ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The above project has been a great working experience for me. I had learnt about the various aspects of working of DOORDARSHAN. Topic of my project is Study of Television Transmission and Broadcasting System. It helped me to know the steps involved from inception of the video signal from source via transmission medium to its reception at television sets. First of all, I would like to show our deepest gratitude to Mr. V. B. Patel, Head of Vocational Training (Doordarshan Kendra, Lucknow), who provided us this opportunity to work with Doordarshan. We are grateful to Mr. R. Naithani and Mr. Rohit Bhatt who through their deep knowledge of the topic helped us in understanding it in a simple and better way. We are also thankful to all the employees of DOORDARSHAN KENDRA, Lucknow without whose support in providing the necessary materials this project report would not have been possible. At last we are thankful to Training and Placement Cell of our college which gave us the opportunity to pursue summer training at Doordarshan Kendra, Lucknow.

- SHIKHA SINGH

CONTENTS
1. Introduction 2. Analog Television System 3. Television Studio Basics of picture Interlaced Versus Progressive Scan Composite/ CVBS Interface Y/C Interface Component Interface

Studio Floor Production Control Room Master Control Room Other Facilities 4. The Camera Imaging Device Charge Coupled Devices (CCDs) Three CCDs camera Main parts of a Camera Studio Camera ENG Camera EFP Camera Dock Camera Lipstick Camera 7. Color Temperature and Color Balance 8. Satellite Communication 9. Conclusion Features of Earth Station System Layout Specification Video Audio Termination Panel UP Converter Audio Processing Transmitting Antenna Protection System

INTRODUCTION

Doordarshan is the public television broadcaster of India and a division of Prasar Bharati. It is a public service broadcaster nominated by the Government of India. It is one of the largest broadcasting organizations in the world in terms of the infrastructure of studios and transmitters. Recently, it has also started Digital Terrestrial Transmitters. Doordarshan had a modest beginning with the experimental telecast started in Delhi on 15 September 1959 with a small transmitter and a makeshift studio. The regular daily transmission started in 1965 as a part of All India Radio. The television service was extended to Bombay (now Mumbai) and Amritsar in 1972. Till 1975, only seven Indian cities had a television service and Doordarshan remained the sole provider of television in India. In 1982, it came into existence as national broadcaster. Presently, Doordarshan operates 21 channels two All India channels-DD National and DD News, 11 Regional languages Satellite Channels (RLSC), four State Networks (SN), an International channel, a Sports Channel DD Sports and two channels Rajya Sabha TV & DDLok Sabha for live broadcast of parliamentary proceedings. On DD National (DD-1), Regional programmes and Local Programmes are carried on timesharing basis. DD News channel, launched on 3 November 2003, which replaced the DD Metro (DD-2) Entertainment channel, provides 24-Hour news service. The Regional Languages Satellite channels have two components The Regional service for the particular state relayed by all terrestrial transmitters in the state and additional programmes in the Regional Language in prime time and non-prime time available only through cable operators. DD-Sports Channel is exclusively devoted to the broadcasting of sporting events of national and international importance.

ANALOG TELEVISION SYSTEMS

Television (TV) is a telecommunication medium for transmitting and receiving moving images that can be monochromatic (shades of grey) or multi-coloured. Images are usually accompanied by sound. The etymology of the word is derived from mixed Latin and Greek origin, meaning "far sight": Greek tele, far, and Latin visio, sight (from video, vis- to see, or to view in the first person. Broadcast TV is typically disseminated via radio transmissions on designated channels in the 54890 MHz frequency band.[1] Signals are now often transmitted with stereo and/or surround sound in many countries. Until the 2000s broadcast TV programs were generally transmitted as an analogue television signal, but in recent years public and commercial broadcasters have been progressively introducing digital television broadcasting technology. All but one analog television system began as monochrome systems. Each country, faced with local political, technical, and economic issues, adopted a color system which was grafted onto an existing monochrome system, using gaps in the video spectrum (explained below) to allow color transmission information to fit in the existing channels allotted. The grafting of the color transmission standards onto existing monochrome systems permitted existing monochrome television receivers predating the changeover to color television to continue to be operate as monochrome television. Because of this compatibility requirement, color standards added a second signal to the basic monochrome signal, which carries the color information. The color information is called chrominance or C for short, while the black and white information is called the luminance or Y for short. Monochrome television receivers only display the luminance, while color receivers process both signals. Though in theory any monochrome system could be adopted to a color system, in practice some of the original monochrome systems proved impractical to adapt to color and were abandoned when the switch to color broadcasting was made. All countries now use one of three color systems: NTSC, PAL, or SECAM. In India PAL technique is used for television broadcasting.

Basics of picture
A television creates a continuous series of moving pictures on the screen. This section will describe in detail how pictures are created in a television. A camera works exactly on the same principle applied the other way round. A picture is "drawn" on a television or computer display screen by sweeping an electrical signal horizontally across the display one line at a time. The amplitude of this signal versus time represents the instantaneous brightness at that physical point on the display. At the end of each line, there is a portion of the waveform (horizontal blanking interval) that tells the scanning circuit in the display to retrace to the left edge of the display and then start

scanning the next line. Starting at the top, all of the lines on the display are scanned in this way. One complete set of lines makes a picture. This is called a frame. Once the first complete picture is scanned, there is another portion of the waveform (vertical blanking interval, not shown) that tells the scanning circuit to retrace to the top of the display and start scanning the next frame, or picture. This sequence is repeated at a fast enough rate so that the displayed images are perceived to have continuous motion. This is the same principle as that behind the "flip books" that you rapidly flip through to see a moving picture or cartoons that are drawn and rapidly displayed one picture at a time.

Interlaced versus Progressive Scans

These are two different types of scanning systems. They differ in the technique used to cover the area of the screen. Television signals and compatible displays are typically interlaced, and computer signals and compatible displays are typically progressive (non-interlaced). These two formats are incompatible with each other; one would need to be converted to the other before any common processing could be done. Interlaced scanning is where each picture, referred to as a frame, is divided into two separate sub-pictures, and referred to as fields. Two fields make up a frame. An interlaced picture is painted on the screen in two passes, by first scanning the horizontal lines of the first field and then retracing to the top of the screen and then scanning the horizontal lines for the second field in-between the first set. Field 1 consists of lines 1 through 262 1/2, and field 2 consists of lines 262 1/2 through 525. The interlaced principle is illustrated in Figure 2. Only a few lines at the top and the bottom of each field are shown.

