Executive Summary: Design and Build A Small Airship

Design and Build a Small Airship
Executive Summary
This report outlines the design, build and flight testing of a small-scale airship for surveillance, aerial photography and advertising purposes. The airship was designed to be capable of continuous indoor flight for 30 minutes carrying a 500g payload while maintaining a constant altitude. The methodology and outcomes of similar university research projects were examined to gain a better understanding of airship design principles. Four distinct flight regimes were considered: takeoff, hover, cruise and landing. Flight parameters such as maximum speed, cruise altitude and takeoff time were defined so that a theoretical force analysis could be conducted. The thrust required in each flight regime was then determined based on calculation of the lift, weight and drag forces. Four sections were identified as crucial in the airship design: the envelope, gondola, propulsion system and control system. An iterative procedure was developed to optimise the envelope design based on the weight of components and the lifting force needed to achieve neutral buoyancy. The conceptual design of the gondola focussed on reducing weight whilst still having enough strength to support the weight of the internal components. Ducted fans powered by electric motors were chosen to provide propulsion to the airship. The effects of different fan arrangements on airship manoeuvrability were then analysed. The thrust output of the ducted fans was controlled by manual and automatic systems. An RC hand unit provided full manual control while the cruise altitude and pitch of the airship were maintained automatically using an ultrasonic sensor and clinometer, respectively. The detailed design was developed using the most suitable concept design alternatives. Components such as motors, fans, batteries and automatic control parts were selected based on technical suitability and budget limitations. The final design used a commercially manufactured envelope propelled by four ducted fans, each with variable thrust output. Two manually controlled fans on the side of the gondola were used for yaw control while two downward facing fans provide upward thrust and pitch control. Testing of all individual components was conducted prior to testing of the completed airship. This ensured that the ducted fans, radio controller, camera and automatic control system operated correctly. Two airship envelopes were manufactured and each was tested in a full flight test with the gondola attached. The two flight tests demonstrated that the automatic control system functioned as designed and could be used simultaneously with the manual control system. The flight tests also showed that the airship was capable of meeting the performance requirements set in the project definition.
ii
The majority of the project goals were achieved in the two flight tests. It is hoped that the work undertaken in the project could be adapted and refined by final year students in the future to design an airship capable of outdoor flight with a more advanced control system
ii
iii
Acknowledgements
The authors of this report wish to thank many people who have contributed to the project. Most particularly we would like thank the project supervisor, Dr Maziar Arjomandi, his continued support and guidance throughout the year was of great help.
Funding for the project was generously provided by BAE Systems Australia. Without this financial support the project would not have been possible. The authors would like to thank Mr Jeff Mann and Mr John Finlay of BAE Systems Australia for there efforts to organise this sponsorship.
Throughout the year, academic staff and students including Dr Ben Cazzolato, Mr Nicholas Cole, Dr Frank Wormel and Ms Dorothy Missingham have provided there assistance and advice. This has been most helpful and we greatly appreciate their time and knowledge. The authors would also like to thank Dave Betteridge, Elias Arcondoulis and Darren Bain from BAE Systems for their technical advice and interest in the project.
The Mechanical workshop must also be thanked, especially Mr David Osborne, Mr Richard Pateman and Mr Bill Finch, for their assistance in the design and fabrication process. The help of the Electronics workshop, including Silvio De Ieso and Norio Itsumi, in the construction of the electronics circuitry was greatly appreciated.
iii
iv
Disclaimer
We, the authors, declare that the material contained within is entirely our own work unless otherwise stated.
. Michael Nordestgaard
. Lachlan Ravenscroft
. Nicholas Bartel
iv
Contents
List of Figures .................................................................................................................... 9 List of Tables.................................................................................................................... 11 List of Equations.............................................................................................................. 13 Notation............................................................................................................................ 14 Introduction........................................................................................................................1 Aims.................................................................................................................................1 Flight Characteristics....................................................................................................... 1 Standard Requirements ....................................................................................................2 Budget Constraints .......................................................................................................... 2 Feasibility Study.................................................................................................................3 Background Information..................................................................................................3 Analysis of Similar Projects............................................................................................ 4 Envelope and Gondola Design.................................................................................... 4 Propulsion System....................................................................................................... 6 Performance Characteristics ........................................................................................ 7 Special Systems ........................................................................................................... 7 Statistical Analysis...........................................................................................................9 Length to Width Ratio ................................................................................................. 9 Thrust to Weight Ratio...............................................................................................11 Empty Weight to Takeoff Weight Ratio..................................................................... 14 Summary ................................................................................................................... 15 Conceptual Design ........................................................................................................... 17 Desired Modes of Flight................................................................................................ 17 Manoeuvrability ........................................................................................................ 17 Takeoff....................................................................................................................... 18 Hover......................................................................................................................... 18 Cruise......................................................................................................................... 19 Landing...................................................................................................................... 19 Summary of Flight Parameters.................................................................................. 20 Force Analysis............................................................................................................... 21 Weight Determination................................................................................................21 Lift Determination..................................................................................................... 24 v
vi
Lifting gas ..............................................................................................................24 Atmospheric Effects.............................................................................................. 25 Thrust Determination.................................................................................................26 Takeoff................................................................................................................... 27 Hover..................................................................................................................... 28 Cruise..................................................................................................................... 29 Summary of Thrust in Different Flight Modes ......................................................30 Envelope Design............................................................................................................ 30 Structural Parameters.................................................................................................30 Materials .................................................................................................................... 32 Shape and Aerodynamics...........................................................................................33 Stabiliser Design........................................................................................................ 35 Propulsion System Design............................................................................................. 36 Propulsion Methods................................................................................................... 36 Propulsion System Selection..................................................................................... 37 Propulsion Layout ..................................................................................................... 38 Propulsion Layout Decision...................................................................................... 40 Gondola Design............................................................................................................. 41 Material selection.......................................................................................................42 Shape and Aerodynamics...........................................................................................42 Design Selection........................................................................................................ 45 Control System Design.................................................................................................. 46 Manual Control System............................................................................................. 46 Automatic Control System.........................................................................................46 Payload and ground station design................................................................................ 47 Camera options.......................................................................................................... 47 Camera selection........................................................................................................50 Detailed Design ................................................................................................................ 51 Envelope Design............................................................................................................ 51 Envelope Modelling................................................................................................... 51 Manufacturing............................................................................................................ 53 Stabiliser Design........................................................................................................ 54 Propulsion Design..........................................................................................................56 Ducted fan motors ..................................................................................................... 56 Speed Controllers .................................................................................................. 57 Batteries..................................................................................................................... 58 Power Requirements ..............................................................................................58 Battery Selection....................................................................................................60 Gondola Design............................................................................................................. 62 Design Details............................................................................................................62 Part Layout ................................................................................................................ 65
vi
vii
Structural Analysis.....................................................................................................68 Control System Design.................................................................................................. 70 Manual Control System............................................................................................. 70 RC Hand Control Unit ...........................................................................................70 Manual Control Procedure.....................................................................................72 Automatic Control..................................................................................................... 73 Automatic Control Layout .....................................................................................73 Automatic Control Component Selection..............................................................73 Control Code..........................................................................................................78 Payload.......................................................................................................................... 82 Camera and ground station........................................................................................ 82 Component Testing.......................................................................................................... 84 Engine Testing................................................................................................................84 Experimental Method................................................................................................ 84 Procedure................................................................................................................... 84 Theoretical Thrust of the SFM ducted fan.................................................................85 SFM Thrust Test Results............................................................................................86 GWS Thrust Test Results...........................................................................................86 Summary of Ducted Fan Test Results ....................................................................... 87 Camera Testing...............................................................................................................87 Camera Range............................................................................................................87 Picture quality and interference................................................................................. 89 Significance of camera test results ............................................................................ 89 Flight Tests........................................................................................................................91 Pre-flight Procedures and Operation ............................................................................. 91 Gondola Component Tests .........................................................................................91 Attaching Gondola..................................................................................................... 91 Envelope Inflation..................................................................................................... 92 Flight Tests.....................................................................................................................92 Climb test...................................................................................................................92 Descent test ................................................................................................................92 Cruise test .................................................................................................................. 93 Rate of turn test ......................................................................................................... 93 Post-flight data analysis .................................................................................................93 First Flight Test and Results.......................................................................................... 94 Climb Test for Automatic Control System.................................................................94 Overweight Analysis..................................................................................................96 Envelope Redesign.................................................................................................... 99 Second Flight Test and Results ....................................................................................100 Climb Test ................................................................................................................100 vii
viii
Descent Test .............................................................................................................101 Cruise Test ............................................................................................................... 102 Rate of turn test ....................................................................................................... 103 Control Response..................................................................................................... 105 Flight Time...............................................................................................................105 Summary of the Flight Tests ........................................................................................106 Project Management......................................................................................................107 Timeline and Project Planning..................................................................................... 107 Gantt chart............................................................................................................... 107 Finance.........................................................................................................................108 Project Funding........................................................................................................ 108 Budget......................................................................................................................108 Conclusion ...................................................................................................................... 110 Project Definition, Specification and Contract ............................................................110 Future Work................................................................................................................. 111 Bibliography................................................................................................................... 113 Appendix A - Drawings................................................................................................. 116 Appendix B Equations................................................................................................135 Appendix C Automatic Control Code .......................................................................149 Appendix D Flight Test Procedures .......................................................................... 155 Appendix E Safety Requirements............................................................................. 169 Appendix F Gantt chart............................................................................................. 174 Appendix G Costs and Working Hours.................................................................... 175 Appendix H Minutes of Meetings..............................................................................178
viii
ix
List of Figures
Figure 21 - Envelope shape analysis (C.S. Jin, 2003)......................................................... 4 Figure 22 - Gondola belonging to the airship project Simon (Lutz, 1998)......................5 Figure 23 - Ducted fan example (University of Bombay, 2004)......................................... 6 Figure 24 - Servo controlling swivel of a tank turret (RC tankcombat.com, 2007)............ 7 Figure 25 - Automatic Control system (C.S. Jin, 2003)...................................................... 8 Figure 26 - Heavy Duty SLR/Digital Camera Mechanism (Airships Solutions, 2007)...... 9 Figure 27 - Length / Width Graph All Airships................................................................. 10 Figure 28 - Length / Width Graph, Airships (Wo < 1 tonne)............................................. 11 Figure 29 - Thrust to Weight ratio graph........................................................................... 12 Figure 210 - Thrust/Weight vs Weight graph.....................................................................13 Figure 211 - Empty weight to takeoff weight ratio graph................................................. 14 Figure 212 - We / Wo ratio vs Takeoff weight graph - (Wo < 1 Tonne)............................ 15 Figure 31 - Turning moments of an airship in flight (Khoury, 2004)................................17 Figure 32 - Comparison of theoretical lifting force of lighter than air gases.................... 24 Figure 33 - Effect of temperature on lifting force..............................................................25 Figure 34 - Free body diagram of forces during takeoff....................................................26 Figure 35 - Free Body diagram of forces during hover..................................................... 27 Figure 36 - Free Body Diagram of Forces During Cruise................................................. 28 Figure 37 - Bladders in a rigid airship (Australian Broadcasting Corporation, 2004)..... 30 Figure 38 - Polyurethane RC blimp (Airship Solutions, 2007)......................................... 31 Figure 39 - Fully Printed Ripstop Nylon Hull (Airship Solutions, 2007)......................... 32 Figure 310 - Propeller layout 1.......................................................................................... 38 Figure 311 - Propeller layout 2.......................................................................................... 38 Figure 312 - Propeller layout 3.......................................................................................... 39 Figure 313 - Concept 1, "Bath tub" design........................................................................ 41 Figure 314 - Concept 2, "Box and Shell" design............................................................... 42 Figure 315 - Concept 3, "Shaped Box" design.................................................................. 42 Figure 316 - Heavy Duty SLR/Digital Camera Mechanism (Airships Solutions)............ 46 Figure 317 - JMK wireless video camera.......................................................................... 46 Figure 41 - Two ellipsoids used to generate the envelope shape....................................... 48 Figure 42 - Envelope Iteration Process..............................................................................49 Figure 43 - Cross section of revolved envelope................................................................ 50 Figure 44 - Possible Stabiliser Shapes...............................................................................51 Figure 45 - Stabiliser Attachment......................................................................................52 Figure 46 - Final Envelope Design Model with Stabilisers...............................................52 Figure 47 - SFM EDF Power System #1028 (left) and GWS GW/EDF75x4A................ 53 Figure 48 - DualSky 18 Ampere brushless speed controller............................................. 54 Figure 49 - Nosram Force mini Reverse #93000 speed controller.................................... 55 Figure 410 - Required power for takeoff at varying duct efficiency .................................56 Figure 411 - Gondola underside hatch...............................................................................59 ix
Figure 412 - Gondola Internals..........................................................................................60 Figure 413 - Servo and belt system................................................................................... 60 Figure 414 - Ducted fan holder..........................................................................................60 Figure 415 - Digital model of part layout..........................................................................61 Figure 416 - Actual part layout..........................................................................................63 Figure 417 - Beam Structural Analysis, Fixed Supports................................................... 63 Figure 418 - Shear Force Diagram.................................................................................... 64 Figure 419 - Bending Moment Diagram............................................................................64 Figure 420 - JR XP6102 Radio Transmitter...................................................................... 66 Figure 421 - Manual Control Layout.................................................................................67 Figure 422 - Automatic Control Layout............................................................................ 68 Figure 423 - Minidragon microprocessor.......................................................................... 69 Figure 424 - SRF04 Ultrasonic Sensor.............................................................................. 70 Figure 425 - RF-BlueDongle, antenna, USB power, and RS232 serial port..................... 71 Figure 426 - Li Po battery for control hardware................................................................ 72 Figure 427 - AccuStar level sensor.................................................................................... 72 Figure 428 - Overall Simulink signal flow diagram.......................................................... 74 Figure 429 - Control Code Pitch Subsystem..................................................................... 75 Figure 430 - PWM Output Variation................................................................................. 76 Figure 431 - Camera mounted in gondola......................................................................... 77 Figure 51 - Theoretical Thrust SFM Ducted Fans.............................................................79 Figure 52 - Testing of the SFM ducted fan........................................................................ 80 Figure 53 - Testing of the GWS ducted fan....................................................................... 80 Figure 54 - Onboard camera still frame.............................................................................82 Figure 61 - Graph of results of initial blimp response test................................................ 88 Figure 62 - Weight Difference Pie Chart........................................................................... 91 Figure 63 - Climb Test Results.......................................................................................... 93 Figure 64 - Descent Test Results....................................................................................... 94 Figure 65 - Cruise Test Results..........................................................................................96 Figure 66 - Rate of Turn Results....................................................................................... 97 Figure 67 - Blimp Response Test, 3m input...................................................................... 98 Figure 71 - Preliminary Gantt chart for the Project.........................................................100
xi
List of Tables
Table 11 - Principal Flight Characteristics.......................................................................... 1 Table 12 - Manoeuvrability Requirements.......................................................................... 2 Table 31 - Flight Parameters..............................................................................................20 Table 32 - Preliminary Weight Estimation.........................................................................22 Table 33 - Summary of thrust requirements...................................................................... 29 Table 34 - Envelope Shapes...............................................................................................32 Table 35 - Aerodynamic analysis of initial envelope shapes............................................. 33 Table 36 - Surface Area to Volume Ratio.......................................................................... 33 Table 37 - Decision Matrix for Envelope Shape................................................................34 Table 38 - Stabiliser Sizing................................................................................................ 35 Table 39 - Propulsion System Decision Matrix................................................................. 37 Table 310 - Propulsion Layout Decision Matrix................................................................40 Table 311 - Gondola Material Properties...........................................................................40 Table 312 - Gondola Design Decision Matrix................................................................... 43 Table 313 - Camera System Decision Matrix.................................................................... 47 Table 41 - Dimensions of Envelope...................................................................................49 Table 42 - Ducted Fan Motor System Specifications........................................................ 54 Table 43 - Speed Controller Specifications....................................................................... 55 Table 44 - Battery capacity requirements.......................................................................... 58 Table 45 Specifications of the selected Li-Po battery.................................................... 58 Table 46 - Mass Balance Analysis..................................................................................... 62 Table 47 - Transmitter Specifications................................................................................ 66 Table 48 - Receiver Specifications.................................................................................... 66 Table 49 - Battery Specifications.......................................................................................66 Table 410 - Servo Specifications....................................................................................... 66 Table 411 - Microprocessor options.................................................................................. 69 Table 412 - Ultrasonic ranging module options................................................................ 69 Table 413 - Bluetooth Communication Options................................................................ 70 Table 414 - Battery Requirements..................................................................................... 71 Table 415 - Selected battery specifications....................................................................... 71 Table 416 - Level Sensor Specifications........................................................................... 72 Table 417 - JMK wireless video camera specifications.....................................................77 Table 51 - Camera range test results..................................................................................82 Table 61 - Post-flight check of performance parameters...................................................87 Table 62 - PID Gains......................................................................................................... 88 Table 63 - Mass Analysis................................................................................................... 90 Table 64 - Lift Comparison................................................................................................91 Table 65 - Dimension of new envelope............................................................................. 92 Table 66 - Velocity Profile in Climb.................................................................................. 93 Table 67 - Time to Descend............................................................................................... 95 xi
xii
Table 68 - Cruise Velocity Profile......................................................................................96 Table 69 - Rate of Turn Data..............................................................................................97 Table 610 - Revised and Achieved Performance Parameters............................................ 99 Table 81 - Principal Flight Characteristics...................................................................... 102 Table 82 - Additional Performance Parameters............................................................... 103
xii
xiii
List of Equations
Equation 31 - Lifting Force Equation................................................................................ 23 Equation 32 - Ideal gas law............................................................................................... 24 Equation 33 - Sum of forces in takeoff mode.................................................................... 26 Equation 34 - Sum of horizontal forces in cruise mode.................................................... 28 Equation 41 - Volume of Ellipsoid.................................................................................... 48 Equation 42 - Surface Area of Ellipsoid Approximation...................................................49 Equation 43 - Static Thrust for a ducted fan...................................................................... 56 Equation 44 - Dynamic thrust equation for a ducted fan...................................................57 Equation 45 - Bending Moment Equation......................................................................... 64 Equation 46 - Flexure Formula.......................................................................................... 65 Equation 47 - Pitch Angle Duty Cycle...............................................................................76 Equation 51 - Static thrust for a ducted fan....................................................................... 79
xiii
xiv
Notation
Acronyms and Abbreviations
AS1100 BOPET CASA DB9 EDF ESC GPS Li-Po mAh NiCad NUS PID Pitch PVC PWM RC RF Roll RP-SMA RS-232 SMD UAV VTOL Yaw
Australian Standard 1100 Biaxially-oriented Polyurethane Terephalate Civil Aviation Safety Authority 9 Pin Connector Electronic Ducted Fan Electronic Speed Controller Global Positioning System Lithium Polymer miliAmp Hour Nickel Cadmium National University of Singapore Proportional-Integral-Derivative Gain Rotation about the y axis of the airship Poly-Vinyl Chloride Pulse width modulation Remote Controlled Radio Frequency Rotation about the x axis of the airship Reverse Polar Sub Miniature version A (Coaxial connector) Recommended Standard 232 Storage Module Device Unmanned Aerial Vehicle Vertical Take off and Landing Rotation about the z axis of the airship
Roman Symbols
A Ac B Cd
Current (Amps) Cross Sectional Area of Envelope (m2) Buoyancy Force (N) Co-efficient of Drag
xiv
xv
Cg Cv D dv/dt d /dt g hcruise Kd Ki Kp L M m N P P R SA T T taccel tdescent tflight ttakeoff V Vcr, max Vtakeoff W We Wo
Centre of Gravity Centre of Volume Drag Force (N) Acceleration (ms-2) Rate of turn (degs-1) Gravitational Constant (ms-2) Cruise Height (m) Derivative Gain Integral Gain Proportional Gain Lift Force (N) Molar Mass of Air (kg/kmol) mass (kg) Newton of Force Atmospheric Pressure (Pa) Power (W) Specific Gas Constant (Nmkg-1Kmol-1) Surface Area (m2) Thrust Force (grams) Temperature (K) Time for Acceleration (s) Time to Descend (s) Time of Flight (s) Time to reach cruise altitude (s) Volume of Envelope (m3) Max. Cruise Speed (ms-1) Take-off Velocity Weight Force (N) Empty Weight of Airship (kg) Take-off Weight of Airship (kg)
Greek Symbols
Efficiency Angle (deg) Density (kg/m3) Constant pi
xv
1 Introduction
1.1 Aims
The project aims to design and construct a small airship capable of indoor flight. Specifically, the project aimed to achieve three main objectives: To design and build an airship to meet specified flight parameters To implement a complete manual and partial automatic control system To have the ability to capture images and transmit them to the ground
The final product could be used for indoor aerial photography, surveillance and advertising purposes.
1.2 Flight Characteristics

