
Symptom: Audible whining noise on the wireless headphones. Solution: Check the cable(s) connecting the audio output to the preamp inputs of the wireless headphone transmitter.
Substitute the cable path with a different audio cable to establish if the cause of the noise is related to the placement of the original cable. If the noise is ONLY present in the headphones (but not in the rest of the audio system), the headphone transmitter may lack adequate power supply isolation from the audio circuitry. Isolation transformers (ground loop isolators) or a power supply noise filter may be necessary. If it is a multi-source headphone system and the noise only occurs on one of the source selections, the noise is likely the fault of the source component or audio cable, not the headphone transmitter.
Symptom: Audible whining noise on the FM modulated broadcast. Solution: Check the cable(s) connecting the audio output to the preamp inputs of the FM modulator as well as the location of the FM modulator itself.
Substitute the cable path with a different audio cable to establish if the cause of the noise is related to the placement of the original cable. If the noise is ONLY present in the FM modulated broadcast (but not in the normal FM reception), the FM modulator may lack adequate power supply isolation from the audio circuitry. Isolation transformers (ground loop isolators) or a power supply noise filter may be necessary.
Symptom: Video images are faint and colors are bleeding. Solution: Unplug all screens connected to the video output and begin with one screen at a time.
If the colors and picture improve with only one screen and progressively deteriorate as you add screens, the video output will need at least a passive splitter, possibly an active signal amplifier. If the colors and picture are equally as bad with only one screen, substitute the cable path with a different audio cable to establish if the cause of the noise is related to the placement of the original cable. If the picture quality remains poor on all screens, the source component may be mounted in a noisy location or lack adequate shielding and isolation from external interference to the video signal.
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Symptom: Video screen image is only black and white or has abnormal scan lines present. Solution: Check that the video source component and screens are both the same video signal format (NTSC to NTSC, PAL to PAL, etc.).
Margin Notes
Substitute the source component to a known good NTSC video source using 75-ohm cable and see if the problem changes. If so, the screen may not be NTSC-compatible or may need to be manually configured to accept NTSC broadcast. If the source component continues to have problems on a substituted screen, it may need configuration to NTSC broadcast format (or, if outside the U.S., whatever broadcast format is suitable for the region). Although S-Video is uncommon for mobile applications, black and white picture may also indicate a bad S-Video cable. Substitute cable for a known good cable to verify.
Symptom: VHF/UHF TV reception is poor. Solution: Check the type and position of the antenna.
Any TV tuner application SHOULD be using a dual or quad diversity antenna for the best results. Try alternate locations of the antenna(s) before mounting permanently. Sometimes TV reception is simply mediocre at best in a mobile application. Areas with other wireless transmitters and urban locations with many obstacles typically have the least pleasing TV reception in a vehicle. Mountainous and remote areas are also a challenge because of limited channel variety and signal strength.
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Margin Notes
SAMPLE TEST QUESTIONS
1. What colors listed are designated as the Right Rear Speaker in the EIA wire color codes? a) Purple and Purple w/ Black Stripe. b) Green and Green w/ Black Stripe. c) Gray and Gray w/ Black Stripe. d) White and White w/ Black Stripe. 2. How much power does an amplifier that measures 20 volts per channel into 4-Ohms produce? a) 5 Watts per channel. b) 24 Watts per channel. c) 80 Watts per channel. d) 100 Watts per channel. 3. An 18dB/Octave crossover is also called which of the following? a) 1st Order Filter. b) 2nd Order Filter. c) 3rd Order Filter. d) 4th Order Filter. 4. What are the parameters that characterize a sound wave? a) Amplitude, wavelength, intensity, speed. b) Wavelength, frequency, speed, intensity. c) Amplitude, wavelength, frequency, period. d) Amplitude, wavelength, frequency, intensity. 5. Impedance is a measurement of a speakers voice coil resistance while the speaker is not in motion. a) True. b) False. 6. Where are active crossovers found in the audio signal path? a) After the source unit, before the graphic equalizer. b) After the source unit, before the amplifier. c) After the amplifier, before the speaker. d) Physically attached to the front of the speaker diaphragm.
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7. What does the yellow colored RCA output jack on a mobile DVD-Audio player do? a) Composite Video Output. b) Left Channel Audio Output. c) Right Channel Audio Output. d) Digital Audio Output. 8. Which of the following accurately describes the term transfer function? a) The unique effect a vehicle has on a subwoofers frequency response. b) Electronically changing the polarity of the speaker by implementing the 0-180 degree phase control on the headunit or amplifier. c) Manually changing the polarity of a speaker by switching the wires at the speaker terminal. d) An OEM interface device emulating a serial data communication protocol. 9. When a vented subwoofer enclosure is reduced in internal volume and the vent size remains the same, what happens to the tuned frequency? a) It stays the same. b) It increases. c) It decreases. 10. A 3 dB reduction in power represents which of the following? a) 10% of the original power. b) 25% of the original power. c) 50% of the original power. d) 75% of the original power.
Margin Notes
Answers 1) A, 2) D, 3) C, 4) C, 5) B, 6) B, 7) A, 8) A, 9) B, 10) C
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Advanced Mobile Electronics Installer Study Guide