There are many different kinds of video signals, which can be divided into either television or computer types. The format of television signals varies from country to country. In the United States and Japan, the NTSC format is used. NTSC stands for National Television Systems Committee, which is the name of the organization that developed the standard. In Europe, the PAL format is common. PAL (phase alternating line), developed after NTSC, is an

improvement over NTSC. SECAM is used in France and stands for sequential coleur avec memoire (with memory). It should be noted that there is a total of about 15 different subformats contained within these three general formats. Each of the formats is generally not compatible with the others. Although they all utilize the same basic scanning system and represent color with a type of phase modulation, they differ in specific scanning frequencies, number of scan lines, and color modulation techniques, among others. The various computer formats (such as VGA, XGA, and UXGA) also differ substantially, with the primary difference in the scan frequencies. These differences do not cause as much concern, because most computer equipment is now designed to handle variable scan rates. This compatibility is a major advantage for computer formats in that media, and content can be interchanged on a global basis. In India we use the PAL system. It has 625 lines in each frame and uses interlaced scanning.

Typical Frequencies for Common TV and Computer Video Formats

Video Format NTSC Television Format for North America and Japan PAL Television Format for Most of Europe and South America. Used in India HDTV/SDTV High Definition/ Standard Definition Digital Television Format

Description

Vertical Resolution Approx 480 Approx 575 (625 1080 or 720 or 480; 18 Format (visible lines (525 total lines) total lines) different formats per frame) Determined by Horizontal Resolution Determined by bandwidth, 1920 or 704 or 640; 18 Format (visible pixels bandwidth, ranges ranges from different formats per line) from 320 to 720 320 to 650 Horizontal Rate (kHz) 15.734 15.625 33.75-45 Vertical Frame Rate 29.97 25 30-60 (Hz) Highest Frequency 4.2 5.5 25 (MHz) There are three basic levels of baseband signal interfaces. In order of increasing quality, they are composite (or CVBS), which uses one wire pair; Y/C (or S-video), which uses two wire pairs; and component, which uses three wire pairs. Each wire pair consists of a signal and a ground. These three interfaces differ in their level of information combination (or encoding). More encoding typically degrades the quality but allows the signal to be carried on fewer wires. Component has the least amount of encoding, and composite the most.

Composite/CVBS Interface

Composite signals are the most commonly used analog video interface. Composite video is also referred to as CVBS, which stands for color, video, blanking, and sync, or composite video baseband signal. It combines the brightness information (luma), the color information (chroma), and the synchronizing signals on just one cable. The connector is typically an RCA jack. This is the same connector as that used for standard line level audio connections. A typical waveform of an all-white NTSC composite video signal is shown in Figure.

This figure depicts the portion of the signal that represents one horizontal scan line. Each line is made up of the active video portion and the horizontal blanking portion. The active video portion contains the picture brightness (luma) and color (chroma) information. The brightness information is the instantaneous amplitude at any point in time. From the figure, it can be see that the voltage during the active video portion would yield a bright-white picture for this horizontal scan line, whereas the horizontal blanking portion would be displayed as black and therefore not be seen on the screen. Color information is added on top of the luma signal and is a sine wave with the colors identified by a specific phase difference between it and the colorburst reference phase. The amplitude of the modulation is proportional to the amount of color (or saturation), and the phase information denotes the tint (or hue) of the color. The horizontal blanking portion contains the horizontal synchronizing pulse (sync pulse) as well as the color reference (color burst) located just after the rising edge of the sync pulse (called the "back porch"). It is important to note here that the horizontal blanking portion of the signal is positioned in time such that it is not visible on the display screen.

Y/C Interfaces
The Y/C signal is a video signal with less encoding. Brightness (luma), which is the Y signal, and the color (chroma), the C signal, are carried on two separate sets of wires.

Component Interfaces

Component signal interfaces are the highest performance, because they have the least encoding. The signals exist in a nearly native format. They always utilize three pairs of wires that are typically in either a luma (Y) and two-color-difference-signals format or a red, green, blue (RGB) format. RGB formats are almost always used in computer applications, whereas color-difference formats are generally used in television applications. The Y signal contains the brightness (luma) and synchronizing information, and the color-difference signals contain the red (R) minus the Y signal and the blue (B) minus the Y signal. The theory behind this combination is that each of the base R, G, and B components can be derived from these difference signals. Common variations of these signals are as follows: Y, B-Y, R-Y : Luma and color-difference signals. Y, Pr, Pb : Pr and Pb are scaled versions of B-Y and R-Y. Commonly found in high-end consumer equipment. Y, Cr, Cb Y, Pr, Pb. : Digital-signal equivalent to Y, Pr, Pb. Sometimes incorrectly used in place of

Y, U, V : Not an interface standard. These are intermediate, quadrature signals used in the formation of composite and Y/C signals. Sometimes incorrectly referred to as a component interface. Some important terms and their meanings in this context are listed below Aspect Ratio : Aspect ratio is the ratio of the visible-picture width to the height. Standard television and computers have an aspect ratio of 4:3(1.33). HDTV has aspects ratios of either 4:3 or 16:9(1.78). Additional aspect ratios like 1.85:1 or 2.35:1 are used in cinema. Blanking Interval: There are horizontal and vertical blanking intervals. Horizontal blanking interval is the time period allocated for retrace of the signal from the right edge of the display back to the left edge to start another scan line. Vertical blanking interval is the time period allocated for retrace of the signal from the bottom back to the top to start another field or frame. Synchronizing signals occupy a portion of the blanking interval. Blanking Level: Used to describe a voltage level (blanking level). The blanking level is the nominal voltage of a video waveform during the horizontal and vertical periods, excluding the more negative voltage sync tips. Chroma: The color portion of a video signal. This term is sometimes incorrectly referred to as "chrominance," which is the actual displayed color information. Color Burst: The color burst, also commonly called the "color subcarrier," is 8 to 10 cycles of the color reference frequency. It is positioned between the rising edge of sync and the start of active video for a composite video signal.