As stated in the first project objective, the airship had to be designed to meet a set of flight characteristics. The four flight characteristics were the payload weight, cruise speed, time of flight and cruise height. The yaw and pitch of the airship needed to be controlled whereas roll control was not a part of the project requirements..
Table 11 - Principal Flight Characteristics
Category Payload weight Cruise Speed Time of Flight Cruise height
Value 0.5kg 1m/s 30 mins 6m
ii
Table 12 - Manoeuvrability Requirements
Manoeuvre Yaw Pitch
Control Controlled manually Controlled automatically
1.3 Standard Requirements

Australian civil aviation standards must be followed when building any air vehicle. Two documents contain information on airship design, construction and operation. 1. General (AS1100) 2. Specific (CASR 101) Below is a summary of the most relevant details in the Civil Aviation standards (Civil Aviation Authority, 1998) The airship must operate in way such that aircraft is not a hazard to people or other aircraft. The airship can only operate in controlled airspace if approved by CASR. The airship cant operate over an altitude of 400 ft without approval from CASR. The vehicle must not drop/discharge anything hazardous. The airship can only be operated at night if clearly visible This airship will be classified as a light balloon, so is required to be no more than 2m in diameter and have a payload less than 4kg.
1.4 Budget Constraints

The quality and technical level of the airship is in part determined by the finance available to the project. BAE Systems Australia provided $3,500 in addition to the $500 provided by the School of Mechanical Engineering. The combined cost of the most essential components, the envelope, helium and propulsion systems, is expected to be $2,500. This restricts the available funds for items such as the camera and sensors.
ii
iii
2 Feasibility Study
2.1 Background Information
An airship is a lighter-than-air aircraft that uses buoyancy to produce lift rather than aerodynamic lifting surfaces like heavier-than-air vehicles. The primary difference between a balloon and an airship is that an airship can be steered and propelled through the air, whereas a balloon relies on wind currents for manoeuvrability. An airship has three main sections: the envelope, gondola and propulsion system. The envelope contains the lifting gas required for buoyancy and is generally categorised into three structural classes: rigid, non-rigid and semi-rigid. The gondola carries the airship payload and also houses the propulsion system. The propulsion system provides the thrust used to control airship movement. Airships were responsible for many of the pioneering achievements in aviation technology such as the first powered, controllable flight in 1852. In the early part of the 20th century military leaders recognised that airships could be particularly useful as bombing craft and also as naval surveillance vehicles. The First World War demonstrated that airships could be used in these roles, however, their size and lack of speed meant that they were extremely vulnerable to enemy attack. Following the war, large airships were used as passenger transport vehicles. The German built Graf Zeppelin made 143 crossings of the Atlantic Ocean from 1928 to 1936 with a perfect safety record. The success of the Graf led to the design and construction of an even larger airship, the Hindenburg. In 1937, the Hindenburg crashed spectacularly while trying to land at Lakehurst in the United States. This incident undermined public confidence in airship safety and they were no longer used for intercontinental passenger transport. In the last 50 years airships have been used for certain niche applications such as advertising, surveillance and aerial photography. The most well known advertising craft is the Goodyear blimp which has been prominent at major sporting events. Smaller craft have been used for advertising and photography in large indoor arenas such as basketball iii
iv
and ice hockey stadiums. The United States Coast Guard has also experimented with using airships for high altitude surveillance of its borders and coastline.
2.2 Analysis of Similar Projects

A comprehensive review of other airships was undertaken to gain a better understanding of airship design principles. The review focussed on small-scale, university level projects. The design of the envelope, gondola and propulsion system were of particular interest as was the performance capabilities of each craft.
2.2.1 Envelope and Gondola Design

Envelope design for other projects was based principally on mathematical shape modelling, drag estimations and aesthetics. As a starting point, the necessary lifting force is converted to an approximate volume using the buoyancy equation. Basic shapes are then used to form a computer model, from which the total surface area can also be calculated. A project at the National University of Singapore (NUS) made an approximate envelope using two ellipsoids, as shown in Figure 21.. The volume and surface area were then analysed.
Figure 21 - Envelope shape analysis (C.S. Jin, 2003)
iv
A number of material options exist for envelope manufacture. Previous airship design projects have based the material choice on factors such as cost, durability and permeation of helium. Projects with larger budgets have used polyurethane. The NUS craft and another design at Rowan University each used polyurethane as the envelope material. Polyurethane retains helium well and has aesthetic appeal, but is not seen in home projects because of its cost and difficulties in manufacturing. The small zeppelin Simon, designed and built by students at the Realgymnasium Rmibhl in Zrich, utilized biaxially-oriented polyethylene terephthalate (BOPET) for the envelope. Metallised BOPET, also known by the trade name Mylar, is inexpensive but looks unprofessional and is prone to helium leakage at the welded seams. Many different types of gondola are used for small airships. Standard plastic gondolas are available for purchase from retailers, but these are used with a specific envelope that comes part of the same kit. A custom designed gondola offers more flexibility in terms of weight, size, storage space and structure. The airship Simon had a gondola made from plaster, wax and fibreglass, shown below in Figure 22. Balsa wood is another material which could be used for gondola construction as it is lightweight but still has enough strength to carry a reasonable payload.
Figure 22 - Gondola belonging to the airship project Simon (Lutz, 1998)
vi
2.2.2 Propulsion System

All of the small airships that were investigated used batteries to power the propulsion system. Lithium Polymer batteries are lightweight, small and efficient and hence are ideal for use in an airship. An internal combustion engine could also be used, but is generally more suitable in high thrust vehicles such as remote control planes and helicopters. All of the airships reviewed used propellers or ducted fans to provide forward thrust. Ducted fans are safer and less noisy than open propellers and also output a more direct flow of air. Yaw movement of the University Bombay airship is controlled by altering the levels of thrust from the side fans, shown below. A rudder cannot be used for yaw movement, as the airspeed is too low to impart a significant turning force.
Figure 23 - Ducted fan example (University of Bombay, 2004)
A project involving building a model tank used a pulley and servo to rotate a shaft for the swivel of a gun turret as seen in Figure 24. A similar set-up could be used to rotate ducted fans so that they could direct thrust in any plane about the lateral axis. This can be
vi
vii
achieved by attaching a pulley to a servo-motor, a pulley to the axel and then connecting the pulleys with a belt.
Figure 24 - Servo controlling swivel of a tank turret (RC tankcombat.com, 2007)
2.2.3 Performance Characteristics

The flight requirements of an airship determine its performance characteristics. It is hard to directly compare blimps and their performance characteristics, because different designs may be trying to achieve different objectives. For example, airships that are used for indoor photography may not need a high cruise speed but will need to be able to hover steadily for large periods of time. The airship Simon was able to achieve a maximum speed of 6 ms-1 with a total thrust output of 6.6N from two propellers. In contrast, the NUS design had a maximum speed of 1.5 ms-1 and a total thrust output of 0.14 N for a craft approximately half the length of Simon. The yaw rate, or rate of turn, of the University of Washington craft was approximately 28 per second while the NUS design had a yaw rate of 15 per second.
2.2.4 Special Systems

Depending on the application for an airship, a number of special systems may have been introduced. Most of the academic projects that were researched incorporated a level of automatic control in addition to the use of a standard hand-held radio controller. In an
vii
viii
automatic configuration, sensors provide information about the surroundings of the blimp, while a processor interprets this data and controls the thrust output of the propulsion system. An automatic system could be extremely useful in controlling parameters such as cruise speed and ceiling height, but may be difficult to implement. The NUS project attempted to design a complex control system, using GPS, to make a fully autonomous airship. Automatic control was used in the University of Berkeley to enable an airship to have a collision avoidance system. Ultrasonic sensors installed in the gondola, measured the distance to a surface and if the airship was going to collide, a turning manoeuvre would be carried out by an onboard processor. The University of Berkeley design also used ultrasonic sensors to maintain a constant cruise altitude.
Figure 25 - Automatic Control system (C.S. Jin, 2003)
Many of the researched projects had the ability to take video footage from the gondola of an airship. Generally, the footage would be wirelessly transmitted to a ground station where the signal would be recorded. The University of Bombay design used a very small and inexpensive camera to transmit footage to a computer. The image quality from the
viii
ix
onboard camera varied and often suffered from interference. Commercial airships, specifically designed for photography, use a sophisticated motorised camera system that allows the camera to pan and tilt. This system is used by the company Airship Solutions in Melbourne but is expensive and heavy.
Figure 26 - Heavy Duty SLR/Digital Camera Mechanism (Airships Solutions, 2007)
Advertising is a common feature of many airships. The large surface area of an airship is an ideal space for advertising to draw the attention of crowds. Banners can be attached to the airship itself or trailed behind. It is also possible to print directly onto the envelope although this may be prohibitively expensive for this project.
2.3 Statistical Analysis

The feasibility study also included a statistical analysis of airship designs. As part of this investigation, data was collected in regard to specifications of the different airships. These specifications included geometric dimensions, weight and performance values. This data was tabulated and used to perform calculations to obtain specific ratios and graphs. Three main ratios were graphed and analysed. These were the empty weight to take-off weight ratio, the length to width ratio and the thrust to weight ratio. These ratios were chosen for specific analysis as they provide information useful in the initial design of the airship.
2.3.1 Length to Width Ratio
ix
The length to width ratio is useful in providing a basic understanding of the geometry of the airship envelope. A larger length to width ratio (e.g. 10) means the airship has a long thin shape like the Zeppelin designs. An airship with a smaller length to width ratio (e.g. 4) usually is a result of a tapered design which has a larger frontal area and hence larger maximum diameter. The two different shapes each have their own advantages and disadvantages. To give an overview of all data collected an initial graph of all length/width ratios was made. The graph was put in chronological order to help give a perspective of the changes in airship design throughout the approximate period 1900-1990.
Figure 27 - Length / Width Graph All Airships
The graph shows that initially, in the early 1900s, the length to width ratio was around 6. Then in the 1910s with the long, elliptical Zeppelin designs, the length to width ratio increased to between 8 and 10. By the late 1930s most airships were designed with a length to width ratio of between 4 and 5. Recent airships have been designed with low length to width ratios of 3-4. The addition of a trendline to the graph clearly demonstrates the decline in the length to width ratio throughout the last century.
xi
The airships used to create the previous graph vary in size from a weight of about 100kg to as much as 100 tonne. As the airship being designed in this project is designed to have a weight less than 5kg, a second graph was created showing the length to width ratio for smaller airships. A size of less than 1 tonne in weight was used as it gave a sufficient sample size as well as reducing the average weight of airships being analysed.
Figure 28 - Length / Width Graph, Airships (Wo < 1 tonne)
The results of this graph are similar Figure 27, showing that small airships have a length to width ratio around 3. A more accurate average value for the small airships was calculated to be 3.7. Using the analysis of the more modern airships and the smaller airships, a figure of 3.5 was established as a guideline value to help design the shape of the airship.
2.3.2 Thrust to Weight Ratio

The thrust to weight ratio is used as a design guide to help determine the thrust needed for the airship. From the thrust to weight ratio and the weight of the airship, an
xi
xii
approximate thrust value can be established. The thrust value also helps to select the components of the propulsion system including motors, ducted fans and batteries. A graph off the thrust to weight ratio for all the airship data collected was produced displaying the results in chronological order. The graph shows that there is significant variation between thrust to weight ratio (0.1 0.7), however this is independent of the time of production. The average thrust to weight ratio over the whole period was 0.25.
Figure 29 - Thrust to Weight ratio graph
As there appeared to be no relationship between the age of the airship and its thrust to weight ratio, a graph comparing the thrust to weight ratio and weight was created (Figure 210). This showed a large grouping of airships with a thrust to weight ratio of 0.2 and a weight less than 200,000N. It also showed for airships larger than 200,000N that the thrust to weight ratio was around 0.1. A significant number of airships less than 100,000 N in weight had a thrust to weight ratio of more than 0.3.
xii
xiii
Figure 210 - Thrust/Weight vs Weight graph
Another graph was produced which only considered designs with a weight close to the desired weight of this project. The graph shows the distribution of thrust to weight ratios to be quite large (between 0.1 and 0.7). The average thrust to weight ratio was 0.3.
The average thrust to weight ratio for all airships was about 0.25 while for smaller airships it was about 0.3. The large variation in the data means it is difficult to draw any significant conclusions. The main reason for this variation is that the thrust to weight ratio is dependent on the purpose of the individual airship. If the airship is designed to move quickly through the air it has a larger thrust to weight ratio than if it was designed to hover. As the desired speed of this airship is to be small, a low thrust to weight ratio would be likely. Using a conservative estimate of 0.4 for the thrust to weight ratio and a weight of 5kg, the approximate thrust required would be 20N. This estimate is likely to be much greater than the thrust needed by this airship. This is primarily because most of the airships being analysed were designed to meet higher performance standards.
xiii
xiv
2.3.3 Empty Weight to Takeoff Weight Ratio