The Standard for Car Audio Technicians

mobile electronics certified professional

EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGIES GROUP

THE ADVANCED INSTALLER STUDY GUIDE

THE ADVANCED INSTALLER STUDY GUIDE

THE ADVANCED INSTALLER STUDY GUIDE

THE ADVANCED INSTALLER STUDY GUIDE

THE ADVANCED INSTALLER STUDY GUIDE

THE ADVANCED INSTALLER STUDY GUIDE

CHAPTER 5 IN-VEHICLE INFORMATION AND CONTROL SYSTEMS

THE ADVANCED INSTALLER STUDY GUIDE

Glossary of Terms ..........................................................................................360

Reference Materials ........................................................................................404

THE ADVANCED INSTALLER STUDY GUIDE

CHAPTER 3 ADVANCED MOBILE AUDIO/VIDEO SYSTEMS

ADVANCED MOBILE AUDIO/VIDEO SYSTEMS

Seat and seatbelt

THE ADVANCED INSTALLER STUDY GUIDE

CHAPTER 3 ADVANCED MOBILE AUDIO/VIDEO SYSTEMS

Always store panels with

When working on plastic,

Audio Source Formats

CHAPTER 3 ADVANCED MOBILE AUDIO/VIDEO SYSTEMS

THE ADVANCED INSTALLER STUDY GUIDE

Amplitude Modulation (AM)

540 KHz - 1700 KHz

Frequency Modulation (FM)

88.1 MHz - 107.9 MHz

Figure 82. AM and FM Frequency Comparison

DVD-A - 5Hz-50KHz Amplitude (dB) CD - 5Hz-20KHz FM - <50Hz-15KHz 0

Figure 83. Frequency Response of FM Compared to Other Formats

THE ADVANCED INSTALLER STUDY GUIDE

CHAPTER 3 ADVANCED MOBILE AUDIO/VIDEO SYSTEMS

Important AM/FM tuner specifications include:

CHAPTER 3 ADVANCED MOBILE AUDIO/VIDEO SYSTEMS

THE ADVANCED INSTALLER STUDY GUIDE

DIGITAL SATELLITE RADIO

Digital satellite radio

THE ADVANCED INSTALLER STUDY GUIDE

CHAPTER 3 ADVANCED MOBILE AUDIO/VIDEO SYSTEMS

Figure 84. Compact Disc (CD) Logo

The compact disc audio

CHAPTER 3 ADVANCED MOBILE AUDIO/VIDEO SYSTEMS

THE ADVANCED INSTALLER STUDY GUIDE

The HDCD 20-bit audio

Figure 85. HDCD Logo

The acronym DVD stands

Figure 86. DVD Video Logo

A DVD-Audio disc is not

Figure 87. DVD Audio Logo

THE ADVANCED INSTALLER STUDY GUIDE

CHAPTER 3 ADVANCED MOBILE AUDIO/VIDEO SYSTEMS

Frequency Response of DVD-Audio

Figure 88. DVD-Audio has a Possible Frequency Response up to 50K

An SACD disc may contain

Figure 89. SACD Logo

CHAPTER 3 ADVANCED MOBILE AUDIO/VIDEO SYSTEMS

THE ADVANCED INSTALLER STUDY GUIDE

Figure 90. Mini Disc Logo

Figure 91. Mini Disc

Many compressed digital

THE ADVANCED INSTALLER STUDY GUIDE