Fields and Frames: A frame is one complete scan of a picture. In NTSC it consists of 525 horizontal scan lines. In interlaced scanning systems, a field is half of a frame; thus, two fields make a frame. Luma: The monochrome or black-and-white portion of a video signal. This term is sometimes incorrectly called "luminance," which refers to the actual displayed brightness. Monochrome: The luma (brightness) portion of a video signal without the color information. Monochrome, commonly known as black-and-white, predates current color television. PAL: Phase alternate line. PAL is used to refer to systems and signals that are compatible with this specific modulation technique. Similar to NTSC but uses subcarrier phase alternation to reduce the sensitivity to phase errors that would be displayed as color errors. Commonly used with 626-line, 50Hz scanning systems with a subcarrier frequency of 4.43362MHz. Pixel: Picture element. A pixel is the smallest piece of display detail that has a unique brightness and color. In a digital image, a pixel is an individual point in the image, represented by a certain number of bits to indicate the brightness. RGB: Stands for red, green, and blue. It is a component interface typically used in computer graphics systems. Sync Signals/Pulses: Sync signals, also known as sync pulses, are negative-going timing pulses in video signals that are used by video-processing or display devices to synchronize the horizontal and vertical portions of the display.

TELEVISION STUDIO
A television studio is an installation in which television or video productions take place, either for live television, for recording live to tape, or for the acquisition of raw footage for postproduction. The design of a studio is similar to, and derived from, movie studios, with a few amendments for the special requirements of television production. A professional television studio generally has several rooms, which are kept separate for noise and practicality reasons.

These rooms are connected via intercom, and personnel will be divided among these workplaces.

Studio Floor

Fig: Studio Room of a news channel in making

The studio floor is the actual stage on which the actions that will be recorded take place. A studio floor has the following characteristics and installations:

decoration and/or sets cameras (sometimes one, usually several) on pedestals microphones Lighting rigs and the associated controlling equipment. several video monitors for visual feedback from the production control room a small public address system for communication A glass window between production control room (PCR) and studio floor for direct visual contact is usually desired, but not always possible

While a production is in progress, the following people work in the studio floor.

The on-screen "talent" themselves, and any guests - the subjects of the show. A floor director or floor manager, who has overall charge of the studio area, and who relays timing and other information from the director. One or more camera operators who operate the television cameras, though in some instances these can also be operated from PCR using remote heads. Possibly a teleprompter operator, especially if this is a news broadcast

Production-Control Room
The production control room (PCR), also known as the "gallery" or Studio Control Room (SCR), is the place in a television studio in which the composition of the outgoing program takes place. Facilities in a PCR include:

A video monitor wall, with monitors for program, preview, VTRs, cameras, graphics and other video sources. In some facilities, the monitor wall is a series of racks containing physical television and computer monitors; in others, the monitor wall has been replaced with a virtual monitor wall (sometimes called a "glass cockpit"), one or more large video screens, each capable of displaying multiple sources in a simulation of a monitor wall. A vision mixer, a large control panel used to select the video sources to be seen on air and, in many cases, in any monitors on the set. The term 'vision mixer' is primarily used in Europe, while the term 'switcher' is usually used in North America. An audio mixing console and other audio equipment such as effects devices. A character generator, which creates the majority of the names and full screen graphics that are inserted into the program Digital video effects, or DVE, for manipulation of video sources. In newer vision mixers, the DVE is integrated into the vision mixer; older models without built-in DVE's can often control external DVE devices, or an external DVE can be manually run by an operator.

Fig: A Production Control Room

A still store, or still frame, device for storage of graphics or other images. While the name suggests that the device is only capable of storing still images, newer still stores can store moving video clips. The technical director's station, with waveform monitors, vector scopes and the CCUs or remote control panels for the CCUs. In some facilities, VTRs may also be located in the PCR, but are also often found in the central machine room Intercom and IFB equipment for communication with talent and crew

Master-Control Room

The master control room houses equipment that is too noisy or runs too hot for the production control room. It also makes sure that wire lengths and installation requirements keep within manageable lengths, since most high-quality wiring runs only between devices in this room. This can include:

The actual circuitry and connection boxes of the vision mixer, DVE and character generator devices camera control units VTRs Patch panels for reconfiguration of the wiring between the various pieces of equipment.

In a broadcast station in the US, master control room or "MCR" is the place where the on-air signal is controlled. It may include controls to play back programs and commercials, switch local or network feeds, record satellite feeds and monitor the transmitter(s), or these items may be in an adjacent equipment rack room. The term "studio" usually refers to a place where a particular local program is originated. If the program is broadcast live, the signal goes from the production control room to MCR and then out to the transmitter.

Other Facilities:A television studio usually has other rooms with no technical requirements beyond program and audio monitors. Among them are:

One or more make-up and changing rooms A reception area for crew, talent, and visitors, commonly called the green room.

THE CAMERA IMAGING DEVICE

The principal elements of a typical black-and-white television camera are the lens and the camera imaging device. This used to be a camera tube (with its associated scanning and focusing coils), but now is a CCD. The lens focuses the scene on the front end of the imaging device.

Charge Coupled Device:

Broadcasters have used charge-coupled devices (CCDs) for ENG cameras since the early 1980s. Their light weight, low cost and high reliability allowed CCDs to gain rapid acceptance. Manufacturers now produce these devices for use in professional and consumer video camcorders. The first step in creating a camera image is to gather light. CCDs are rigidly and permanently mounted, usually to the prism itself. There is no possibility for adjusting the scanning process. Lens manufacturers, in turn, standardize their product to work under stringent conditions.

How CCDs Work: There are three sections in your average CCD. An array of photo diodes is positioned at the output of the prism. As varying amounts of light strike the diodes, those that are illuminated become "forward biased", and current flows that are proportional to the intensity of the light.