The empty weight (We) to take-off weight (Wo) ratio is the most important of the three ratios analysed. The airship take-off weight is the empty weight plus the payload weight. Using the We / Wo ratio and a known payload weight it is possible to then determine the overall weight of the airship. An initial graph of the empty weight to take-off weight was created showing the airships in chronological order.
1850
Year
2000
Figure 211 - Empty weight to takeoff weight ratio graph
Figure 211 shows a slight trend of decreasing empty weight to take-off weight ratio. However, this trend is only about 0.1 over 100 years and hence is not that significant. The graph also shows that the ratio stays relatively constant at an average value of 0.6. As there was little correlation between the age of the airships and the We / Wo ratio, a second graph (Figure 212) was produced showing the dependence on takeoff weight. Only small airships, less than one tonne, were considered. This graph showed again that the We / Wo ratio was around 0.6.
xiv
xv
Figure 212 - We / Wo ratio vs Takeoff weight graph - (Wo < 1 Tonne)
As with the previous graph, Figure showed that the empty weight to takeoff weight ratio has an average value of around 0.6.Using the graph and a payload weight of 0.5kg, the take-off weight was calculated to be 2.2kg. This seemed much lower than expected as initial estimates for the weight of the airship were about 3-4kg. The difference is due to the fact that most of the airships analysed used combustion engines and hence the weight of the fuel is not accounted for in the empty weight. Batteries are intended to be used in this project and their weight would be included in the empty weight. Conservative estimates of 3.2kg for the take-off weight and 2.7kg for the empty weight were the final results of the statistical analysis.
2.3.4 Summary
The statistical analysis of various airships allowed estimates of the three most important design ratios. Length to width ratio 3.5 Thrust to weight ratio 0.4 Empty weight to takeoff weight ratio 0.6 xv
xvi
The ratios were then converted to actual performance values. Thrust - 20N Takeoff weight 3.2Kg Empty weight 2.7Kg
These estimates are a helpful guide to establish the actual parameters of the design. However the lack of data available on small airships means that the statistical analysis cannot alone be used to determine the design of the airship in this project.
xvi
xvii
3 Conceptual Design
3.1 Desired Modes of Flight
The modes of flight describe the rotational and translational movement of the airship. The requirements of each flight mode were determined based on the feasibility study and the broad goals of the project.
3.1.1 Manoeuvrability
The manoeuvrability of an airship is described using a right handed, orthogonal coordinate system passing through the airships centre of volume (Figure 31). If a force acts on the airship it causes a turning moment which is defined as the product of the magnitude of the force and of the perpendicular distance from the Cv to the line of action of the force (Beer and Johnston, 1987). The three possible turning moments of an airship are classified as roll, pitch and yaw moments about the x, y and z axes respectively.
Figure 31 - Turning moments of an airship in flight (Khoury, 2004)
xvii
xviii
Control of yaw and pitching moments was part of the project definition, but roll control was not deemed necessary. As almost two thirds of the mass is contained in the gondola any minor roll moments will be counter-balanced by the natural tendency of the airship to move back to the equilibrium position. The rate of turn of the airship describes how fast the airship can yaw. The feasibility study suggested that it would be possible to achieve a 90 turn in 3 seconds. The target rate-of-turn, d /dt, was therefore 30/s.
3.1.2 Takeoff
The takeoff manoeuvre describes how the airship moves from the ground to its cruise altitude. The takeoff motion is designed to be entirely vertical, although it is also possible to takeoff diagonally with a small thrust from the side fans. Diagonal takeoff is not an essential part of the project. Two flight parameters needed to be determined so the takeoff mode could be defined accurately. A cruise altitude of 6m was chosen mainly due to a limitation in the ultrasonic height sensors which fail to accurately measure height above this altitude. The time required to reach the cruise altitude also needed to be defined. Preliminary thrust and drag calculations suggested that 20 seconds was an achievable ascent time hence this figure was chosen.
3.1.3 Hover
When the airship does not move in the horizontal plane and maintains its altitude it is in hover mode. Hovering mostly occurs at the cruise altitude. As a safety mechanism, the airship was designed to be slightly less than neutrally buoyant, that is the lifting force is almost that of the overall weight force. Therefore, to hover, a constant upward thrust is required to maintain altitude. The magnitude of the upward thrust will be more closely defined in the detailed design.
xviii
xix
3.1.4 Cruise
The cruise mode is essentially the same as the hover mode except that it includes movement in the horizontal plane. Cruise calculations required that two flight parameters be determined. A maximum cruise speed of 1.0 ms-1 was deemed to be achievable based on the initial thrust and drag calculations. The performance of the NUS airship and the Rowan University airship also suggested that this cruise speed was appropriate. To calculate the maximum cruise thrust, the time to reach maximum speed also needed to be defined. A value of 10 seconds was chosen based on preliminary testing of ducted fan units.
3.1.5 Landing
The landing of the airship was designed to be entirely vertical although there is the capability for a descent where horizontal thrust is provided. Since the total weight of the airship is designed to exceed the lift provided by the helium, the airship should descend under its own weight. Descent time from the cruise altitude was designed to be less than 20 seconds. The excess weight calculations will be used to determine the exact theoretical descent time.
xix
xx
3.1.6 Summary of Flight Parameters

Table 31 - Flight Parameters
Parameter Cruise Altitude Takeoff time to reach hcruise Maximum Yaw rate Maximum Cruise speed Time to reach Vcr, max from rest Descent time from hcruise Total Flight time
Symbol hcruise ttakeoff d /dt Vcr, max taccel tdescent tflight
Value 6 metres 20 seconds 30/second 1 metre/second 10 seconds 20 seconds 30 minutes
xx
xxi
3.2 Force Analysis

3.2.1 Weight Determination
The exact weight of the airship was difficult to ascertain during the conceptual design phase. Research was done into the weight of every component and an overall weight estimate was made.
The envelope and stabiliser weights were estimated based on discussions with the manufacturer of the envelope, Airship Solutions. They provided information on the polyurethane density and thickness. This was then combined with preliminary surface area estimations to calculate the total weight of the envelope.
It was especially difficult to estimate the weight of the gondola housing and internals as the gondola design changed frequently. The balsa wood density and thickness were combined with an approximation of the total surface area of the gondola to estimate its weight. The weight of the motors, ducted fans, batteries, speed controllers and automatic control components was determined from manufacturer data sheets. Parts that were definitely going to be needed in the final design were purchased and then weighed to confirm the manufacturers data.
The total weight of the envelope, gondola and internals was determined to be 2.9 kg. A summary of preliminary weight estimates can be seen in Table 32.
xxi
xxii
Item
Envelope Envelope 4 x Stabilisers Gondola and Propulsion components Gondola Housing (Balsa) 4 x Speed controllers Battery Pack (4000mAh LiPo) 4 x SFM Motors + Ducted fans Servos RC Receiver 2 x Motor axles Wiring Velcro Camera/Payload Camera and transmitter 9V Battery Automatic Control components 2 x Maxbotix Ultra sonic range finder Bluetooth v2.0 SMD Module 2.4GHz Duck Antenna RP-SMA LiPo Battery Mini-dragon Processor Level Sensor
Unit mass (g)

1100 30
Table 32 - Preliminary Weight Estimation
400 15 250 90 30 50 30 10 50
30 45
50 2 20 100 70 10
Total Mass= 2915 g
xxii
xxiii
xxiii
xxiv
3.2.2 Lift Determination

The lifting force is comprised of the static lift from the helium and the dynamic lift created by the pressure distribution around the airship during flight. The envelope is very inefficient in creating dynamic lift due to its shape and the low speed airflow. The dynamic lift was assumed to be negligible compared to the static lift. 3.2.2.1 Lifting gas From Archimedes principle, the upward buoyancy force due to the lifting gas is equal in magnitude to the weight of the fluid (air) displaced. To be effective in generating lift, the density of the gas displacing the air must be as low as possible. The buoyancy force can be expressed as a function of the lifting gas density, air density and the volume.
Equation 31 - Lifting Force Equation
Where = Lifting Force (N) = Density of Air (kg/m3) = Density of Lifting Gas (kg/m3) V = Volume of the Envelope (m3)
Four alternative lifting gases could have been used for the airship: hydrogen, helium, methane and ammonia. A comparison of the lifting force is shown in Figure 32 and the calculations for each gas are shown in Appendix B. The unit of lifting force was converted to grams for ease of comparison with the mass of components.
xxiv
xxv
Figure 32 - Comparison of theoretical lifting force of lighter than air gases
Figure 32 shows that to lift 3kg of weight using ammonia or methane would require a volume of at least 5m3. Hydrogen and helium provide almost double the lifting force per volume and hence would need a total volume of approximately 3m3. Hydrogen could not be used due to its extreme flammability. Hence it was concluded that helium was the only suitable gas for the airship. 3.2.2.2 Atmospheric Effects Temperature, altitude and air density all affect the lifting capacity of the airship. Due to the low ceiling height, any altitude affects were deemed negligible. Air was assumed to be an ideal gas and hence the affect of temperature on the air density can be calculated.
Equation 32 - Ideal gas law
Where P = atmospheric pressure (Pa) M= Molar mass of air (kg/kmol) R= Specific Gas Constant (N m kg-1kmol-1) xxv
xxvi
T= Temperature (K)
The lifting force was then determined at varying temperatures by substitution into the lift equation. The complete solution can be seen in Appendix B.
Figure 33 - Effect of temperature on lifting force
As the airship was designed for indoor use, the temperature would generally be between 15 and 25 C. The maximum operating temperature for the airship was determined to be 35 C (950g of lift per m3). At higher temperatures, the helium lifting force was insufficient for the airship to fly.
3.2.3 Thrust Determination

Using the flight parameters established in section 3.1 it was possible to calculate the thrust needed in each flight mode. The thrust required was calculated in grams as this is the standard unit used for rating RC ducted fans.
xxvi
xxvii
3.2.3.1 Takeoff In takeoff mode the airship must overcome the drag force acting downward as well as the weight force. The buoyancy force alone is not sufficient for takeoff, hence an upward thrust must be provided.
Figure 34 - Free body diagram of forces during takeoff
The required thrust in takeoff was determined from applying Newtons Second Law to the airship. The equation assumes that the buoyancy force is equal to the weight of the airship. F = m (dv/dt) = Thrust + Buoyancy Weight Drag Thrust = m (dv/dt) + Drag where Drag = CD air Atop Vtakeoff
2
Equation 33 - Sum of forces in takeoff mode
The drag coefficient for the envelope in takeoff was conservatively approximated to be equal to the drag coefficient for a horizontal cylinder moving upward which has Cd= 1.15 (Munson, 2006). All other variables in the takeoff equation were defined in the flight xxvii
xxviii
parameters. The maximum thrust required in vertical takeoff was calculated to be 96g. The full solution can be seen in Appendix B.
3.2.3.2 Hover The thrust required in hover was determined using the same procedure as for takeoff mode. As stated in section 3.1, the lift force was designed to be just less than the weight force, hence a constant vertical thrust was required in hover mode. The airship was designed to descend from a height of 6m in 20 seconds. An excess weight of 20 grams was chosen as this allowed the airship to descend in approximately 20 seconds. Hence the constant upward thrust was required to be 20 grams for the airship to hover.
Figure 35 - Free Body diagram of forces during hover
xxviii
xxix
3.2.3.3 Cruise In cruise mode, the airship required thrust in both vertical and horizontal directions. The vertical thrust was equal to that needed for hover. The drag coefficient was approximated as an ellipsoid with Cd =0.38 (Munson, 2006). The drag caused by the gondola was assumed to be negligible compared to the drag of the envelope especially considering the low maximum speed.
Figure 36 - Free Body Diagram of Forces During Cruise
From the hover force analysis, the constant vertical thrust was determined to be 20g. The forward thrust was calculated by applying Newtons Second Law in the horizontal direction. The required horizontal thrust was calculated to be 130g. A full calculation can be seen in Appendix B.
F = m (dv/dt) = Thrust Drag Thrust = m(dv/dt) + Drag where Drag = CD air Afrontal Vcruise 2
Equation 34 - Sum of horizontal forces in cruise mode
xxix
xxx
3.2.3.4 Summary of Thrust in Different Flight Modes
Table 33 - Summary of thrust requirements
Flight Mode Takeoff Cruise, vertical component Cruise, horizontal component Hover
Thrust Requirement (g) 96 20 130 20
3.3 Envelope Design

3.3.1 Structural Parameters
The structure of the envelope could be based on several main designs: rigid, non rigid and semi rigid. Each type of structural design was assessed based on its cost, lifting force efficiency and aesthetics.
Rigid airships have an internal framework which maintains the shape of the envelope. Rigid internal frameworks are typically seen in large scale airships such as the giant Zeppelin craft of the 1920s and 30s. Several ballonets containing the lifting gas are located within the main envelope as seen in Figure 37. Separate ballonets containing air are also housed in the envelope. The weight of the envelope, and hence the lifting force, can be controlled by pumping air in or out of the ballonets. For a small airship design, a rigid structure significantly decreases the effective lift and increases the complexity and cost of manufacturing.
xxx
xxxi
Figure 37 - Bladders in a rigid airship (Australian Broadcasting Corporation, 2004)
Non-rigid airships contain no internal framework to maintain the shape of the envelope. Instead, their shape is maintained by the pressure of the lifting gas within the envelope. Larger non-rigid airships typically include a protective outer surface, made from a robust material such as rubber. Small scale designs generally use a single skin of a durable material which has a low permeability to helium. One disadvantage of non rigid airship is that other components cannot be stored within the envelope. Non rigid envelopes are a simpler, less expensive alternative to rigid envelopes and are commonly seen in smaller airships under 10 metres in length. Semi rigid airships try to include the most desirable features from both rigid and non rigid airships. Semi rigid airships have a non rigid envelope with an internal pressure higher than that of the atmosphere, to maintain their shape. They also have a framework, but this framework in not as extensive as that found in rigid airships and hence the overall weight of the envelope is reduced.
The key requirements in the design of the envelope include indoor use and a low cost. A singled skinned, non rigid design is the most suited for this projects application. It is an inexpensive option and has a high lift to weight efficiency. A non-rigid design is also the most appropriate for indoor use as forces due to air currents will be low. This style of envelope is also commonly used by projects of a similar scale and is regularly used in small commercial craft.
xxxi
xxxii
3.3.2 Materials
There were several materials which could be used to manufacture a non rigid envelope, including polyurethane, ripstop nylon and polyvinylchloride.
Polyvinylchloride or PVC is often used in the manufacture of low budget remote control or tethered blimps. The material is a heavy alternative to polyurethane or nylon. Hence, a larger envelope would be required to achieve the same amount of useable lift. PVC has a high permeability, meaning helium leakage through the envelope is relatively fast. A PVC envelope is manufactured using a gluing process to join sections of the hull. The joins also allow significant helium leakage from the envelope.
Polyurethane is a durable material, with good resistance to corrosion and low permeability. Polyurethane hulls are joined using plastic welding, meaning the seams have a comparatively low leakage. Polyurethane is a more expensive envelope material however, its cost is within the project budget. Polyurethane is commonly used for remotely controlled blimps (as seen in Figure 38) and larger scale tethered blimps.
Figure 38 - Polyurethane RC blimp (Airship Solutions, 2007)
xxxii
xxxiii
Ripstop nylon is widely used in airships designed for advertising, where complex art works and colours are required. A ripstop nylon envelope consists of an internal bladder and an outer protective skin, which protects the bladder. A nylon envelope is difficult to mend if punctured as the internal bladder must be removed and then repaired. The dual skins make the envelope heavier, which is clearly not desirable. Ripstop nylon is a more expensive material option and is commonly used for airships larger than that required for this project.
Figure 39 - Fully Printed Ripstop Nylon Hull (Airship Solutions, 2007)
Polyurethane is the most suitable material for the envelope, as it will lead to the lightest possible envelope. The low permeability of polyurethane is also significant as less helium will be lost, reducing costs. Polyurethane material is a more expensive option but its use should lead to overall higher quality airship.
3.3.3 Shape and Aerodynamics

Using the knowledge obtained through the feasibly study, five concepts for the envelope shape were developed. These shapes are outlined in Table 34. The concepts were created using geometric formulae for hemispheres, ellipses, cones and cylinders. The aerodynamics, volume efficiency and aesthetics of each shape were then analysed.
Table 34 - Envelope Shapes
xxxiii
xxxiv
Concept Tapered design with Hemisphere Ends Shape
Tapered design with Elliptical Ends
Symmetrical Hemisphere Front Different design with with Elliptical Elliptical Front Elliptical Ends End and End
An aerodynamic analysis of the different shapes included an examination of the frontal area and the streamline properties. Both of these properties affect the form drag of the envelope. Each of the shapes was given a rank (1-5) based on how they compared with an ideal aerodynamic shape. The results of this analysis are shown in Table 35. The results show that the designs which feature taper and/or ellipsoid shapes will produce less drag.
Table 35 - Aerodynamic analysis of initial envelope shapes
Concept Frontal Area Rank Streamlined Profile Rank
Tapered design Tapered design Symmetrical with Hemisphere with Elliptical design with Ends Ends Elliptical Ends 5 4 2 1 1 5
Hemisphere Different Front with Elliptical Elliptical End Front and End 4 3 3 2
To minimise the lift required it was important to minimise the weight of the envelope. The weight of the envelope was determined from the surface area of the material and its material properties (thickness and density). The optimal shape for the envelope would therefore have the smallest surface area while providing the same volume of helium. Using a constant volume and the geometric formulae for each shape, the surface area to volume ratio was calculated. The results are shown in Table 36. From this table it can be seen that the two shapes with the smallest surface area to volume ratio (and hence best lifting efficiency) are the hemisphere front with elliptical end and different elliptical front and end.
Table 36 - Surface Area to Volume Ratio
xxxiv
xxxv
Concept
Tapered design Tapered design Different with Hemisphere with Elliptical Symmetrical design Hemisphere Front Elliptical Front with Elliptical Ends with Elliptical End Ends Ends and End
Surface Area to Volume Ratio
6.5
5.8
4.5
3.9
3.4
Table 37 - Decision Matrix for Envelope Shape
Concept
Tapered design Tapered with design with Weighting Hemisphere Elliptical Ends Ends
Symmetrical design with Elliptical Ends
Hemisphere Different Elliptical Front with Front and Elliptical End End
Surface Area to Volume Ratio Drag Aesthetics Total
40 25 35 100
15 15 20 50
20 23 32 75
30 20 28 78
34 17 28 79
38 19 30 87
Table 37 combines all of the envelope shape rankings and a weighting system to determine the best envelope shape. The decision matrix shows that the optimal envelope shape for the project was the different elliptical front and end. This shape was used to develop the final envelope design based on the lift requirements of the airship.
3.3.4 Stabiliser Design

Stabilisers have a very small frontal area compared to their longitudinal area. The larger longitudinal area produces more resistance to motion in the yaw, roll and pitch planes. Stabilisers are needed on the tail of the envelope to add stability to the airship. The airships small weight, relative to its surface area, means that it was susceptible to the effects of air currents. As the airship was designed for indoor use, the wind forces are small. Consequently, the stabilisers are not required to be as large as those that would be required for an outdoor altitude.
xxxv
xxxvi
Larger airships which travel at greater speeds use the stabilisers with control surfaces to control airship movement. The comparatively slow speeds of this airship meant that control surfaces would be less effective and hence control surfaces were not included in the design. The area of the stabilisers was calculated using a statistical analysis of similar airships and the area of their stabilisers. From this analysis an average ratio of envelope longitudinal area and stabiliser longitudinal profile area was determined. The area of stabilisers for the airship was then calculated using this ratio and the longitudinal area of the airship. The calculations are shown in Table 38
Table 38 - Stabiliser Sizing Airship Airship Solutions 4m3 Airship Solutions 11m3 NUS Airship 0.55m3 Average Calculated Values for 3.2m3 envelope Envelope Longitudinal Profile Area (m2) 3.32 6.88 1.01 3.74 2.36 Stabiliser Longitudinal Area (m2) 0.18 0.34 0.03 0.18 0.10 Area Ratio 18.84 20.48 33.50 24 23.6
3.4 Propulsion System Design