Fig: Layers of a CCD The shift gate acts as a switch. This permits the current from each diode to be stored in a solid state capacitor in the CCD. As we know, capacitors store voltages, and these little guys are no exception. The actual transfer of the voltages out to the real world is the key to why CCDs are so ingenious. The CCD unit can transfer the voltage from cell to cell without any loss. This is called charge coupling, which is how the CCD gets its name: Charge Coupled Device. When the transfer gate of a CCD image sensor is activated, the CCD's clocking circuitry moves the contents of each picture cell to the adjacent cell. Clocking the shift registers in this manner transfers the light input value of each cell to the output, one value at a time. The CCD chips provide their own scanning circuitry, in a way. The last cell in the chain sends its voltage, in turn, to the output circuit of the chip. As an added bonus, cycling through all of the cells this way will not only send out all of the stored voltages, but also discharges all of the cells, too. Everything goes back to normal and the cells are ready to take in a new analog voltage value.

The CCD analog shift register deals with the charges coming from the capacitors. Each of these registers has an address decoder that allows each portion of the image to be individually addressed. An address encoder cycles through the field of photosensitive registers, and reads out the analog voltages for each pixel. The speed of operation of this decoder is synchronized to the scan rate of television.

COLOUR CAMERAS
Three Chip Cameras:

Fig: Colour camera head end A three-CCD camera is a camera whose imaging system uses three separate chargecoupled devices (CCDs), each one taking a separate measurement of red, green, or blue light. Light coming into the lens is split by a trichroic prism assembly, which directs the appropriate wavelength ranges of light to their respective CCDs. The system is employed by some still cameras, video cameras, television systems and camcorders. Compared to cameras with only one CCD, three-CCD cameras generally provide superior image quality and resolution. By taking separate readings of red, green, and blue values for each pixel, three-CCD cameras achieve much better precision than single-CCD cameras. By contrast, almost all single-CCD cameras use a Bayer filter, which allows them to detect only one-third of the color information for each pixel. The three electrical signals that control the respective beams in the picture tube are produced in the colour television camera by three CCD (Charge Coupled Device) integrated circuit chips. The camera has a single lens, behind which a prism or a set of dichroic mirrors produces three images of the scene. These are focused on the three CCDs. In front of each CCD is a colour filter; the filters pass respectively only the red, green, or blue components of the light in the scene to the chips. The three signals produced by the camera are transmitted (via colour encoding) to the respective electron guns in the picture tube, where they re-create the scene.

The combination of the three sensors can be done in the following ways: Composite sampling, where the three sensors are perfectly aligned to avoid any color artifact, when recombining the information from the three color planes. Pixel shifting, where the three sensors are shifted by a fraction of a pixel. After recombining the information from the three sensors, higher spatial resolution can be achieved. [2] Pixel shifting can be horizontal only to provide higher horizontal resolution in standard resolution camera, or horizontal and vertical to provide high resolution image using standard

resolution imager for example. The alignment of the three sensors can be achieved by micro mechanical movements of the sensors relative to each other. Arbitrary alignment, where the random alignment errors due to the optics are comparable to or larger than the pixel size.

Main Parts of Camera:

Lens: The lens is the first component in the light path. The camcorder's optics generally has one or more of the following adjustments: Aperture or iris to regulate the exposure and to control depth of field; Zoom to control the focal length and angle of view; Shutter speed to regulate the exposure and to maintain desired motion portrayal; Gain to amplify signal strength in low-light conditions; Neutral density filter to regulate the exposure. Imager: The imager converts light into electric signal. The camera lens projects an image onto the imager surface, exposing the photosensitive array to light. The light exposure is converted into electrical charge. At the end of the timed exposure, the imager converts the accumulated charge into a continuous analog voltage at the imager's output terminals. After scan-out is complete, the photosites are reset to start the exposure-process for the next video frame. Recorder: The recorder is responsible for writing the video-signal onto a recording medium (such as magnetic videotape.) The record function involves many signal-processing steps, and historically, the recording-process introduced some distortion and noise into the stored video, such that playback of the stored-signal may not retain the same characteristics/detail as the live video feed.

Studio Cameras
Most studio cameras stand on the floor, usually with pneumatic or hydraulic mechanisms called pedestals to adjust the height, and are usually on wheels. Any video camera when used along with other video cameras in a studio setup is controlled by a device known as CCU (camera control unit), to which they are connected via a Triax, Fibre Optic or the almost obsolete Multicore cable. The camera control unit along with other equipment is installed in the production control room often known as the Gallery of the television studio. When used outside a studio, they are often on tripods that may or may not have wheels (depending on the model of the tripod). Initial models used analog technology, but are now obsolete, supplanted by digital models. Studio cameras are light and small enough to be taken off the pedestal and the lens changed to a smaller size to be used on a cameraman's shoulder, but they still have no recorder of their own and are cable-bound. Cameras can be mounted on a tripod, a dolly or a crane, thus making the cameras much more versatile than previous generations of studio cameras. Eng Camera: Though by definition, ENG (Electronic News Gathering) video cameras were originally designed for use by news camera operators; these have become the dominant style of professional video camera for most productions, from dramas to documentaries, from music