The propulsion system design requirements were such that the airship could perform the desired modes of flight described in section 3.1. The propulsion system must also provide the required thrust, as discussed in section 3.2. The majority of lift force will be provided by the helium filled envelope. Batteries would provide the power for the electric motors as a combustion engine was determined to be too heavy for such a small airship.
3.4.1 Propulsion Methods

Three different types of propulsion methods were investigated for use on the airship: ballonets, propellers and ducted fans. Ballonets are air filled bags usually located within the envelope. As air is heavier than helium, deflating or inflating these tanks will cause the airship to rise or fall respectively. Initial research showed that a pump small enough to
xxxvi
xxxvii
fit on the airship would not pump air quickly enough to make the airship move within the desired response time. The highest pump rate achievable was found to be 13 litres per minute (Sensidyne 2007). This meant that to produce a vertical thrust of 10 grams, the pump would have to run for over 30 seconds before that force would be achieved. As a result, ballonets were rejected as a feasible design alternative. Propellers and ducted fans were very similar concepts, a ducted fan is essentially a propeller mounted within a cylindrical duct. The aerofoil shaped blades of the propeller and ducted fans rotate to produce thrust. The thrust is a result of the pressure difference on the upper and lower surfaces of the blades.
3.4.2 Propulsion System Selection

As previously mentioned, the two feasible propulsion options were propellers and ducted fans. To decide which was most suitable, several design criteria were established: reversible thrust, response time, quantity of thrust, safety and size. Reversible thrust was required to reverse the airship out of a corner or to rapidly decrease the altitude of the airship. Propellers can be reversed by changing the direction of rotation, although this results in efficiency losses due to disturbed airflow prior to the propeller. A ducted fan can also be reversed but with more significant efficiency losses. The airship needs to be able to react to situations reasonably quickly and hence response time was significant. Propellers and ducted fans both have quick response times, with only a short 1-2 second delay between the remote input and the propellers producing the required thrust. The quantity of thrust produced was an important consideration in designing the propulsion system. There are many propeller and ducted fan systems available that fulfil the thrust requirements, with most being capable of more thrust than is needed for a small airship. The ducted fans deliver more efficient uni-directional thrust than the propellers.
xxxvii
xxxviii
Safety was also an issue for the design of the propulsion system as the airship will be used indoors and will be relatively close to people. A propeller system has the potential to be dangerous as the spinning blades are unprotected. The ducted fans also contain propellers but they are enclosed within the duct and are hence relatively protected. Weight was a critical factor in the propulsion design as extra weight increases the lifting force required. The lightest of the options was the propeller system with the ducted fans slightly heavier due to the addition of a duct. Each of these criteria has been evaluated for each system and a table showing each criterion, the criteria rating and each methods score was created. From this table a decision upon the most suitable propulsion system was made.
Table 39 - Propulsion System Decision Matrix Propulsion System Decision Matrix Criteria Reversible Thrust Response Time Thrust Delivered Safety Weight of System Total
Rating 20 30 40 40 20 150
Ballonets 20 5 25 30 10 90 60%
Propellers 18 28 35 10 14 105 70%
Ducted Fans 8 28 40 35 12 123 82%
From Table 39 it was determined that the ducted fan propulsion system was most suited for the project.
3.4.3
Propulsion Layout
The propulsion system must be arranged so as to achieve all the flight modes described in section 3.1. This means the layout must allow the motors to produce thrust vertically, horizontally and a combination of both. Fixed and rotating rods were mounted through the gondola and used to support the engines.
xxxviii
xxxix
Figure 310 shows one concept for propeller layout. In this concept engine 1 was fixed in position and produces thrust in the vertical direction to control the altitude of the airship. Engines 2 and 3 are mounted on a supporting rod which can be rotated to achieve thrust in the horizontal and vertical direction, as well as a vector combination of both. The speed of Engines 2 and 3 can be altered to control roll and yaw. One feature of this design is that the altitude control is separate from forward motion.
Figure 310 - Propeller layout 1
The second propeller layout concept, Figure 311, is quite similar to the first layout. Engines 1 and 2 on this design operate the same the engines 2 and 3 did on layout 1. The main difference is that instead of a single engine mounted under the gondola providing altitude control, there are two engines each mounted at the end of a supporting rod. The purpose of this is to give greater stability and control to the airship. Positioning these engines in this way also gives the operator the ability to adjust the pitch of the airship.
xxxix
xl
The last propulsion layout concept, Figure 312, has two sets of two engines on rotating axles. For this configuration all the engines point in the same direction and hence all produce thrust in the same direction. The required direction of thrust can be achieved by rotating the axles. The benefit of this design is that no engine is inactive during powered flight. To control the yaw, pitch and roll of the airship the speed of certain engines is altered.
3.4.4 Propulsion Layout Decision

The previously described propulsion layout concepts (section 3.4.3) were analysed based on: their effect on overall stability, their aesthetics and their ability to cooperate with an automatic control system.
xl
xli
It was essential that the propulsion layout be able to meet all the requirements of the flight modes. This means that the system can move the airship horizontally, vertically and a combination of both. Stability is enhanced by keeping the design symmetrical as well as increasing the distance between the thrusting force and the centre of gravity of the airship. Layout 1 has one of its engines at the centre of gravity and as a result the pitch of the airship is cannot be controlled. Layouts 2 and 3 have all their engines positioned some distance from the centre of gravity increasing the airship controllability. As the altitude of the airship is to be controlled automatically, the propulsion layout must easily incorporate an automatic and manual control system simultaneously. Layout 1 and 2 have the altitude control engines separate from the other engines hence it is easier to make the control system using these layouts. Layout 2 would also incorporate a level sensor into the automatic control loop to control the pitch of the airship. The automatic control system for layout 3 would be significantly more complicated as both horizontal and vertical components of thrust would need to be controlled.
Table 310 - Propulsion Layout Decision Matrix PROPULSION LAYOUT DECISION MATRIX Criteria Rating Flight Mode Requirements Stability of airship Control setup required Efficiency in different flight modes Aesthetics Total
Layout 1 50 30 40 20 10 150 50 15 35 12 4 116 77.3%
Layout 2 50 27 30 12 6 125 83.3%
Layout 3 50 25 15 18 8 116 77.3%
Each of the criteria was evaluated and a score was given to each design. Using these scores a decision matrix (Table 310) was used to select layout 2 as the propulsion layout design.
3.5 Gondola Design
xli
xlii
The gondola structure needed to fulfil three main functions: to house the electrical equipment/payload for the airship, to be detachable from the envelope, to hold the engines in place and transfer the engine thrust to the airship.
3.5.1 Material selection

Potential gondola construction materials were assessed based on their strength, weight and ease of manufacture. The properties of a number of materials are shown in Table 311.
Table 311 - Gondola Material Properties
Material Foam (polyurethane) Balsa Wood (low density) Aluminium Alloy Steel Fibre Glass Epoxy Adhesive
Density (kg/m3) 100 140 2700 7800 2600 720 - 2800
Tensile Strength (MPa) 35 7.6 100 - 350 365 3448 60 - 100
The table above shows that foam and balsa wood are suitable for the gondola design due to their low weight. These materials could be used in conjunction with fibreglass and epoxy coatings to ensure that the gondola is strong and lightweight. Steel and aluminium could be used for the engine supporting rods and mountings.
3.5.2 Shape and Aerodynamics

The form of the gondola was designed based on structural, aerodynamic and aesthetic requirements. Three alternative shape concepts were created with some similarities including: a flat platform to mount parts to, a lip at the top to join the gondola to the airship as well as several holes to insert different supports for the engines. The main differences between the designs are their appearance and ease of manufacture.
Concept 1 shown in Figure 313 has a rounded base and sides. This has a dual benefit of making the gondola more aesthetically pleasing and also reducing the amount of drag xlii
xliii
created. However, rounded edges reduce the size of the mounting platform and are also more difficult and expensive to produce.
Figure 313 - Concept 1, "Bath tub" design
The second concept (Figure 314) included a simple box shape with an aerodynamic shell. The box is used to hold all the necessary parts for the gondola and being a simple box is easier to make. The aerodynamic shell is a rounded piece that covers the majority of the box. The use of this shell creates a second area between the shell and box, hence increasing the possible storage space in the gondola. Like the bath tub design, the curves of this shell would also be difficult and more expensive to make.
Figure 314 - Concept 2, "Box and Shell" design
The final concept was the shaped box design (Figure 315). This design was based on the gondola box used in concept 2. The box was shaped to create a more aerodynamic
xliii
xliv
profile, leading to a reduction in drag. The lack of curved surfaces in this design meant that it would be easier and cheaper to manufacture. The aerodynamic shaping of the underside of the box means that, like concept 2, there was additional storage space on the underside of the flat platform.
Figure 315 - Concept 3, "Shaped Box" design
xliv
xlv
3.5.3 Design Selection

All three of the concepts adequately met all the structural requirements of the gondola hence the decision on which concept was based on the ease of manufacture and aesthetics.
Generally, straight parts are much easier to manufacture than curved parts. Only concept 3 had no curved parts making it easier to manufacture. Concept 1 had a large amount of curved surfaces and hence was considered to be hardest to manufacture. While the gondola box of concept 2 would be easy to produce, the curved shell would cause some difficulties. It was suggested that this could be produced from a blow moulded plastic shell, however this was not possible, as the University did not have the machinery required. Balsa wood, used throughout concepts 2 and 3, was also readily available from most model/hobby shops.
The curved and shaped pieces used in concepts 1 and 2 gave the airship a more aerodynamic and smooth finish. Concept 3 although not curved, does have an aerodynamic shape to improve its appearance over a simple box.
Using these criteria a decision matrix (Table 312) was formed to decide on the best possible design.
Table 312 - Gondola Design Decision Matrix Gondola Design Decision Matrix Criteria Rating Concept 1 Concept 2 Concept 3 Ease of Manufacture 50 25 30 Aesthetics 50 35 35 Total 100 60 65
45 30 75
xlv
xlvi
Concept 3 meets all the structural requirements for the gondola and best meets the aesthetic and manufacturing criteria and hence was chosen for use in the final design.
3.6 Control System Design

The airship was designed to incorporate both automatic and manual control systems. The automatic control governs the altitude and pitch of the airship. The manual system was initially designed to control all aspects of airship flight. Once the automatic control system was implemented, the manual control will be responsible for movement in the horizontal plane.
3.6.1 Manual Control System

The manual control system will operate via a remote controller hand unit. The two functions of the manual controller are to control the individual speeds of the engines and to control the angle of any rotating axles. Remote control hand unit consist of a number of variable and fixed channels. Variable channels send a variable signal to the onboard speed controllers, which alter the speed of the engines and the thrust produced. The fixed channels produce a binary signal that enables the axle to rotate a set angle. Rotation of the axle was achieved using a servo-motor. The servo-motor would be connected to the axle by means of a belt and gear system.
3.6.2 Automatic Control System

The automatic control system utilises an onboard microprocessor and a control code to maintain a desired altitude and pitch. The microprocessor determines the thrust required based on the difference between the desired values and the inputs from the pitch and altitude sensor. A computer on the ground wirelessly communicates with the onboard processor to change the desired altitude value.
xlvi
xlvii
A sensor was required to take continuous measurements of altitude during flight. The two main options for an altitude sensor were a pressure sensor or an ultrasonic sensor. The pressure difference in a 6 metre range cannot accurately be determined and hence an ultrasonic sensor was favoured. The ultrasonic sensor sends a pulse to the ground which is reflected back to the sensor. The time for the pulse to return is used to calculate the height of the airship in the automatic control code.
A second sensor was required to measure the pitch of the airship. The two principal options were a capacitance-based tilt sensor and an electrolytic tilt sensor. Each provided similar measurement accuracy and could be integrated into the automatic control system. Capacitance-based sensors were found to be considerably cheaper and more readily available. A capacitance sensor is a strain-based sensor that uses two springs. When the sensor is not level, an unbalance in the two strains is recorded and converted to an output voltage. The microprocessor then interprets the voltage as an angle using the automatic control code.
3.7 Payload and ground station design

The airship was to be fitted with a camera to record flight footage. The footage would be sent wirelessly, in real time, to a ground station. A number of different cameras were researched as options. The principal criterion for camera selection was cost, as the budget only allowed $200 to be spent. As with all other components in the airship, the weight of the camera system was extremely important. The camera also needed to be able to transmit a clear image over a distance of at least 50 metres.
3.7.1 Camera options

It was possible to use either a still or video camera to record images. A camera for still images generally provides excellent picture quality but is also heavy and expensive. The digital still camera mechanism used by Airship Solutions (Figure 316) has a maximum
xlvii
xlviii
resolution of 5 Megapixels and can pan and tilt via remote control. The total weight of the camera and frame was roughly 400 grams. The cost of the system was estimated at $700.
Figure 316 - Heavy Duty SLR/Digital Camera Mechanism (Airships Solutions)
The main advantages of a video camera, when compared to a still camera, are its size, weight and ease of use. The JMK wireless video camera weighs only 25 grams and is roughly the size of a 20-cent coin. The receiving unit can be connected to a television or a VCR over a standard composite-video connection. An analogue to digital video converter also allows the stream to be viewed and recorded on a computer. The camera, receiver and converter could be purchased for a total of less than $200.
Figure 317 - JMK wireless video camera
Another small wireless video camera was also considered as an option. The Jaycar camera had a resolution of 0.3 Megapixels and a range of 100 metres. The range and resolution were therefore equivalent to the JMK camera specifications, although the Jaycar camera was a significantly more expensive option with a total system cost of around $400. xlviii
xlix
xlix
3.7.2 Camera selection

A decision matrix was used to determine the most suitable camera system for the airship. The weight and cost of the camera were considered the two most important parameters. The ease of use criterion includes factors such as computer connectivity, power supply and installation into the gondola. The resolution, image interference and range were included under a general heading of picture quality. Based on the total scores in the decision matrix, the JMK camera system was deemed to be the most suitable for the airship.
Table 313 - Camera System Decision Matrix Camera System Decision Matrix Criteria Weight Cost Picture Quality Ease of use Total Rating 30 30 25 15 100 Jaycar 25 15 15 15 70 Airship Solutions 15 5 25 10 55 JMK 30 25 10 15 80
li
4 Detailed Design
4.1 Envelope Design
4.1.1 Envelope Modelling
The conceptual design analysis has proven the generation of two ellipsoids is the best design for the envelope shape. This basic shape is seen below in Figure 41.
Figure 41 - Two ellipsoids used to generate the envelope shape
To optimise the size of the envelope an iterative process using the volume of the envelope and the lifting force required was used. An iterative process was needed as the envelope itself contributes to weight and hence lifting force required. The first step was to establish an estimate of the weight of all components of the airship. This was done using the research and feasibility study. From the buoyancy equation (Equation 31) the volume of lifting gas required was determined. The radii of the ellipsoids were calculated using this volume, the volume equation for an ellipsoid (Equation 41) and the ellipsoid ratio (note as only half of each ellipsoid was used the volume equation was divided by two).
Equation 41 - Volume of Ellipsoid (Note: a,b,c are the radii of ellipsoid)
li
lii
Equation 42 - Surface Area of Ellipsoid Approximation (Note: a,b,c are the radii of ellipsoid and p = 1.6)
The surface area was calculated using the ellipsoid surface area approximation formula (Equation 42). The weight of the envelope was then determined from the surface area, polyurethane density and thickness. This new envelope weight was added to the original total weight estimate and the lifting force was recalculated. This iteration process was run for a hundred iterations using Microsoft Excel (Figure 42). The results of these iterations and hence the dimensions of the envelope are shown in the Table 41. A more detailed envelope calculation can be seen in Appendix B.
Buoyancy Equation
Ellipsoid Ratios of Envelope
Volume of Ellipsoid Equation
Mass of Components
Total Airship Mass
Volume of Lifting Gas Required
Radii of Ellipsoids
Dimensions of Envelope
Envelope Design
Estimate Mass of Envelope
Update Envelope Mass
Mass of Envelope
Surface Area of Envelope
Polyurethane Material Properties
Surface Approximation Equation
Figure 42 - Envelope Iteration Process
Table 41 - Dimensions of Envelope Dimensions of Envelope Total length = 3.49m Diameter = Total Surface area = 12.4m2 L/D ratio = Total Frontal Area = 1.45m2 SA/V ratio = Total Volume = 3.37m3
1.36m 2.57 3.67
lii
liii
These dimensions were then used to create the continuous cross sectional curve seen in Figure 43 which was rotated about the centre axis to form the 3D envelope shape. A manual iterative process was then used to make adjustments to the model. The length and diameter were altered and the volume was checked to ensure that it matched the required volume. Any change to the dimension meant a change in surface area, thus a final check of surface area was made to ensure no additional weight was created for the envelope.
Figure 43 - Cross section of revolved envelope
4.1.2 Manufacturing
The chosen manufacturer for the construction of the envelope was the Melbourne-based firm Airship Solutions. This manufacturer was chosen for its lead-time, cost and relative closeness compared with international suppliers. The manufacturer required a digital model, a draft document, all design details and specifications as well as any other helpful images. The draft document can be seen in Appendix A.
An opening was required to allow for inflation of the envelope. To seal the opening it was possible to either use a valve or tie-off system. A valve appears more professional but is
liii
liv
difficult and more costly to manufacture. The seams between the valve and envelope can result in greater leakage of helium than if a tie-off system was used. Airship Solutions recommended a tie-off system as being a superior option over a valve. Due to this recommendation and leakage considerations the tie-off system was selected. Two safety line attachments are needed on the airship. The first connects the gondola and envelope and acts as a safety mechanism if the join between the two fails. The second safety line is located on the nose of the airship. This tie line is often referred to as a mooring line, as it can be used to restrain the entire airship to the ground. The mooring line would be used to keep the blimp tethered during testing.
4.1.3 Stabiliser Design

The size of the stabilisers was previously calculated in the conceptual design. The shape of the stabilisers was chosen from two designs commonly used on indoor airships (shown in Figure 44).
Figure 44 - Possible Stabiliser Shapes
Both of the designs feature a taper angle to reduce the drag produced by the stabilisers during forward motion. The concept on the left has a larger taper region. This increases the length of the stabiliser such that it would be difficult to fit the edge of the stabiliser to the contour of the envelope tail. The concept on the right has a shorter length and would better match the contour of the envelope hence this design was chosen.
The stabilisers are made from 5mm thick light weight foam, supplied by Airship Solutions. The stabilisers were then cut to shape, covered with a plastic film for aesthetics and secured to the airship. The stabilisers were secured to the envelope using a light liv
lv
weight plastic wire (similar to fishing wire) and several Velcro anchor points. Figure 45 shows how the wire was attached to the outside edges of the stabilizers and then anchored to the envelope. Figure 46 shows the final envelope design model with the stabilisers attached.
Figure 45 - Stabiliser Attachment
Figure 46 - Final Envelope Design Model with Stabilisers
lv
lvi
4.2 Propulsion Design

4.2.1 Ducted fan motors
As described in section 3.4.2, ducted fans were selected as the propulsion system for the airship. Most ducted fan options include an appropriately sized electric motor. The two side ducted fans were to provide thrust in both directions hence reversible motors were required. Brushless motors are more efficient than brushed motors but are not reversible. As a result, the side ducted fans use brushed motors while the front and back ducted fans use brushless motors. The motors were selected based on availability and their ability to attain a desired amount of thrust. The front and back motors were required to achieve a thrust of 96g and the side motors needed to achieve 130g of thrust. The engines were deliberately chosen to have more thrust than required as a safety factor. The SFM EDF power system (#1028) was selected for the front and back motors. The GWS EDF power system (GW/EDF75x4A) was chosen for the side motors. Both motors are shown in Figure 47 and their specifications in Table 42.
Figure 47 - SFM EDF Power System #1028 (left) and GWS GW/EDF75x4A
lvi
lvii
Table 42 - Ducted Fan Motor System Specifications
Ducted Fan Motor System Specifications

Ducted Fan Motor System Turbo Fan EDF Power System #1028 Volt (V) Amps (A) Max. Thrust (g) Power (W) Efficiency (g/ W) Mass (g) Reversible
220
42
5.24
117.65
No
GW/EDF75x4A
7.2
6.6
147
55.44
2.65
111.73
Yes
4.2.1.1 Speed Controllers The speed controllers were required to control the speed of the ducted fan motors. Each motor required an individual speed controller. The front and back ducted fans were to be powered by brushless motors hence a brushless speed controller was needed. The two sides ducted fans were to be powered by reversible brushed motors thus a speed controller which features reversibility was necessary.
Figure 48 - DualSky 18 Ampere brushless speed controller
The DualSky 18A Brushless ESC (Figure 48) was chosen for the front and back motors as it matched the motor voltage and current draw. The specifications of this speed controller are shown in Table 43. For the side motors, a speed controller designed for remote control car motors was used. This was only available option, as standard speed controllers for model airplanes do not feature reversibility. The Nosram Force mini lvii
lviii
Reverse #93000 speed controller (shown below) was selected based on the electrical data. The specifications of this speed controller are also shown in Table 43.
Figure 49 - Nosram Force mini Reverse #93000 speed controller
Table 43 - Speed Controller Specifications
Speed Controller Specifications

DualSky 18A Brushless ESC Specifications Voltage Input (Cells, V) Max Output (A) Weight (with wires) Dimensions 2-4, 7.4-14.8V 18A (25A surge) 19g 47x26x7mm Nosram Force mini Reverse #93000 Specifications 4-6, 4.8-7.2V 60A 24g 26x26x16mm
4.2.2 Batteries
4.2.2.1 Power Requirements Assuming the use of ducted fans, and knowing the required thrust in each flight mode, it was possible to calculate the power needs for the propulsion system. In takeoff mode, the static thrust formula for a ducted fan, derived from Froudes momentum theory (disc actuator theory) applies. This states that the maximum energy which can be extracted from the flow is one third of the total energy passing through the disc (Virginia Technical University, 2001). The static thrust equation is shown in Equation 43.
lviii
lix
Equation 43 - Static Thrust for a ducted fan
Where: = Static Thrust (N) = Air Density (kg/m3) = Duct exit area (m2) = Efficiency of Ducted fan P = Input Power (W)
The required power input is dependent on the efficiency of the ducted fan. The power required at varying ducted fan efficiency is shown in Figure 410.
Figure 410 - Required power for takeoff at varying duct efficiency
lix
lx
The efficiency of the ducted fan was assumed to be 40% based on discussions with the manufacturer and supplier of similar ducted fans units. The theoretical power needed to provide 96g of thrust was calculated as 3.4 watts. Once purchased, ducted fan testing was carried out to measure the practical thrust output (see section 5.1).
In cruise mode, the fans need to provide upward (hover) thrust and horizontal thrust. The input power was determined from the dynamic thrust equation for a ducted fan, in which the thrust is a function of the cruise speed, duct efficiency and power input.
Equation 44 - Dynamic thrust equation for a ducted fan
Where T = Dynamic Thrust (N) P = Input Power (W) V= Cruise Velocity (m/s) = Duct Efficiency
As with the static takeoff thrust calculation, the efficiency of the ducted fan was estimated to be 40%. The required cruise velocity and thrust were 1ms-1 and 130g, respectively. Hence the power needed was 3.2 watts for the horizontal thrust. 4.2.2.2 Battery Selection The ducted fan motors were to be powered by lithium polymer (Li-Po) batteries. Li-Po batteries are commonly used in model aircraft because of their good power to weight ratio. Two lithium polymers batteries were used to provide power to the motors, one for the side motors and one for the front and back motors. Based on an estimated average usage and current draw during different modes of flight, the battery capacity was
lx
lxi
calculated (Table 44). From these requirements an appropriate battery was selected, its specifications are shown in Table 45.
lxi
lxii
Table 44 - Battery capacity requirements Capacity (mAh) 1850 1400
Side Engines Front & Rear Engines
Table 45 Specifications of the selected Li-Po battery Battery Life (mAh) Serial Weight (grams) Voltage (v) Cost ($AUS) 1800 FPEVO25-18002S 110 7.4 85.5
4.3 Gondola Design

4.3.1 Design Details
The final concept for the gondola was selected in section 3.5.3 and based on this a final design was developed. This section will discuss the details of the design and any design changes that were made. The complete drawings of the Gondola design are shown in Appendix C.
The gondola structure was constructed from balsa wood and coated with epoxy to provide extra strength. One issue during construction was that balsa wood was only available in sheet 150mm wide, however 300mm sheets were required. As a result, two pieces had to be butt joined to create one 300mm piece reducing the strength of the structure. To compensate for the loss of strength, ribs were added to the floor and walls of the gondola.
The lips and sides of the gondola were shaped to approximately match the contour of the envelope. This allowed for greater contact area between the gondola and the envelope. To connect the gondola and envelope, Velcro was added to the lip of the gondola and to the lxii
lxiii
base of the envelope. This is a very strong attachment, which will hold the weight of the gondola. The use of Velcro meant that gondola could be detached quickly from the envelope. Possible concerns may arise with repeatedly removing the gondola because of stretching of the polyurethane material. So that the gondola did not have to be frequently detached, a lid beneath the gondola (shown in Figure 411) was included for access to parts such as batteries.
Figure 411 - Gondola underside hatch
The ducted fans in front and behind the gondola were each supported by a fixed axle made from aluminium. The axle was fixed to an aluminium bracket on the inside of the gondola. The centre axle rotates using a servo-motor, to provide extra manoeuvrability. The belt and gear system transfers the rotational motion from the servo to the axle. The gear ratio was 1:1 hence the servo rotation equalled the axle rotation (see Figure 413). The rotating axle was located using removable washers placed along side the inner wall on the gondola. These prevent the axle from sliding out of position. Design details can be seen in Figure 412 and in Appendix A.
lxiii
lxiv
Figure 412 - Gondola Internals
Figure 413 - Servo and belt system
A fan holder was required to connect the ducted fans to the axles. To achieve this, a small bracket was produced (Figure 414). The bracket had a hole for the support rods to slide into before being secured with several grub screws. The fan holder was attached to the plastic sides of the ducted fan with small nuts and bolts.
lxiv
lxv
Figure 414 - Ducted fan holder
4.3.2 Part Layout

The gondolas primary purpose was to house all the components of the airship. The gondola design featured two storage areas, the main compartment and the underside hatch. The main compartment was used for the automatic control components, the servo and the side motors speed controllers. The batteries, manual control receiver, camera setup and the remaining speed controllers were stored in the underside hatch. It was decided that the batteries were to be stored in the underside hatch as easier access meant they could be replaced and recharged during testing. Most of the parts needed to be removable hence Velcro was widely used to attach components to the gondola. The layout of the parts aimed to balance the weight of the components to ensure the stability of the airship. Parts of equal weight were positioned symmetrically to balance the moments created. The parts were arranged in a digital model with blocks representing individual parts (see Figure 415). From this model, a mass balance analysis was carried out (Table 46). The analysis used the distance of the part from the centre of gravity of the gondola and the part weight to calculate the total moments in the lateral and longitudinal directions.
Figure 415 - Digital model of part layout
lxv
lxvi
lxvi
lxvii
Table 46 - Mass Balance Analysis Item Mass (g) X - distance from Centre (mm) 200 19 600 -30 Y - distance from Centre (mm) 0 60 X - Moment (Nmm) 1177.2 -5.5917 Y - Moment (Nmm) 0 11.183
Front Motor Front Motor Speed Controller Back Motor Back Motor Speed Controller Left Reversible Engine Left Reversible Engine Speed Controller Right Reversible Engine Right Reversible Engine Speed Controller Side Engine Battery Front/Back Battery Receiver Receiver Battery Servo MiniDragon Board Antenna Ultra-sonic sensor Battery Level Sensor Battery Camera Balance weight Total
200 19
-600 -30
0 -60
-1177.2 -5.5917
0 -11.183
97 28
0 130
480 10
0 35.708
456.75 2.7468
97
-480
-456.75
28
130
-10
35.708
-2.7468
115 115 17 117 39 148 11 15 151 80 38 27 5
70 70 100 60 80 -100 -160 120 -140 -150 180 220 220
60 -60 0 0 60 0 -30 0 40 -100 0 0 -10
78.970 78.970 16.677 68.866 30.607 -145.18 -17.265 17.658 -207.38 -117.72 67.100 58.271 10.791 0.5890
67.689 -67.689 0 0 22.955 0 -3.2373 0 59.252 -78.480 0 0 -0.4905 0
Using this analysis, parts were relocated to minimise the total moments about the centre of gravity of the gondola. A small balance weight (5g) was added to the table to ensure lxvii
lxviii
the sum of the moments of the gondola was minimised. The parts were then located in the actual gondola at the locations determined by the mass balance analysis (see Figure 416). Testing of the gondola stability was then carried out. The gondola was fixed by the support rods and allowed to freely rotate. The balance mass position was slightly altered to ensure the gondola would remain level.
Figure 416 - Actual part layout
4.3.3 Structural Analysis

The 3mm thick gondola floor needed to be analysed to determine if it was strong enough to support the weight of the internal components. From section 3.5.1, low density balsa wood was found to have a maximum tensile strength of 7.6 MPa. The gondola floor was modelled as a beam with fixed supports at both ends and the shear force due to each component was calculated.
Figure 417 - Beam Structural Analysis, Fixed Supports
lxviii
lxix
The shear force diagram (Figure 418) displays the cumulative shear V(x) force along the 520mm gondola length.
Figure 418 - Shear Force Diagram
The maximum bending moment can then be determined from the shear diagram using the integral equation: M (x) = V (x)
Equation 45 - Bending Moment Equation
Figure 419 - Bending Moment Diagram
lxix
lxx
From the bending moment diagram the maximum moment was found to be 1850 Nmm halfway between the supports at 260mm. This value could then be substituted into the flexure formula (Kotousov, 2005), along with the geometric properties of the beam, to determine the maximum bending stress. The complete calculation can be seen in Appendix B.
max =
M.y/I
Equation 46 - Flexure Formula
The bending stress was determined using the assumption of a beam with fixed supports at both ends. Using this conservative analysis the maximum bending stress was found to be 5.2 MPa. The actual gondola has fixed supports on all the sides and ends and hence the true bending stress would be significantly less than 5.2 MPa. Even with a safety factor of 1.4 the true bending stress would not exceed the maximum tensile strength of the balsa wood.
4.4 Control System Design

4.4.1 Manual Control System
4.4.1.1 RC Hand Control Unit The remote control system selected for the manual control was the X-2610 / XP6102 produced by JR Propo. Included in the package was a matching receiver, servo-motor and battery pack. This package was selected for its relatively low cost and ability to fulfil the control requirements. The transmitter (Figure 420) features six channels as well as travel adjustment and servo reversing. The six channels include four variable channels controlled by the two sticks and two fixed channels controlled by the switches. The specifications of the transmitter are shown in Table 47.
lxx
lxxi
Figure 420 - JR XP6102 Radio Transmitter
Table 47 - Transmitter Specifications JR XP6102 Radio Transmitter Specifications Model Number NET-K236US Encoder 6channel computer RF Module Output Power Output Pulse
72MHz Approximately 750mw PULSE 10002000 (1500 Neutral)
As previously mentioned the control package also included a receiver, the receiver battery and servo. The specifications for each of these are shown in the tables below.
Table 48 - Receiver Specifications Receiver Specifications Model Number RS77S Type 7-Channel / FMABC&W / Micro 5 Sensitivity S minimum Selectivity 8KHz/5 dB Weight 42.5 g
Table 49 - Battery Specifications Battery Specifications Model Number 4N1100 Type NiCd Voltage 4.8V Size 38.6 x 18.5 x 33.5 mm Weight 138.9 g
Table 410 - Servo Specifications Servo Specifications Type 539 Torque 49 g/cm Speed 0.25 sec/60 Weight 44.8 g Size 32.5 x 19 x 38.5 mm Motor 3-Pole Ferrite
lxxi
lxxii
4.4.1.2 Manual Control Procedure The manual control system was used in two configurations. During initial testing, the manual control system will control all the engines and the servo (Figure 421). Once the automatic control system was implemented, the manual control system will control the side engines and the servo.
Figure 421 - Manual Control Layout
To control all engines at the same time, one stick was used to control two engines. The left stick controlled the front and back engines. Vertical travel of the stick controls the front engine while horizontal travel controls the back engine. The right stick was similarly used to control the side motors. Once the automatic control had been
lxxii
lxxiii
implemented, the front and back motors were no longer controlled by the manual system. One stick was then used to control each of the side engines. In both configurations, a switch controls the clockwise and anticlockwise rotation of the servo.
4.4.2 Automatic Control