videos to corporate training. While they have some similarities to the smaller consumer camcorder, they differ in several regards: ENG cameras are larger and heavier, and usually supported by a shoulder stock on the cameraman's shoulder, taking the weight off the hand, which is freed to operate the lens zoom control. The weight of the cameras also helps dampen small movements. 3 CCDs are used instead of one, one for each primary color. They have interchangeable lenses. All settings, white balance, focus, and iris can be manually adjusted, and automatics can be completely disabled. The lens is focused manually and directly, without intermediate servo controls. However the lens zoom and focus can be operated with remote controls in a studio configuration. Professional BNC connectors for video and at least two XLR input connectors for audio are included. A complete time code section is available, allowing time code presets; and multiple cameras can be time code-synchronized with a cable. "Bars and tone" are available in-camera (the color bars are SMPTE (Society of Motion Picture and Television Engineers) Bars, a reference signal that simplifies calibration of monitors and setting levels when duplicating and transmitting the picture.) Efp cameras: Electronic Field Production cameras are similar to studio cameras in that they are used primarily in multiple camera switched configurations, but outside the studio environment, for concerts, sports and live news coverage of special events. These versatile cameras can be carried on the shoulder, or mounted on camera pedestals and cranes, with the large, very long focal length zoom lenses made for studio camera mounting. These cameras have no recording ability on their own, and transmit their signals back to the broadcast truck through a triax, fibre optic or the virtually obsolete multicore cable. Dock cameras: Some manufacturers build camera heads, which only contain the optical block, the CCD sensors and the video encoder, and can be used with a studio adapter for connection to a CCU in EFP mode, or various dock recorders for direct recording in the preferred format, making them very versatile. However, this versatility leads to greater size and weight. They are favoured for EFP and low-budget studio use, because they tend to be smaller, lighter, and less expensive than most studio cameras. Lipstick cameras: "Lipstick cameras" are so called because the lens and sensor block combined are similar in size and appearance to a lipstick container. These are either hard mounted in a small location, such as a race car, or on the end of a boom pole. The sensor block and lens are separated from the rest of the camera electronics by a long thin multi conductor cable. The camera settings are manipulated from this box, while the lens settings are normally set when the camera is mounted in place.

COLOR TEMPERATURE AND COLOR BALANCE

Color temperature is a characteristic of visible light that has important applications in lighting, photography, videography, publishing, manufacturing, astrophysics, and other fields. The color temperature of a light source is the temperature of an ideal black-body radiator that radiates light of comparable hue to that of the light source. Color temperature is conventionally stated in the unit of absolute temperature, the kelvin, having the unit symbol K.

Color temperatures over 5,000K are called cool colors (blueish white), while lower color temperatures (2,7003,000 K) are called warm colors (yellowish white through red). In photography and image processing, color balance is the global adjustment of the intensities of the colors (typically red, green, and blue primary colors). An important goal of this adjustment is to render specific colors particularly neutral colors correctly; hence, the general method is sometimes called gray balance, neutral balance, or white balance. Color balance changes the overall mixture of colors in an image and is used for color correction; generalized versions of color balance are used to get colors other than neutrals to also appear correct or pleasing. Image data acquired by sensors either film or electronic image sensors must be transformed from the acquired values to new values that are appropriate for color reproduction or display. Several aspects of the acquisition and display process make such color correction essential including the fact that the acquisition sensors do not match the sensors in the human eye, that the properties of the display medium must be accounted for, and that the ambient viewing conditions of the acquisition differ from the display viewing conditions. The color balance operations in popular image editing applications usually operate directly on the red, green, and blue channel pixel values,[1][2] without respect to any color sensing or reproduction model. In shooting film, color balance is typically achieved by using color correction filters over the lights or on the camera lens.

SATELLITE COMMUNICATION
Frequency range: 5.85 GHz to 6.425 GHz for transmission and 3.625 GHz to 4.2 GHz for reception. The digital earth station operates in the frequency range of 5.85 GHz to 6.425 GHz for transmission and 3.625 to 4.24 GHz for reception of signals. The whole system operates with DVB/MPEG2 Standards. The base band processor subsystem and base band monitoring subsystem operates in fully digital domain. An OFC carries digital base band signal from studio to earth station site to minimize the noise and interference. It is controlled by a PC called NMS PC. The compression segment has an MPEG encoder, digital multiplexer and digital modulator. The monitoring and receiving segment comprises of two digital receivers for receiving and decoding program. The output of modulator (70MHz) is sent to an up converter. The up converted signals are sent to an HPA. Then this signal is given to a PDA (parabolic dish antenna) for up linking to satellite. The uplinked signal is received again by the same PDA for monitoring purposes. The signal between earth station and satellite are given a long line of sight which means there must be a clear path from earth to satellite. The uplink signal is fed from the earth station by a large PDA. The satellite is equipped with its own dish antenna which receives the uplink signals and feeds them to a receiver. The signal is then amplified and changed to a different frequency which is downlink frequency. This is done to prevent interference between uplink and downlink signals. The down linked signal is then again sent to the transmitter which again retransmits it. Each satellite has a transponder and a single antenna receives all signals and another one transmits all signals back. A satellite transmits signals towards earth in pattern called the satellite footprint of the satellite. The footprint is strongest at

centre and the footprint is used to see if the earth station will be suitable for the reception of the desired signal. The parts of the DES are Antenna subsystem including LNA Antenna control unit, beacon tracking unit, beacon tracking receiver and up converter system high power amplifier and power system. The system operates in 2 + 1 mode and is compliant with DVB MPEG 2 standards. The base band processor subsystem and base band monitoring system operates in digital domain. An OFC contains the digital base band signal for studio to earth station to minimize noise interference The network management system or NMS monitors and controls baseband equipments compression equipments and test instruments like video audio generation and video audio analyzer. They are provided to ensure quality of transmission and help trouble shoot. The base band segment comprises of baseband subsystems at studio site and base band subsystem at earth station site. This baseband segment processes two video Programmes. The base band segment is monitored and controlled using a PC placed near the base band earth station equipments called base band NMS PC. The compression segments comprises of Mpeg encoders in 2 + 1 configuration for providing redundancy. It also comprises of digital multiplexers and digital modulators in 1 + 1 configuration. The compression segment is monitored and controlled by compression NMS PC. The receive and monitoring segment consists of two digital receivers for receiving and decoding of the video programmes and one ASI to SDI decoder for decoding of the transport stream for monitoring video programmes at the multiplexers output. RF NMS PC is placed near the receiver monitoring segment and video audio generator placed in the base band segment. For monitoring of video programmes professional video monitor, LCD video monitor and audio level monitor are provided in the base band segment. An operator console has one 14 professional video monitor a video audio monitor unit for quantitative monitor of video programmes and a personal computer for centralized merit and contention of earth station sub system.