4.4.2.1 Automatic Control Layout Figure 422 shows the automatic control system layout. The Minidragon receives the two sensor inputs and the desired altitude from the ground computer. The information is then converted to pulse width modulated signals which are sent to the speed controllers to alter the thrust output of the ducted fans.
Figure 422 - Automatic Control Layout
4.4.2.2 Automatic Control Component Selection The microcontroller must fulfil all the necessary functions of data acquisition, processing and pulse width modulated (PWM) signal generation. It also had to be lightweight, low cost and easily interfaced with other control hardware. The two alternative processor options were the Dragon12 and the Minidragon+ boards (see Table 411).
lxxiii
lxxiv
Table 411 - Microprocessor options Name of Processor Serial Weight (grams) Current (mA) Input voltage Volts (v) Price (AUS$) Minidragon+ MC9S12DP256 67 1000 9 115 Dragon12 MC9S912DP256 327 1000 12 156
Both microprocessors had the necessary capabilities for data input, processing and data output. They could also be interfaced with Matlab 6.5 using computers in the University Mechatronics laboratory. Since these processors are both capable of being used, a selection was made purely on the cost and weight. The Minidragon+ board ( Figure 423) has a lower weight and cost and was therefore selected.
Figure 423 - Minidragon microprocessor
The criteria for selecting an ultrasonic sensor included: range of module, cost, weight and how easily it could be interfaced with the Minidragon+. Two ultrasonic sensors were considered, their specifications are listed in Table 412
Table 412 - Ultrasonic ranging module options Name of Processor Serial Weight (grams) Input voltage Volts (v) Range (max. m) Price (US$) 6500 series R11 - 6500 18.14 5 6 57 SRF04 R93 SRF04 13.6 5 3 29.5
lxxiv
lxxv
The 6500 series had a superior range when compared with the other ultrasonic sensor, and was similarly priced. The sensor with the greatest range was needed to achieve the desired altitude of six metres. The 6500 series was purchased, however during programming it was found to be incompatible with Matlab. Consequently the SRF04 was used (see Figure 424). This limited the maximum altitude of the airship to three metres. The ultrasonic sensor was mounted within the bottom section of the gondola, with the transducer extending through a small hole. This allowed the sound wave to leave and return to the airship for measurement.
Figure 424 - SRF04 Ultrasonic Sensor
Bluetooth was needed to enable communication between the airship and the ground station. The criteria for selecting the Bluetooth setup included, range, price, weight and data transfer. Three Bluetooth options were considered (see Table 413)
Table 413 - Bluetooth Communication Options Option Transmitter Price (AUS$) Range (m) Module Price (AUS$) Voltage Input (V) Current (mA) 1 RF-BlueDongle 80 100 RF-BT-SMD 60 3.3 90 2 RF-BlueSMiRF-RPSMA 70 106 RF-BT-DIP-RPSMA 80 3.3 90 3 RF-BlueSMiRF 70 106 RF-BT-DIP 75 3.3 90
lxxv
lxxvi
All of the options were very similar, however option 1 (Figure 425) was the least expensive and hence was chosen.
Figure 425 - RF-BlueDongle, antenna, USB power, and RS232 serial port
The automatic control system uses a separate power supply from the motors. A separate supply was used as the heavy draw from the motors can disrupt the power to the sensitive instruments in the control system. The criteria for battery selection included battery life, weight, cost, voltage and current draw. The total current draw of all the automatic components was found to be 1402mA (Table 414). The required flight time of 30 minutes meant that the minimum battery life needed to be 701mAh. The Minidragon had the largest voltage requirement of 9V, hence the battery voltage need to be at least 9V. A single battery was selected that met the desired criteria (Table 415 and Figure 426).
Table 414 - Battery Requirements Current Draw (mA) 2 90 10 300 1000 1402
Component Maxbotix Ultrasonic range finder Bluetooth v2.0 SMD Module Level Sensor JR standard servo Minidragon
Voltage (V) 4.5-6.8 3.2-3.4 4.8-6 4.8 9 Total
Table 415 - Selected battery specifications Distributor Model Flight
lxxvi
lxxvii
Battery Life (mAh) Serial Weight (grams) Voltage (V) Cost ($AUS)
1200 FPEVO12003S1P 110 11.1 85.5
Figure 426 - Li Po battery for control hardware
A level sensor was needed only to determine the angle of the airship about the pitching axis. As discussed in section 3.6.2, a capacitance-based sensor was chosen for the airship. The AccuStar tilt sensor (Figure 427) is a lightweight wide-angle sensor, which could be interfaced with the Minidragon processor. Table 416 shows the specifications of AccuStar sensor.
Table 416 - Level Sensor Specifications Sensor Range Input voltage (V) Current draw (mA) Price (AUS$) Weight (g) AccuStar Electronic Clinometer + 60 9 15 312 57
lxxvii
lxxviii
Figure 427 - AccuStar level sensor
4.4.2.3 Control Code The autopilot sends appropriate signals to two ducted fans based on a desired height, current height and pitch angle. The Minidragon microprocessor was programmed using Matlab 6.5. Block diagrams were created using Simulink and compiled into c-code using Codewarrior. Simulink includes a block set (Real-Time mc9s12) specifically written for the Minidragon microprocessor, making programming significantly less problematic. Blocks used from this set included the FreePortComms_RX, Pulse Width Modulation, Sonar and the analogue to digital converter block. The following block diagram (Figure 428) is the actual code which was loaded onto the Minidragon for semi-autonomous testing. Not every block will have its function described, but rather sections of the code will be explained.
The first section, coloured by red, is where the desired height altitude is received. The link of the Bluetooth modem is made using the FreePortComms_RX block, which outputs a numerical value corresponding to the desired height. The subsequent red constant and summation blocks calibrate the signal, so when three is pressed on the base station computer, a desired altitude of three metres is input to the code.
The next section of the code, coloured in dark green, is where the proportional gains controller is used. A response test was carried out, where by the forward and rear engines were put under a set voltage. The results of this test were used to determine the proportional, integral and derivative gains to calibrate the PID controller. The output of the PID controller is scaled so it enters the rest of the code as a value between 0 and 1.
lxxviii
lxxix
Figure 428 - Overall Simulink signal flow diagram
The height measurement is made in the light green section of the code. The sonar block is used to send a voltage input to the ultrasonic sensor, which sends a sound wave to the ground. The sound wave is then reflected back to the sensor. When the sound wave leaves and returns to the sensor a voltage spike is recorded. The time between these voltage
lxxix
lxxx
spikes is measured by a timer, which gives a time of flight for the sound wave. Given the time of flight and the speed of sound, a height can then be determined.
Initially, the actual height of the airship was to be subtracted from the desired height, then a distance to target was to be input into the PID controller; however the output of the ultrasonic sensor was erratic and not ideal for input to the PID controller. Instead, a constant desired altitude value was input into the PID controller. The light blue section of the code is where a fraction of actual height divided by desired height is generated. This value is then scaled to always give a value between 0 and 1. This actual/desired height value is then subtracted from the 0 to 1 output from the PID controller. The result is the voltage input to the engines which is a proportion of the duty cycle. To better understand this process, consider the following example. The PID outputs a value of 1 when a desired height of three metres is input. The actual height of the airship is two metres, giving an actual height divided by desired height fraction of 0.667. The resulting duty cycle is 0.333.
The next part of the code, the highlighted orange subsystem, further modifies the duty cycle to account for the pitch of the airship. The following block diagram represents the pitch subsystem from the main code.
Figure 429 - Control Code Pitch Subsystem
lxxx
lxxxi
The level sensor outputs a voltage proportional to its current angle. This voltage is read by the converter block and then calibrated to give an angle to the following red blocks. If the airship is pitching upwards, then the rear engine receives the full duty cycle, but the forward engine receives a reduced duty cycle. This restores the airship to level flight. Switches are used in this section of the code to determine if a full duty cycle or a reduced duty cycle is to be used. If the switch desires the full duty cycle, it uses the input of the subsystem and directly routes it to the output of the subsystem. If the switch requires a reduced duty cycle, it uses an input from the light blue section of the code. The light blue section inputs the angle of the airship into the following function. ((90 ) / 90) * (Duty cycleinput) =Duty cycleoutput
Equation 47 - Pitch Angle Duty Cycle
The purple section of the code converts the 0 to 1 duty cycle into an appropriate value for input into the PWM block. The PWM block generates the required signal for the two speed controllers attached to the forward and rear engines of the airship. This signal is a 5 volt pulse which has its width changed depending on the desired thrust. The minimum width of the PWM is 1.2ms, while the maximum width of the PWM is 1.8ms. The PWM signal has a period of 22 ms, which is standard for most speed controllers. The following diagram illustrates the PWM signal in its minimum and maximum states.
lxxxi
lxxxii
22ms
1.2ms
Minimum PWM
1.8ms
Maximum PWM
Figure 430 - PWM Output Variation
4.5 Payload
4.5.1 Camera and ground station
The complete specifications of the JMK wireless video camera, selected in section 3.7.2, are listed in Table 417. The gondola was designed to accommodate the JMK wireless video camera with a 30mm diameter hole being cut out from the underside panel on the front of the gondola. This allowed the camera to see what was directly in front and below the airship. A small gap was left between the bottom detachable panel and the frontbottom panel to allow the camera aerial to stick out slightly beneath the airship. A rechargeable, 9V nickel metal-hydride battery was fitted on the inside of the gondola. The 125 mAh battery allowed for approximately 6 hours of constant transmission between the airship and the ground station.
Table 417 - JMK wireless video camera specifications
lxxxii
lxxxiii
Variable Recording and transmission system TV System Resolution Transmission frequency Transmission Range Power Supply for Camera Power consumption Weight of Camera
Specification Analogue PAL or NTSC 480*380 lines 900 MHz 50-100m DC, 9V 200 mW 30g
Figure 431 - Camera mounted in gondola
lxxxiii
lxxxiv
5 Component Testing
5.1 Engine Testing
This test was required to analyse the thrust characteristics of the ducted fan at varying currents. Based on the thrust calculations, the Turbo Fan EDF Power System #1028 and GWS GW/EDF75x4A were purchased. The EDF fan specifications suggested that it would provide around 200 grams of thrust at maximum current and voltage, approximately double what was needed. The GWS fan had a maximum rated thrust output of 150 grams.
5.1.1 Experimental Method

Three methods were discussed as ways of measuring the thrust being output by the SFM and GWS ducted fans. The first method was based on the testing of the ducted fan used in the 2006 VTOL Project (Arbon et al.). This required designing a cantilever beam and measuring the strain in the beam using strain gauges and converting the results to thrust. The second method used a similar concept of strain measurement but relied on a spring balance as a more direct display of the results. The final procedure involved mounting the ducted fan onto a digital scale and measuring the weight change on the scale. The digital balance method provided the best compromise between accuracy, simplicity and time constraints.
5.1.2 Procedure
Measurements of thrust were made at 0.2A intervals, as this was the smallest increment that could be accurately dialled in using the PWM controller. A power supply was used to give the speed controller a voltage of 7.2V, the equivalent voltage of a 2 cell Li-Po battery. The experiment was repeated five times to ensure the accuracy of the results.
lxxxiv
lxxxv
5.1.3 Theoretical Thrust of the SFM ducted fan

The theoretical results were calculated based on the formula for static thrust output of a ducted fan.
Ts 3 = 4
Ae (P )2
Equation 51 - Static thrust for a ducted fan
The theoretical static thrust output for the ducted fan is dependent on the efficiency of the propeller, the only unknown in Equation 51. The theoretical thrust values at varying efficiencies and the experimental results were compared. The experimental results showed that the SFM ducted fan had an efficiency of approximately 40%.
Figure 51 - Theoretical Thrust SFM Ducted Fans
lxxxv
lxxxvi
5.1.4 SFM Thrust Test Results
Figure 52 - Testing of the SFM ducted fan
5.1.5 GWS Thrust Test Results
Figure 53 - Testing of the GWS ducted fan
lxxxvi
lxxxvii
5.1.6 Summary of Ducted Fan Test Results

A comparison of the theoretical and experimental values confirmed the assumption that the SFM ducted fan efficiency was approximately 40%. The results of the SFM ducted fan experiment also suggested that the fan was definitely capable of providing the thrust for the forward and rear ducts of the airship. From the performance calculations, in takeoff mode it was determined that the total static thrust required was 96 grams. Two SFM fans are capable of 200 grams at maximum power based on the experimental results. The SFM fans were therefore capable of producing the required thrust in climb.
The experimental results of the GWS fan were found to closely match the expected theoretical values for an efficiency of 40 %. The force analysis in cruise mode suggested that roughly 130 grams of thrust would be required to achieve a speed of 1 m/s. Two EDF units would be capable of producing in excess of 200 grams at maximum power. Hence, the experimental results confirmed the suitability of the EDF units.
5.2 Camera Testing

The camera was tested prior to and during the first flight test to see that it performed as required. The picture quality, range and interference of the camera were all analysed.
5.2.1 Camera Range

Tests were performed both indoors and outdoors to confirm the manufacturers range specification of 50100 metres. The outdoor test was performed as it was not possible to find an indoor area with a length greater than 50 metres. Markers were placed every ten metres and the picture was monitored on the computer as the camera was slowly moved away. The quality of the picture was assessed as one of excellent, good, adequate, marginal and inadequate. The results of the range test suggested that the camera could not be used at a distance greater than 50 metres.
lxxxvii
lxxxviii
lxxxviii
lxxxix
Table 51 - Camera range test results
Distance (m) 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Assessment of picture Excellent Excellent Good Good Adequate Marginal Inadequate Inadequate
5.2.2 Picture quality and interference

The picture tests investigated the effect of lighting conditions, electrical interference and line-of-sight obstructions on overall picture quality. In dark light the camera picture quality was found to be adequate, but not excellent. The operation of the motors and automatic control system were found to have minimal impact on the picture quality, although there was occasional static interference at motor start-up. When there was no clear line-of-sight path between the camera and receiver, the picture frequently dropped out.
Figure 54 - Onboard camera still frame
5.2.3 Significance of camera test results
lxxxix
xc
Overall, the camera was found to perform adequately but not perfectly. The range test revealed that the maximum operating distance (50m) was only at the bottom end of the manufacturer specifications (50-100m). The image had a clear resolution but was found to be lacking in other picture quality criteria such as contrast and brightness.
xc
xci
6 Flight Tests
6.1 Pre-flight Procedures and Operation
Prior to full flight testing it was necessary to prepare and test the main airship components. This ensured that they would operate correctly during the flight tests. The electronic and mechanical parts of the gondola were individually tested. The gondola was attached to the envelope and the envelope was inflated with helium to make the airship only 20 grams overweight. The full procedures are shown in Appendix D, and a summary of each test is shown below
6.1.1 Gondola Component Tests

Connect the rubber chain to the servo system Connect all electronic components Test the servo and axle rotation using the RC unit Test operation of front/ back engines and left/right engines separately Test the operation of all engines simultaneously.
6.1.2 Attaching Gondola

Connect the gondola to the deflated envelope using tie line system connected to the rods of the gondola Connect the gondola to the deflated envelope using the Velcro strips, ensuring strips are lined up and firmly attached. Attach safety line to the Envelope
xci
xcii
6.1.3 Envelope Inflation

Turn on valve on the cylinder and commence filling the envelope with helium Using the force gauge constantly measure the lifting force of the envelope with the gondola attached When all the wrinkles in the envelope have disappeared stop filling envelope. If required, add weight to the gondola to make the airship 20 grams overweighted.
6.2 Flight Tests

6.2.1 Climb test
The climb test was used to measure the time to reach the desired 3m cruise altitude and used the front and rear engines only. This test was used to obtain flight data for the PID controller in the control code. The test was completed using half fan thrust then repeated using full fan thrust.
A second climb test was undertaken using all the ducted fans. All the ducted fans were positioned so to produce vertical thrust. The purpose of this test was to determine the shortest possible takeoff time of the airship. Hence this test was only completed with the ducted fans at full thrust. Details of the procedures for these tests are shown in Appendix D.
6.2.2 Descent test

The airship was designed to descend under gravity due to the 20 grams of excess weight. This test was used to determine how fast the airship could descend from the cruise altitude. The time for the airship to fall from its cruise altitude was recorded. The airship was capable of assisted descent by rotating the side ducted fans and reversing the
xcii
xciii
direction of thrust. A second test was conducted to determine the assisted descent time of the airship. Details of the procedures for these tests are shown in Appendix D.
6.2.3 Cruise test

At the cruise altitude a test was undertaken to determine the cruise speed. During the test the automatically controlled front and back ducted fans maintain level flight. The side ducted fans provide the thrust for horizontal motion. The tests were conducted in forward motion with the ducted fans producing half and full thrust. The side motors, capable of reverse thrust, were then used to complete a full-thrust reverse test. Details of the procedures for these tests are shown in Appendix D
6.2.4 Rate of turn test

The turning capability of the airship also needed to be measured. The automatic control system was switched on and set to an altitude of one metre. Once the airship had achieved this hover height, the right side ducted fan was put in full forward thrust and the left put in full reverse thrust. The time taken for the airship to achieve 90,180,360,720 and 1080 degrees of rotation was recorded. Details of the procedures for these tests are shown in Appendix D
6.3 Post-flight data analysis

At the beginning of the project, a set of desired performance parameters was created. These performance parameters included cruising speed, takeoff time and rate of turn. The performance parameters are listed in the table below.
xciii
xciv
Table 61 - Post-flight check of performance parameters
Parameter Cruise Altitude Takeoff time to reach hcruise Maximum Yaw rate Maximum Cruise speed Descent time from hcruise
Symbol hcruise ttakeoff d /dt Vcr, max tdescent
Value 6 metres 20 seconds 30/second 1 metre/second 20 seconds
The data from the flight tests was compiled using both a stop watch and video camera footage. Post-flight, the data for each set of tests was averaged and appropriate graphs were produced. The experimental parameters were then compared with the desired values set in the project definition.
6.4 First Flight Test and Results

The first flight test showed that the envelope did not provide enough lifting force to takeoff. It was still possible to test the response of the airship for use in the automatic control system. The airship was stripped of all components not required for vertical flight. It was then possible to conduct a climb test.
6.4.1 Climb Test for Automatic Control System

The core of the Matlab code includes a PID controller, which is used to generate the duty cycle of the PWM signal. The PID controller was based on three main values, the proportional, integral and derivative gains. These gains were determined using the data acquired the airship climb test. The results of the test were used to tune the automatic control system using the Ziegler-Nicholls step response tuning method.
xciv
xcv
Starting from rest on the ground, a voltage of 3.7V was given to both the forward and rear engines. A graph of altitude versus time was produced (Figure 61).
Figure 61 - Graph of results of initial blimp response test
The graph shows the blimp accelerating from rest and eventually reaching a constant climb velocity. The Zeigler-Nicholls tuning method involves the use of this graph to determine the gains. A straight line is drawn to coincide with the developed constant velocity line. The x and y intercepts of this straight line are then used. From testing, the x and y intercepts were found to be 2.6 and -2 respectively. The value for the x intercept is designated constant L, while the y intercept must be scaled using the input voltage, to create a unit value a
unit.
The proportional, integral and derivative gains, Kp, Ki and Kd
respectively, are calculated based on a unit and L (Table 62). The gains are then input into the PID block in Simulink.
Table 62 - PID Gains x int = 2.6 sec = L y int = -2m a unit = 2m/7.4V a unit = 0.27027 K p = 1.2 / a unit K p = 4.44 K i = K p / 2L K i = 0.8538 K d = K pL /2 K d = 5.772
xcv
xcvi
6.4.2 Overweight Analysis

The first flight test showed that the airship did not have sufficient lifting force. Following the test flight an analysis of why the airship was overweight was conducted. Firstly, an examination of each component was undertaken to determine the difference between the design (assumed) mass and the actual mass. The results of this are shown in Table 63. Secondly, an investigation of the actual lifting force produced by the helium compared to the calculated value was conducted. The actual lifting force of helium per cubic metre and the theoretical lifting force are shown in Table 64. The pie chart (Figure 62) shows the respective impact of the differences on the design.
xcvi
xcvii
Table 63 - Mass Analysis
Mass Analysis
Part Envelope Motors f/b motor + speed controller reversible speed controller Reversible Engines Batteries RC Control Receiver Receiver Battery Servo Auto Control MiniDragon + New Board Receiver Antenna Transducer Ultra sonic sensor Battery Level Sensor Camera Battery Camera Structural Components Gondola, Plus Rods and supports Velcro Banner Stabilisers Tow Line Total Total Without Envelope 430 50 0 100 200 3094.13 1855 1166 304 120 120 50 4368 3143 +736 +254 +120 +20 -150 +1273.87 +1288 45 20 38 27 -7 +7 67 20 0 100 76 7 148 7 11 5 15 151 80 +81 -13 +11 +5 -85 +75 +73 100 60 17 117 39 -83 +117 -21 Assumed Mass (g) 1239.13 190 30 160 200 Actual Mass (g)Difference (g) 1225 -14.13 218 56 260 194 +28 +26 +100 -6
xcvii
xcviii
Table 64 - Lift Comparison
Lift Comparison
Total Lift (g) Calculated Test 1 Difference 3587.6 2425 1162.6 Lift minus weight of the envelope (g) 2348.5 1200 1148.5 Lift per volume (g/m3) 1064.6 757.8 306.8
Figure 62 - Weight Difference Pie Chart
From the pie chart it can be seen that the main causes of the excess weight were the less than expected lifting force and the heavier than expected structural components. The cause of the diminished lifting force was an underestimate of the density of helium. The safety factor used was 1.1 whereas the investigation showed that it should have been in the order of 1.4. The design of the structural components was not completed at the time the envelope needed to be ordered and hence the final weight of the structural components was relatively unknown.
xcviii
xcix
6.4.3 Envelope Redesign