Features of Earth Station

All major sub systems operate in redundant mode and takes over immediately without any noticeable break in the service in the event of failure of the main chain A fibre optic connectivity to transport two SDI video and two AES audio signals from a studio to the earth station separated by a distance of approximately 200m System configuration in MCPc in 2+1 mode Base band process in fully digital domain. In case input video and audio are analog A/D counter in first and converts analog signal in to digital signal to ensure operation in fully digital domain Digital encoding system compliant to MPEG2/DVB standards On line trouble shooting with the help of converter, IRD and other associated test and measuring equipment Exhaustive professional quality measuring of video and audio Control and monitoring using NMS Single point remote monitoring and control on the console

The physical configuration of the racks in the digital earth station is as follows: Base band Rack(studio) Base band rack (earth station) Compression rack Receive and monitoring rack Console NMS

System Layout
All the above systems are located in the station as per the typical station layout to have smooth flow of all signals mainly video audio RF and control so as to reduce cabling length between racks. An OFC of 200m length with NMS control cable (RG 5A) is provided for base band between the studio and the earth station.

Specifications:
Electrical specifications: System Voltage 230V AC, Single phase Satellite communication systems System configuration: (2 +1) mode with full redundancy Transmitter: Video audio input parameter No of program input Type of input format Input format (analog) Input level (analog) A to D converter Video Bandwidth Input format (digital) Input level (digital) No of audio input Input Frequency Range Input Standard Input Level No of audio Input Digital Input Standard Sampling rate Data Rate

:2 : Analog or digital, 75ohm : 625 line PAL- B CCIR standard : 1VPP+-5% : 10 Bits : 5.5MHz : SMTPE 259M, 270Mbps : 800mVPP+-10% : Analog dual mono/normal stereo/joint stereo per program : 20 Hz to 20 kHz : Balanced analog 600ohm : 0dB with +-10dB adjustment : Single at specified program : 110 ohm : 32/44.1/48 kHz (selectable) : 32-384kBPS

Video/ Audio Compression Parameter: Video compression : MPEG-2 4:2:2@ML4:2:0@ML

Bit Range Resolution Audio Coding Multiplexer O/P rate Modulation Type FEC Rate

: 1.0 To 15Mbps for 4:2:0 to 50Mbps for 4:2:2 : 704X576/720X576(selectable) : MPEG layer2 : 1-80Mbps : QPSK selectable : 2/3 5/6 7/8

Receiver Domain Concession receiver frequency C to L o/p frequency Video/Audio Decoder and Receiver Monitoring RF Monitoring IF (70 MHz monitoring) L Band monitoring C Band monitoring Base Band monitoring through router RF Measurement RF Parameters

: 3.6 to 4.2 GHz : 950 to 1750 MHz : L Band

: using 70 to L converter : Using IRD : Using downlink through satellite : Video and Audio monitoring in transmit or receive path

: Spectrum Analyzer

Video Generation and Monitoring Video Monitoring(digital) : one 14 professional colour monitor, one 5.6 LCD monitor in the base band rack for high quality monitoring and one 14 professional and one 4 LCD in console for confidence monitoring Video analyzer (SDI/Analog) : Waveform Monitor (wfm-601M) and VM-700 Video Generator (SDI/Analog) : TG-700 Environmental specifications Temperature Operation 00C to 450C Storage -200C to 800C Humidity 0% to 95% non condensing Altitude 0 to 3000msl NMS Functions Monitoring all the subsystems Control of the subsystems Configuration of all the subsystems Separate monitor and control computer for baseband and compression system

Monitor and control of the earth station subsystem for a remote computer wanted in the console Interface between the computer and equipment is RS 232

Video audio termination panel

The base band segment of the system carries two programs from the studio to the earth stations equipment separated by a distance of about 200m. To cater to these needs two video and two audio signals each one stereo are processed. The video signals are handled in the digital domains in SDI (serial 4:2:2@ 270 Mbps data rate) and the audio signals in AES/EBU as per the AES 2- 1992 standards. If all the input signals are analog, A/D converters will have to be used in the transmitter end, which give SDI and AES outputs for operation in fully digital domain. One A/D card is mounted in the frame and wired up to the patch panel so that in case of failure of main video A/D card this spare A/D card can take over. The analog or digital input from the camera or VTR and from live events are fed to the suitable connectors on video and audio termination panel depending upon whether the type of signal is analog or digital. If the signal is analog, then the video ADC cards perform the analog to digital conversion of the incoming video and audio signals. The serial digital video and audio outputs are further fed to the audio embedder through a patch panel. If the input video and audio signals are digital, suitable patching is to be done and the video patch panel and audio patch panel for routing these inputs to the embedder. The dual channel audio embedder can embed up to two AES/EBU streams in to a serial 4:2:2 video streams. In the earth station, one AES/EBU stream embeds one digital video signal so that the cards are used for two program channels. The embedder is fed to the fibre optic transmitter. The OFC takes two inputs of SDI at 270Mbps for the two embedder and provides multimode operation option for each input in accordance with SMPTE 297M. The O/P signal from the optional transmitter is in the optimum form so it protects the signal from EM interference and cross talk. The OFC loss is less than co axial loss and so signal can travel longer distances. In earth station an OFC is used to handle two embedded SDI signals. The channel A and channel B optical output from the unit are made available via a SC connector with shutters. These two optical outputs are fed to the line interface unit; they are transported back to earth station base band rack for further processing through the optical link. The video patch panel (2x24 way) employed in the system is 2u unit suitable for the digital video. The two patch cords are used for making connection through on the patch panel either for analog or digital video input. The audio patch panel (2x24 ways) is a 1u unit. Two patch cords are used for making connection through on the patch panel either for analog or for digital input. Both the patch panels are configured through for analog input in normal condition for video as well as audio. All the IQ modules from the Sand W are incorporated in the IQH3A enclosure. It can accommodate 8 double or 16 single width modules or every combination fitted with a roll call gateway for roll net 2.5Mbps network. The enclosure consists of dual PSU for redundancy. The max power consumption of the unit is 225VA.The BNC connector on the

near panel of the connector allows it to be connected to the roll call network. The bicolor LEDs V1 and V2 indicate positive and negative supplies. They are green if PSU supplies power and is red otherwise.