Based on the results of the overweight analysis it was clear that a new envelope was needed to achieve the required lifting force. The envelope would be the same shape as the previous envelope but of a larger volume. To calculate the size of this envelope the same iteration method was used, except the actual lifting force per cubic metre and the actual weight of all components (except the envelope) were incorporated. An additional safety factor of 1.25 was also used to ensure the new envelope would provide the necessary lift. The stabilisers were also redesigned to match the new envelope size. The dimensions of the new envelope are shown in Table 65.
Table 65 - Dimension of new envelope Dimensions of Envelope Old Envelope Total length = Total Surface area = Total Frontal Area = Total Volume = Diameter = L/D ratio = SA/V ratio = 3.49m 12.4m2 1.45m2 3.37m3 1.36m 2.57 3.67 New Envelope 4.610m 21.9 m2 2.27m2 8m3 1.9m 2.43 2.74
Using the new envelope it was calculated that it would be possible to lift an additional 1.69 kilograms. During the second flight test this value was measured and found to be 1.5kg. In order to keep the airship close to neutral buoyancy and to maintain a filled shape, compressed air was also pumped into the envelope. If the envelope was filled completely with helium an extra payload of 1 kilogram could be placed in the gondola.
xcix
6.5 Second Flight Test and Results

6.5.1 Climb Test
Climb tests were conducted with the engines at full thrust, half thrust and finally at full thrust with the assistance of the side engines. The time taken for the airship to attain different altitudes was examined. The results are shown in Figure 63.
Figure 63 - Climb Test Results
The graph shows an initial period of acceleration followed by constant rate of climb after an altitude of 1m has been reached. As expected, the full thrust with side engine assistance had both a higher constant velocity and a faster acceleration. The following table shows the velocity profile for the three conditions.
Table 66 - Velocity Profile in Climb Half Power Average Climb Velocity (m/s) Constant Climb Velocity (m/s) Time to Reach Cruise Altitude (s) 0.28 0.33 10.9 Full Power 0.35 0.42 8.9 Full Power + Side Engines 0.47 0.56 6.5
ci
Desired Time to Reach Cruise Altitude (s)
20
20
20
Initially, a maximum time of 20 seconds was set for the airship to climb to an altitude of six metres. As discussed in section 4.4.2.2, the maximum altitude (also the cruise altitude) was limited to three metres by the ultrasonic sensor. Consequently, the desired time to reach the cruise altitude was changed to 10 seconds. Only under half thrust was the actual time of climb more than 10 seconds.
6.5.2 Descent Test

The airship was design to naturally descend due to the 20 grams of excess weight. Descent tests were conducted with the engines switched off and also with assistance from the side engines. The time taken for the airship to return from the cruise altitude was examined. The results are shown in Figure 64.
Figure 64 - Descent Test Results
The following table shows the time to descend from cruise altitude for both assisted and unassisted descent.
ci
cii
Table 67 - Time to Descend Unassisted 10.8 20 Assisted (Full Thrust) 7.2 20
Time to Descend (s) Desired Time to Descend (s)
Both unassisted and assisted descent times were smaller than the target values. As with the climb test, the maximum altitude was reduced from six metres down to three metres due to the ultrasonic sensor range limitation. If the maximum cruise altitude was six metres, assuming that results continue linearly, the descent time would be 19.8 seconds. The assisted thrust results showed how the side engines could be used to decrease the descent time of the airship. This could be very useful in an emergency, for example if the envelope sustained a puncture.
6.5.3 Cruise Test

Cruise tests were carried out with the side engines at full thrust, half thrust and reverse thrust. The front and back engines, under the automatic control system, were used to maintain a level altitude during the test. The time taken for the airship to travel four metre intervals was recorded. The results are shown in Figure 65. Table 68 outlines the performance characteristics of the airship in cruise.
cii
ciii
Figure 65 - Cruise Test Results
Table 68 - Cruise Velocity Profile Half Thrust 21 0.83 0.89 Full Thrust 19 0.84 1.14 1 Reverse Thrust 23 0.7 0.8 -
Time to reach 16m (s) Average Cruise Speed (m/s) Max. Cruise Speed (m/s) Desired Cruise Max. Cruise Speed (m/s)
The maximum achievable cruise speed was above the desired 1m/s, which indicates the cruise speed performance parameter, has been met. The reverse capabilities of the airship are only intended for manoeuvrability purposes, for example reversing from a corner. The reverse cruise test showed better than expected values for cruise speed, which further enhances the manoeuvrability of the airship.
6.5.4 Rate of turn test

Rate of turn tests were performed with the side engines in full opposite thrust. The front and back engines, under the automatic control system, were again used to maintain a
ciii
civ
level altitude during the test. The time taken for the airship to yaw was recorded every 180 degrees. The results are shown in Figure 66.
Figure 66 - Rate of Turn Results
The main purpose of the airships yaw capability was to perform a 180 degree U turn. The time to complete this turn from rest was therefore important. The results of this test and the average rate of turn are shown in Table 69.
Table 69 - Rate of Turn Data Full Thrust 17.2 16.0 30
Time to complete 180 turn (s) Average rate of Turn (deg/s) Desired Rate of Turn (deg/s)
The table above shows the performance parameter of rate of turn was not met. The desired 30 degrees turn per second was initially based on a smaller design. The increase in volume between the initial design and the final design was 260%. As a result, the airship was only able to turn at an average rate of 16.0 degrees per second.
civ
cv
6.5.5 Control Response

The climb test data was further analysed to determine the response of the control system and to show how quickly the airship was stabilised at a height of three metres (Figure 67). The PID controller had been calibrated using the data collect in the first flight test.
Figure 67 - Blimp Response Test, 3m input
The engines were designed to switch off completely once the airship travelled over the 3 metre desired altitude. The graph shows that the airship initially overshot the desired 3 metres altitude, to a value of 3.8 metres. The airship then descends due to the excess weight. Once the airship fell to 3m, the engines switch back on but by this time the airship has already reached a significant rate of descent. As a result the engines are unable to quickly reverse the momentum and the airship undershoots. By further tuning the control system and making the airship closer to neutral buoyancy the overshoot and undershoot would be reduced.
6.5.6 Flight Time
cv
cvi
The second flight was completed over an eight hour period. In these eight hours a total of more than one hour was with the airship operating in full flight mode. The locomotion and automatic control batteries did not need recharging during this time. The battery life and hence total flight time exceeded the required 30 minutes.
6.6 Summary of the Flight Tests

The range of the ultrasonic sensor limited the cruise altitude of the airship to three metres. Consequently, the target takeoff and descent times were revised to half of their original values. The yaw and cruise parameters remained unchanged. The results of the tests are summarised in Table 610.
Table 610 - Revised and Achieved Performance Parameters
Parameter Cruise Altitude Takeoff time to reach hcruise Maximum Yaw rate Maximum Cruise speed Descent time from hcruise
Desired Value 6m 20 s 30/s 1 m/s 20 s
Revised Value 3m 10 s 30/s 1 m/s 10 s
Value Achieved 3m 8.9 s 16.0/s 1.14 m/s 10.8 s
The airship achieved the revised cruise altitude and takeoff time. The revised descent time of 10 seconds was not met for unassisted descent but was achieved with the assistance of the side engines. The target yaw rate was based on the original envelope size. Using the larger envelope it was only possible to turn at a maximum rate of 16/ second. The actual maximum cruise speed comfortably exceeded the desired value of 1 m/s. An even greater cruise speed could have been reached if a longer indoor test area was available.
cvi
cvii
7 Project Management
7.1 Timeline and Project Planning
7.1.1 Gantt chart
A Gantt chart was constructed at the beginning of the project to help plan the progress throughout the year. The research and feasibility study was to be finished by the beginning of the university year in March, leaving the majority of the time to be spent on design and construction of the airship. The envelope, gondola, propulsion and control systems were deemed to be the most important design and construction elements. The final flight tests were planned to be completed by the end of September.
Figure 71 - Preliminary Gantt chart for the Project
The team was able to follow the preliminary Gantt chart fairly closely throughout the project. The early completion of the feasibility study meant that design work was able to start roughly one month ahead of schedule. Most of the design work was completed on
cvii
cviii
time but construction of the gondola and envelope was frequently delayed. The number of test days was constrained by the availability of a suitable indoor area and the cost of helium. A more detailed Gantt chart can be seen in Appendix F.
7.2 Finance
7.2.1 Project Funding
There were two sources of funding for this project: the University of Adelaide as part of the final year project budget and an industry sponsor, BAE Systems Australia. The University provided a total of $500 for the project. This was based on the University final year project funding system whereby $300 is given for the first student and an additional $100 is given for every student thereafter. Hence, as there were 3 students in the project, $500 of support was given. In addition to the financial aid provided by the university, the Mechanical and Electronics workshop staff also provided many hours of technical support. The $500 budget was insufficient to cover the cost of the project and as a result sponsorship was sought from an outside source. BAE Systems Australia generously provided $3500 of finance. This meant that the total funding for the project was $4000.
7.2.2 Budget
To manage the funds provided for the project a budget estimate was developed. The largest part of the project spending was the cost of materials and components. The total actual cost for the project was similar to the original budget estimate. The main differences were in the cost of the Velcro, level sensor and RC hand unit. Unexpected expenditure for promotional material such as the open day poster and airship banner meant that the total money spent was slightly above the total budget. The estimated and final budgets can be seen in Appendix G. An estimation of total labour costs of the three team members is also included in Appendix G.
cviii
cix
cix
cx
8 Conclusion
8.1 Project Definition, Specification and Contract
The goals of the project were to design, construct and test a small airship that would achieve these objectives: To design and build an airship to meet specified flight parameters To implement a complete manual and partial automatic control system To have the ability to capture images and transmit them to the ground
The fully constructed airship achieved all but one of the principal flight characteristics (Table 81). The final airship was capable of lifting a payload of 1kg, twice the desired payload. The cruise speed achieved was 1.14m/s; this speed could have been greater if a longer indoor testing area was available. Testing showed that it was possible to operate the airship continuously for one hour, double the required time. The one parameter not achieved was a flight altitude of 6m. The reason for this was that the ultrasonic sensor purchased was not compatible with the control system and due to budget restraints had to be replaced with an ultrasonic sensor with less range. It was still possible to reach an altitude of 6m using manual control of the front and back engines. Table 82 shows the additional performance parameters: takeoff time, descent time and maximum yaw rate. Each of these parameters was affected by the envelope redesign and the limitation of the ultrasonic sensor.
Table 81 - Principal Flight Characteristics
Category Payload weight Cruise Speed Time of Flight Cruise height
Value 0.5kg 1m/s 30 mins 6m
Achieved 1kg (max) 1.14 m/s 60 mins 3m
cx
cxi
Table 82 - Additional Performance Parameters
Parameter Takeoff time to reach hcruise Maximum Yaw rate Descent time from hcruise
Desired Value 20 seconds 30/second 20 seconds
Revised Value 10 seconds 30/second 10 seconds
Value Achieved 8.9 seconds 16.0 /second 10.8 seconds
The full manual control system could control all modes of flight. The partial automatic control system was designed and successfully implemented to control the altitude and pitch of the airship. During partial automatic control the manual control system was used to control the yaw and cruise of the airship. The installed camera system successfully captured and transmitted a continuous video stream. The video stream was viewed and recorded on the computer at the ground station. The image quality and transmission range were acceptable but could be improved by using a more expensive camera setup.
8.2 Future Work

A new airship project could investigate the use of other features to improve the usability of the airship. These features could include a fully automatic control system, adapting the airship for outdoor flight and introducing ballonets into the envelope design.
The airship currently makes use of a semi-autonomous control system to maintain a level altitude and pitch angle. In future a fully automatic control system could be incorporated to also manage the yaw, roll and cruise speed of the airship. Additional ultrasonic sensors could be added on the front, rear and side walls of the gondola in order to sense the airships location. Currently the airship is designed for indoors use only. An outdoor airship would require the redesign of the envelope, ducted fans and tail section. The redesign would need to
cxi
cxii
account for factors such as wind and possible obstructions. It may be possible to reuse some of the components from this airship in a future project. As part of the envelope remodelling, ballonets could be used to control the ascent/descent and pitch of the airship. Although impractical in this project, ballonets may be more suitable in a larger design.
cxii
cxiii
Bibliography
Acroname, sales and product information website, 2007, URL www.acroname.com, Last accessed: May 2007 Aereon Corporation, Aereon 26 Hybrid Airship, 2006 Airship Solutions, 2007, URL www.airship.com.au, Last accessed: July 2007 Airship Solutions, sales and product information website, 2007, URL www.airship.com.au, Last accessed: May 2007 Applied Measurement Australia, 2007, URL www.appliedmeasurement.com.au, Last Accessed June 2007 Arbon et al, Wired Aerofoil Stabiliser Project, University of Adelaide, 2006 Arjomandi M. , Aeronautical Engineering 1 Notes, University of Adelaide, 2006 Arjomandi M. , Aeronautical Engineering 2 Notes, University of Adelaide, 2007 Australian Broadcasting Corporation, The Airships, 2004 Australian Civil Aviation Authority, CASA Regulations 101, 1998 B. Cazzolato, 2007. Personal correspondence Bain D, 2007. Personal correspondence Bartel G, 2007. Personal correspondence Betteridge, D., 2007. Personal correspondence Beer F. and Johnson R. , Statics, McGraw-Hill, 1988 C.S. Jin, National University of Singapore, Blimp Report, 2004 C.B.C. Bearing Co (SA) Pty Ltd, 2007. Personal correspondence Cole N., Control of Floating Ping-Pong Ball, University of Adelaide, 2007 cxiii
cxiv
Electronics Workshop, University of Adelaide, 2007. Personal correspondence EVB plus sales support, 2007. Personal correspondence F. Wormel, 2007. Personal Correspondence Fredericks, 2007, URL www.frederickscom.com, Last accessed: May 2007 G. A. Khoury, Airship Technology, Cambridge University Press, 1999 Grand Wing Servo, 2007, URL www.gws.com.tw, Last Accessed: June 2007 Hobby Habit, 2007, URL www.hobbyhabit.com.au, Last Accessed: May 2007 JMK, URL http://jmkcamera.com, Last Accessed: June 2007 Kotousov A, Stress Analysis and Design Lecture Notes, 2005 Lutz C., Simon airship report, Realgymnasium Rmibhl 1998 M. Arjomandi, 2006-2007. Personal Correspondence MatWeb Material Property Data website, 2007, URL http:// www.matweb.com, Last accessed: May 2007 Mechanical Engineering Workshop, 2007. Personal correspondence MIT (Massachusetts Institute of Technology) Open Course Ware website, 2007, URL http://ocw.mit.edu/index.html, Last accessed: May 2007 Model Flight, 2007, URL www.modelflight.com.au, Last accessed: July 2007 Munson R. , Fundamentals of Fluid Mechanics Fifth Edition, Wiley, 2006 N. Istsumi, 2007. Personal Correspondence P. Jackson, Janes all the worlds aircraft, London: S. Low, Marston & Co., 1909 Robert H., 2007. Personal correspondence Sensidyne Gas detection and Air monitoring website, 2007, URL http:// www.sensidyne.com, Last accessed: May 2007 cxiv
cxv
Southern Balloon Works, 2007. Personal correspondence Spark Fun Electronics sales support, 2007. Personal correspondence Spark Fun, 2007, URL www.sparkfun.com, Last Accessed July 2007 Steldi-air, 2007. Personal correspondence Tank Combat, 2007, URL www.rctankcombat.com, last accessed: June 2007 Tien Fu-Lu, 2007. Personal correspondence Tubb M., 2007. Personal correspondence University of Berkeley, Mechanical Engineering Blimp Report, 2004 University of Bombay, Design Fabrication of Remote Airship, 2004 Virginia Technical Univesity, Ikelos Aircraft Design Project, 2001 Wildman B, 2007. Personal correspondence Z. Prime, 2007. Personal Correspondence
cxv
cxvi
Appendix A - Drawings
cxvi
cxxxv
Appendix B Equations
B1 Lift Calculations for Various Gases:
Lifting force per cubic meter of helium:
Lifting force per cubic meter of hydrogen:
Lifting force per cubic meter of ammonia:
Lifting force per cubic meter of methane:
B2
Atmospheric effects:
Effect of temperature on lifting properties of helium: Ex, T = 20C = 293.15 K
cxxxv
cxxxvi
B3
Thrust Calculations:
cxxxvi
cxxxvii
cxxxvii
cxxxviii
cxxxviii
cxxxix
B4
Power Plant Calculations:
Side Engines:
30 minutes flight time includes + 30 minutes engine idle 20 minutes cruise (Current draw during cruise = 2.3A) 10 minutes maneuvering (Current draw during maneuvering = 3.5A) 30 minutes idle (Current draw during idle = 1A)
Battery solution: 7.4v 1800mAh Li-Po
Front & Rear Engines: 30 minutes flight time includes + 30 minutes engine idle 15 minutes climbing (Current draw during climb = 2.1A) 15 minutes hover (Current draw during hover = 1.5A) 30 minutes idle (Current draw during idle = 1A)
Battery solution: 7.4v 1800mAh Li-Po
cxxxix
cxl
B5
Gondola Structural Calculations:
Analysis of gondola floor plate:
Treated as a beam with supports
Using the weight of the components secured to the floor plate, the following table of cumulative shear was created.
cxl
cxli
Table B-1 Shear Force Data Distance (mm) 0 40 50 80 130 140 160 180 190 200 260 290 360 400 410 420 470 520 Cumulative Shear Force (N) 7.68 7.37 5.41 5.03 4.48 4.34 4.17 3.79 1.53 0.38 -1.52 -1.89 -3.34 -4.83 -5.61 -5.72 -7.68 0.00
This data was then graphed on a shear force diagram to better visually understand the cumulative shear over the length of the floor plate.
cxli
cxlii
Figure B-1 - Shear Force Diagram
This data was then be used to determine the bending moment across the length of the floor plate.
Using this formula, the following table of cumulative bending moments was created.
Table B-2 Bending Moment Data Distance (mm) Cumulative Moment (Nmm) 0 0 40 307 50 381 80 1308 130 1560 140 1605 160 1692 180 1775 190 1813 200 1828 260 1851 290 1806 360 1673
cxlii
cxliii
400 410 420 470 520
1539 1491 1435 1149 0
Using the data in the table above, a bending moment diagram was created, seen below.
Figure B-2 Bending Moment Diagram
The maximum bending moment was found to be 1.851N, which was used to determine the maximum stress experienced by the floor plate.
cxliii
cxliv
cxliv
cxlv
B6
Envelope Design Calculations:
cxlv
cxlvi
cxlvi
cxlvii
cxlvii
cxlviii
cxlviii
cxlix
Appendix C Automatic Control Code