Up Converter (1+1)
The UPC will add in any frequency within stated transmission BW in 125 kHz stepped increments. The IF bandwidth is indented for operation within an 80Mhz BW centered at 70MHz (for +/- 40 MHz) Due to its low phase noise and HF stability the model UC6M2D5 (satellite networks) meets INTELSAT, DOMSAT, EUTELSAT and regional requirements. It can stand alone up converter or in a 1:1 protection switch option. The uplink frequency for Trivandrum is 6036.5 MHz and downlink is 3811.5MHz.

Audio Processor
Designed specifically for the demands of television audio, the programmable OPTIMOD-TV 8282 digital audio processor meets all requirements of the various systems in use around the world. It is impossible to characterize the listening quality of even the simplest limiter or compressor on the basis of the usual specifications, because such specifications cannot adequately describe the crucial dynamic processes that occur under program conditions. Therefore, the only way to meaningfully evaluate the sound of an audio processor is by subjective listening tests. Certain specifications are presented here to assure the engineer that they are reasonable, to help plan the installation, and to help make certain comparisons with other processing equipment. Some of the specifications are for features that are optional. The TXs sampling rate can be synchronized with that of audio processors or can be allowed a free run of 32 kHz, 44.1 kHz or 48 kHz. The audio signal is sent to the digital I/O cards and analog cards separately. These cards provide pre emphasis truncations required and attenuation on the digital signal before transmission.

Performance
Specifications for measurements from analog left/right input to analog left/right output are as follows: Frequency Response (all structures, measured below gain reduction and clipping thresholds, high-pass filter off): Follows standard 50 microseconds. Or 75 microseconds. Pre-emphasis curve 0.20dB, 5Hz-15 kHz. Analog and digital left/right outputs can be independently userconfigured for flat or pre-emphasized output. Noise: Output noise floor will depend upon how much gain reduction the processor is set for (AGC and/or DENSITY), gating level, equalization, noise reduction, etc. It is primarily governed by the dynamic range of the A/D Converter. The dynamic range of the digital signal processing is 144dB.

Total System Distortion (de-emphasized 100% modulation): Less than 0.01% THD, 20Hz-1 kHz rising to less than .05% at 15 kHz. Less than 0.02% SMPTE I MHz Distortion. Total System Separation: Greater than 80dB, 20Hz-15 kHz. Polarity: (PROTECTION or BYPASS structure) Absolute polarity maintained. Positive-going signal on input will result in positive-going signal on output. Impedance: 600 ohms or 10k ohms load impedance, electronically balanced, jumper selectable Common Mode Rejection: Greater than 70dB, 50-60Hz. Greater than 45dB, 60Hz15 kHz. Sensitivity: -40dBu to +20dBu to produce 10dB gain reduction at 1kHz Maximum Output Level: +23.7dBu into 600 ohm or greater balanced load Connector: XLRtype, male, EMI-suppressed. Pin 1 Chassis, Pins 2 and 3 electronically balanced, floating and symmetrical.

Transmitter Antenna
A 6.3m diameter antenna with a simplified manual track device features ready erection, ease of maintenance and high reliability. Reflector structure The 6.3 m diameter antenna is made up of 4 quarter segment. Each and every quarter is made up of 10 segments fixed on five trusses. Panels which are fixed to the trusses are made up of fine aluminium expanded mesh strengthened with the help of channel sections and tee sections whose ends are fixed to the backup structure. Trusses are composed of aluminium square tubes and the welded back up made up of hub and 20 trusses. The hubs and trusses are constructed in such a way that they constitute to the high level of surface accuracy. Mount structure A simple tubular steel space frame makes up most of the mount structure. It allows rotation about x-axis as well as y axis. The x axis drive rod is connected between the top of the mounted structure and the concrete foundation. The y axis drive rod is connected between the base of the x axis bearing mount and the reflector back up structure on the left hand side as viewed from the rear of the antenna. The mount is rigidly attached to the concrete base which is facing north such that it can survive even in wind speeds up to 200 kmph. Drive mechanism

It has a telescopic pipe arrangement and a screw rod within it along with manual handle. There are mechanical angle indicators along the screw rod which indicate the exact position and angle of the antenna with respect to both the axes. Most of the parts of the panel and antenna structure are made up of aluminium alloy which has corrosion resistance and yield strength. The reflector is treated in the following order before installation (A) Etch primer is applied after caustic soda acid treatment (b) Painted with white matt paint The mount is treated with the following (a) A hot dip which galvanizes all steel parts (b) Etch primer treatment (c) White enamel paint is applied as a last coating Fixing the feed onto the antenna The feed is supported by a set of four pipes called as a quadripod. It is fixed before the whole antenna structure is hoisted, that is, it is fixed on the ground itself before the whole antenna structure is fixed. Care should be taken that the feed is at the exact focus of the reflector. A maximum tolerance of +3mm is allowed for the separation between the actual focus and feed position. Also the feed entrances and cable output ports are covered with waterproof Teflon sheet to prevent the entry of moisture into the arrangement. The LNBC (Low Noise Block Converter) and cables are connected to the feed output. The x-y adjustment is then done and fixed. The bolts are tightened with care and the arrangement is set. Care should be taken while lifting and fixing of the whole apparatus to prevent any damage. The signals which are received by the antenna are given to the feed and from there it goes to the LNB from where the signals are given to the receiver. The receiver changes the frequency Sat long 74.0 6.95 lat 8.55 Y angle -3.46 Y length 2778.37 X angle -10.0 X length 3269.0 Az 119.12 El 79.37

93.5 " " 19.37 2424.36 -10.13 3265.4 116.58 68.23 bandwidth of the signal so as to decrease the losses through noise. These signals can now be observed on a TV screen. And this is the principle which is used in home dish antennas and by cable operators for broadcasting in a small area. For transmitting these signals back to air there are some changes which are to be made to these signals. I.e., these signals have to be properly set according to the specifications given. So the signal is next fed to a control console. From here the different programmes or channels have to be selected first and then each channels visual and aural property can be set properly before transmission to air. The visual properties can be seen in the video waveform screen Video waveform modifications

In the video waveform as can be observed, 625 vertical lines make up one frame of the video which appears on the TV screen. It is divided into odd lines and even lines on either side of the video waveform. In this video waveform, the peak to peak voltage is 1 volt. The synchronizer or the synch voltage which extends below the other parts of the graph and in the middle has a voltage of .3V.this is the standard level for horizontal as well as for vertical synch. The next part is colour burst which controls the colour characteristics of the video. The remaining 0.7V is the video level. Many characteristics of the video signal like its brightness its chroma etc can be modified here at this stage before transmission. A colour stability amplifier is used at this stage to regenerate synch colour burst and brightness level of the signal. Many times the signal which is received from the antenna do not confirm to the standards. Hence it might need modifications before transmission so that it can be received uniformly by all the viewers. The 5KW and 10 KW TX of TW200 HP series com band 1 on band 3 and are equipped with two dims operating in a passive reserve mode. The sound and vision channels are amplified separately. It is designed to operate in all the negative modulation standards with PAL, NTSC and SECAM colour systems. Each transmitter is designed for a precise output power and a specific frequency but is built using a series of common modules based on the same technology the standardization has following advantages like the maintenance personnel of one type can work with the other type as well and spare parts can be shared. All amplifiers are WB devices (170 to 230 MHz in B3 and 44 and 88 MHz in B1) and can operate in band 3 and band 1 of both sound and vision. In the driver Audio and video I/P signals are connected to vision and sound IF signals. These IF proceed prior to concession to RF output frequencies and amplified. The attenuated 5 and 10 KW sideband pattern is obtained through the use of a lithium niobate ground wave filter. Each amplifier is equipped with AGC. The driver also consists of a vision synchronization detection circuit used to automatically switch the transmitter on and off. Also the transmitter can be controlled locally and remotely. All IF and RF interconnections use 50ohm coaxial links to simplify maintenance. By the use of redundant of the ampliform and power supplies, briefly can estimated reduced power levels in the event of a failure in several transistors amplifiers or a power supply. This man machine interface ensures high user friendliness both in terms of operation and maintenance. System info and controls are accessed through a touch screen controlled by a microprocessor. Description of TX The TX is in a single cabinet which the diplexer and filter assembly is associated. The TX as discussed above has two drivers two RF amplification channels, power supplies and associated co-ordination and control system, a diplexer and a RF filter. All amps power supplies and their driver components are plug-in drawers and sub assemblies are designed for easy access and removal. The main switch is designed for use with all types of 3phiW/W with or without neutral 208V or 480V.

Driver This subassembly is used to generate vision and sound signals corresponding to the selected standard using input video and audio signals. This sub assembly performs the processing and

conversion required to generate the filtered and vision and sound signals in the selected RF band. The dent also provides phase and amplitude corrections to ensure that the linearity specifications comply with various standards. The driver acknowledges s the presence or absence of the video and audio signals that are applied to the driver. The driver consists of plug-in mounted in a single PCB rack, 6 units high. Each driver has 5 modules connected to the mother board. Each can be replaced separately without changing the entire assembly. Maximum output power is 19ddBm for vision signals and 13dBm for sound signals. Local driver controls are on the local freq and interface board. In the maintenance mode of the TX these controls are active. The 2 drivers and associated passive resonance relays are directly controlled by the control system. (Each driver has +_ 12V power supply).Each driver has its own internal oscillator. However they can be made to work with an external frequency synthesizer. In case of synthesizer failure the change into internal oscillator takes place automatically. In this dual drive configuration the sys automatically switches over to the reserve driver. The LCD screen provides control system monitoring and analysis. The amplifier drivers are provided by plug in high power supplies. (1power supply for 2 amplifiers.) These highly reliable units generate 50V with 120A. Each RF O/P of amplifier is coupled with a balanced WILKINSON COMBINER. Ensuring insulation of approximately 18dB between O/P. This drive makes it possible to remove an amplifier driver when on the air without disrupting broadcast. This way a faulty amplifier can be replaced with a spare drawer and also a sound amplifier can be used in case of a vision amplifier. CPU or Control System It is a microprocessor board and with a LCD screen coupled to it with a command and control facility. Safety is achieved through hardwired systems to maintain operations and safety precautions and optimum performance. The CPU can in fact control:

Sound to vision ratio System power Type of pilot wave Synthesizer frequency Single drive or dual drive Filtering assembly

It is formed by a diplexer reflecting sound signal and an RF pass band filter introducing 2 rejecters. A wave counter reset signal is sent to sample vision and output signal Tx Cooling The amplifiers are cooled with pressurized air through an external vertical system that lets filtered air.

Protection systems
Thermal protection: The Tx is protected against excess temperature increase. For air if T> 450C then the output power is reduced and when outside temperature is greater than 600C the Tx is shut down. SWR protection: It is independent for each high gain amplifier. If a faulted amplifier is detected it can be restarted. If the failure causes power rise then the TX is cut off Power surge protection: The amplifier has a fast protection circuit in the event of a power surge at amplifier locations.

CONCLUSION
The television transmission consists of inception of signal, encoding, decoding and receiving at required place. A standard television set comprises multiple internal electronic circuits, including those for receiving and decoding broadcast signals. A visual display device which lacks a tuner is properly called a monitor, rather than a television. A television system may use

different technical standards such as digital television (DTV) and high-definition television (HDTV). Television systems are also used for surveillance, industrial process control, and guiding of weapons, in places where direct observation is difficult or dangerous. Broadcasters using analog television systems encode their signal using NTSC, PAL or SECAM analog encoding and then modulate this signal onto a VHF or UHF carrier. In India, Phase Altrenating by Line (PAL) technique is used for television broadcasting. Broadcasting starts from Camera present in studio, from where it goes to Camera control units (CCUs). From CCUs signals move to Vision Mixer. Editing is done here using Character Generator. VTR output is also given to VM. Then the signal goes to MSR and then through Earth Station it is transmitted to satellite (say INSAT 4B). This satellite signal is received by T.V. tower, which then transfers it to Antenna. From Antenna the receiver receives the signal and the process gets completed.