Control Code Explanation:
To better understand the control code, a more in depth explanation is outlined below. The figure below is the over all code, which is broken into smaller sections and further explained.
Figure C-1 Overall Automatic Control Code
The FreePortComms_RX block has several settings which need to be set before operation with the Bluetooth setup. The following list outlines the selected settings.
cxlix
cl
Receive 1 element Communication port: 1 Baudrate 9600 bps Data type: unit8 Sample rate: 0.01 s
The figure below shows the Bluetooth section of the code.
Figure C-2 Bluetooth Code Section
The desired altitude is sent via the Bluetooth set up as a single number. This means the block only needs to receive one element. The serial level signal is received through SCI 1 port, which means the communication port selected was 1. The baudrate is the rate at which information is transferred to the modem. The single number input command leads to a very low size information transfer, so a low baudrate of 9600 bps was selected. The data type is a single number which means data type unit 8 is selected. The sample rate is the time at which the block refreshes the output. This sample time corresponds to the times of all other source blocks within the code. A zero order hold is used as a rate transition from the FreePortComms_RX source block. All source blocks require this rate transition. Every key on a keyboard corresponds to a number output through the Bluetooth. When the number 1 is pressed, the number 1 is not output straight into the
cl
cli
code. A value of 47.3 needs to be subtracted from the output of the FreePortComms_RX block
The output of the FreePortComms_RX block is routed to two areas of the code. The first area uses the height command in the PID controller. The output of the PID block is an every increasing value. It is the rate at which this value changes, which is used for the rest of the code. Directly after the output of the PID block, there is a low pass filter, which eliminates noise from the block. There are random peaks and troughs in the output, which when passed through a filter are eliminated. The result is a smoother output. The derivative block gives the rate of the output of the PID block. Another low pass filter is attached to the output of this derivative block. The derivative output is then saturated to allow for proper interface with a parallel section of the code. The figure below shows this PID section of the Simulink diagram.
Figure C-3 PID Section of Code
The output of the Bluetooth section of the code is also routed to an area which compares desired height to actual height. A sonar block has PTT pin 0 and 1 used to capture the times at which two voltages are sent high. The ping from the transducer is initiated from the sonar block through PTT pin 0. This sends a voltage high and starts a timer. When the echo is received by the transducer, an input voltage is sent high which stops the timer. The time elapsed is then output to the code. Again a zero order hold is used as a rate transition block. The output is then passed through a low pass filter to eliminate noise. The output is then scaled using a gain block. A fraction of actual height and desired height is then created. This fraction is then subtracted from the output of the PID section,
cli
clii
which gives an appropriate duty cycle input into the rest of the code. The figure below shows this section of the code.
Figure C-4 PID Duty Cycle Output
The next section exists as a subsystem within the code. The purpose of this subsystem is to further modify the duty cycle to allow for pitch correction.
Figure C-5 Duty Cycle Modification
An analogue to digital converter is used to read a voltage output of a tilt sensor. The output is the number of volts that are input into port. Again a transition block was used along with a low pass filter to eliminate noise. The voltage value was then sent through a function to convert the voltage into an angle. The duty cycle is input four times into this subsystem. The idea behind the pitch control is that when the airship is pitched at a positive angle the forward thrust is decreased, which means the full thrust of the rear engine will create a restoring moment to level the blimp out. Similarly for the situation where the blimp is pitched at a negative angle, the rear thrust is decreased. Two switches are used to determine if a reduced or a full duty cycle is needed based on the pitch angle. clii
cliii
If a full duty cycle is needed, the input is simply routed to the output via the switch. However if a reduced duty cycle is needed, the input duty cycle is passed through a function that reduces it based on the angle. This reduced duty cycle is then routed to the output of the subsystem. After basic testing with the gondola, it was feared that the airship may become unstable because of an ever increasing oscillating effect, due to the moments created because of the pitch control. To reduce the chance of this occurring during the test flight, the reduction in duty cycle was saturated so that the reduced duty cycle could not drop below 80% of the full duty cycle.
Figure C-6 Duty Cycle Modification due to Pitch
The output of the subsystem is two duty cycles, which are needed for the two speed controllers. The duty cycles then needed to be modified for input into the PWM blocks. A duty cycle of 0 needed to correspond to a pulse width of 1.2ms, where as a duty cycle of 1 needed to correspond to a pulse width of 1.8ms. The period of the PWM was set to 22ms, which is common for most speed controllers. The first gain block and sum block converted the duty cycle to a time, so the signal now varied between 1.2 and 1.8ms. A step function was then used to initially decrease this time to 1.1ms, so the speed motor was always off on start up. A low pass filter was used to eliminate any remaining noise left in the signal. The second gain block then converted the signal according to the 22ms period. The period between 1.2ms and 1.8ms was divided by 22ms to convert the value to a proper input for the PWM block. The PWM block then generated the proper signal for cliii
cliv
driving the two speed controllers. The figure below shows this section of the Simulink diagram.
Figure C-7 Final PWM Output
cliv
clv
Appendix D Flight Test Procedures

1. RC Flight Tests Procedures
On ground operation Tests
Equipment o Envelope o Gondola o RC Unit o Tie Lines o Manometer o Force Gauge
Gondola tests o Connect the timing belt to the servo system o Connect engines and servo to receiver o Switch on RC unit o Connect batteries to receiver then to engines o Using RC unit move the servo o Adjust the belt location to ensure correct rotation of engines o Test operation of front/ back engines and left/right engines separately and simultaneously
Attaching Gondola o Connect the gondola to the deflated envelope using tie line system connected to the rods of the gondola o Connect the gondola to the deflated envelope using the Velcro strips, ensuring strips are lined up and firmly attached clv
clvi
o Attach safety line to the Envelope
Envelope Inflation o Connect the pressure gauge and hose to the helium cylinder o Place other end of hose inside envelope o Turn on valve on the cylinder and commence filling o Stop filling (shut valve) when all the wrinkles in the envelope have disappeared o Disconnect hose and close envelope o Using manometer measure pressure inside the envelope o Using the force gauge measure the lifting force of the envelope with the gondola attached o Add weight to the gondola to make the airship 20grams overweight
clvi
clvii
Vertical Motion Test

Equipment o Airship o RC Unit o Force Gauge o Measuring string o Stop watch
Climb Test o Complete any non-completed pre-flight tests o Attach measuring string to the gondola o Turn on front/back engine to half power using RC unit o Adjust power input if required to keep airship level during climb o Using stop watch measure time for airship to climb from 1 to 3m altitude o Calculate the rate of climb o Once altitude of 3m is reached switch of front/back engine and start descent test o Repeat with engines at full power
Descent Test o Having reach the altitude of 3m using climb test, switch off both front/back engines o Wait for the engines to stop then record the time for the airship to fall from 3m to 1m o Calculate rate of descent o Repeat using the climb test to achieve the desired starting altitude
clvii
clviii
clviii
clix
Horizontal Motion Test

Equipment o Airship o RC Unit o Force Gauge o Measuring tape o Marking cones or tape o Stop watch
Prior to test set up cones of tape in a straight line at intervals of 1m across the test course.
Cruise Test o Complete any non-completed pre-flight tests o Using front/back engines bring airship to an appropriate cruise height o Use front/back engines to maintain level flight throughout the test o Switch on both side motors to half power o Measure time for airship to travel at least 5 metres o Calculate the average cruise speed o Use reverse cruise test to return airship to start position o Repeat test at full power
Reverse Cruise Test o Having reach the end of the cruise test course o Continue to use the front/ back motors to maintain level flight o Power the side motors in reverse up to half power o Measure the time for the airship to return to the start position on the test course o Calculate the average speed in reverse o Use the cruise test to return the airship to the end of the course
clix
clx
o Repeat test at full power
clx
clxi
Combined Horizontal and Vertical motion

Equipment o Airship o RC Unit o Force Gauge o Measuring string o Measuring tape o Marking cones or tape o Stop watch
Rotated Side Engines Cruise Climb Test o Complete any non-completed pre-flight tests o Attach measuring string to the gondola o Using the servo rotate the side motors 60 degrees o Turn on front/back and the side engines to half power using RC unit o Adjust power input if required to keep airship level during climb o Using stop watch measure time for airship to climb from 1 to 3m altitude o Record the horizontal distance travelled in this time o Calculate the rate of climb o Once altitude of 3m is reached switch of front/back engine and start the assisted descent test o Repeat with engines at full power o After test compare results with fixed motors cruise climb test
Assisted Landing Test
clxi
clxii
o Having reached the altitude of 3m using climb test, switch off both front/back engines o Ensure the side motors are still rotated at 60 degrees o Power the side engines in reverse at half power o Record the time for the airship to fall from 3m to 1m and the horizontal distance travelled during the descent o Calculate rate of descent o Repeat using the climb test to achieve the desired starting altitude o Compare result to descent without engine power
clxii
clxiii
Rate of Turn Test

Equipment o Airship o RC Unit o Force Gauge o Stop watch
Rate of turn side engines opposite thrust o Complete any non-completed pre-flight tests o Use the climb test procedure to bring the airship to a desired altitude o Use the front/back engine to maintain level flight and altitude o Ensure that the side motors are facing horizontal, if not use servo to rotate them back o Turn on left side motor in forwards motion and the right motor in reverse, both to half power (hence airship should turn to the right) o The time for the airship to turn 90 and 180 will be recorded o Rate of turn determined o Repeat this process for the right motor in forwards motion and the left motor in reverse, both to half power (hence airship should turn to the right) o Repeat this process with the engines at full power o After test compare rates of turn
clxiii
clxiv
2. Semi-Autonomous Flight Tests Procedures

On ground operation Tests
Equipment o Envelope o Gondola o RC Unit o Tie Lines o Manometer o Force Gauge o Computer
Gondola tests o Connect the timing belt to the servo system o Connect side engines and servo to receiver o Switch on RC unit o Connect batteries to receiver then to engines o Using RC unit move the servo o Adjust the belt location to ensure correct rotation of engines o Connect the front/back engines to Mini-dragon board o Switch on control system o Connect batteries to engines o Test operation of front/ back engines and left/right engines separately and simultaneously Attaching Gondola o Same As RC Test Envelope Inflation
clxiv
clxv
o Same As RC Test
Vertical Motion Tests

Equipment o Airship o RC Unit o Force Gauge o Measuring string o Stop watch o Computer
Climb Test o Complete any non-completed pre-flight tests o Attach measuring string to the gondola o Input the desired height into the control system o Using stop watch measure time for airship to climb from 1 to 3m altitude o Calculate the rate of climb o Input a desired height of 0.5m and start descent test o Repeat
Descent Test o Having reached the desired altitude using climb test, Input a desired height of 0.5m o Wait for the engines to stop then record the time for the airship to fall from 3m to 0.5m o Calculate rate of descent o Repeat using the climb test to achieve the desired starting altitude
clxv
clxvi
Level Flight Test o Using the climb test achieved desired cruise altitude o Measure fluctuations in altitude and time to recover o Complete all previous horizontal flight tests using the automatic control system to maintain the desired altitude
clxvi
clxvii
Horizontal Motion Tests

Equipment o Airship o RC Unit o Force Gauge o Measuring tape o Marking cones or tape o Stop watch
Cruise Test o Complete any non-completed pre-flight tests o Use the automatic control system to input and maintain a desired altitude o Switch on both side motors to half power o Measure time for airship to travel at least 5 metres o Calculate the average cruise speed o Use reverse cruise test to return airship to start position o Repeat test at full power
Reverse Cruise Test o Having reach the end of the cruise test course o Continue to use the automatic control system to maintain level flight o Power the side motors in reverse up to half power o Measure the time for the airship to return to the start position on the test course o Calculate the average speed in reverse o Use the cruise test to return the airship to the end of the course o Repeat test at full power
clxvii
clxviii
clxviii
clxix
Appendix E Safety Requirements
clxix
clxx
clxx
clxxi
clxxi
clxxii
clxxii
clxxiii
clxxiii
clxxiv
Appendix F Gantt chart
clxxiv
clxxv
Appendix G Costs and Working Hours

In addition to the costs of components the cost of labour also needed to be determined. The hours of each team member were recorded and the salary calculated based on an hourly wage of $25 per hour. Indirect costs were based on hours worked outside University.
Table G-1 Estimated Labour Costs Nov 06 -Jan 07 Name Nick Bartel Lachlan Ravenscroft Michael Nordestgaard Total Feb-April Name Nick Bartel Lachlan Ravenscroft Michael Nordestgaard Total May-July Name Nick Bartel Lachlan Ravenscroft Michael Nordestgaard Total Aug-Oct Name Nick Bartel Lachlan Ravenscroft Michael Nordestgaard Total Project Total ($) Hours 220 260 260 740 1944 Salary ($AUS) 5500 6500 6500 18500 48600 Indirect ($AUS) 7432 8784 8784 25000 56016 Total Cost ($AUS) 14362 16974 16974 48310 101860 Hours 201 189 182 572 Salary ($AUS) 5025 4725 4550 14300 Indirect ($AUS) 6791 6385 6149 19324 Total Cost ($AUS) 13122 12339 11882 37342 Hours 149 159 138 446 Salary ($AUS) 3725 3975 3450 11150 Indirect ($AUS) 5034 5372 4662 15068 Total Cost ($AUS) 9727 10380 9009 29117 Hours 60 61 65 186 Salary ($AUS) 1500 1525 1625 4650 Indirect ($AUS) 2027 2061 2196 6284 Total Cost ($AUS) 3917 3982 4243 12143
clxxv
clxxvi
clxxvi
clxxvii
Table G2 - Cost Estimates Part Materials/Components Mechanical Components Envelope Stabilisers Tow line Gondola Housing Motor / Ducted Fan (upwards thrust) Motor (Manoeuvring thrust) Ducted Fans Velcro Electronics Axial for motor Wiring Camera Set-up Level Sensor Maxbotix Ultra sonic range finder Bluetooth v2.0 SMD Module Bluetooth Modem - BlueDongle Serial Cable DB9 M/F - 6 Foot USB miniB Cable - 6 Foot 2.4GHz Duck Antenna RP-SMA Speed controller (brushless) Speed controller (reversible) Servos Receiver Minidragon Battery (Automatic) Instruments Charger Hand Controls (Pack including servos, battery and receiver) Battery Pack (upwards thrust) Battery Pack (manoeuvring thrust) Consumables Helium 2 200 $400.00 QTY Unit Cost Total Cost
1 1 1 1 2 2 2 3 4 1 1 1 2 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 1 2 1 1 1 1 1 1
700 50 10 100 80 65 30 10 5 20 150 62.5 31.25 87.5 87.5 5 5 10 44 60 0* 0* 119 61 100 1200 70 60
$700.00 $50.00 $10.00 $100.00 $160.00 $130.00 $60.00 $30.00 $20.00 $20.00 $150.00 $62.50 $62.50 $87.50 $87.50 $5.00 $5.00 $10.00 $88.00 $120.00
119 61 $100 $1200.00 $70.00 60
Total
(* price included in hand controls)
$3968.00
clxxvii
clxxviii
Table G-3 - Actual Funds Spent Part Materials Mechanical Components Envelope Bearings Axle Balsa Wood Motor / Ducted Fan (upwards thrust) Motor / Ducted Fan (horizontal thrust) Motor Initial test engine Ducted Fan initial test Servo pulleys and belt Electronics Camera Set-up Camera Battery Analogue to digital cable Ultra sonic sensor package Additional ultrasonic sensor Bluetooth v2.0 DIP Module Bluetooth Modem - BlueDongle USB miniB Cable - 6 Foot 2.4GHz Duck Antenna RP-SMA Speed controller (brushless) Speed controller (reversible) RC Unit Batteries Level sensor (clinometer) USB Connector cable Miscellaneous Workshop Costs Velcro Twine Cloth Tie Line Washers Banner Contact for fins Balsa wood + Glue Open Day Poster Helium QTY Unit Cost Total Cost
1 2 2 1 2 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 1 1 1 1 1 18 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2
725 7 5 83 80 72 60 35 32 70 17 45 85 52 70 85 10 9 44 85 385 203 376 40 20.25 5.95 3.5 1.66 5 5.5 132 3.5 14.85 334.4 220
$725.00 $14.00 $10.00 $83.00 $160.00 $144.00 $60.00 $35.00 $32.00 $70.00 $17.00 $45.00 $85.00 $52.00 $70.00 $85.00 $10.00 $18.00 $88.00 $170.00 $385.00 $203.00 $376.00 $40.00 $20.25 $107.10 $3.50 $1.66 $5.00 $5.50 $132.00 $3.50 $14.85 $334.40 $482.20
Total
$4088.96
Appendix H Minutes of Meetings
clxxviii
clxxix
MINUTES
OF MEETING HELD IN MAZIAR ARJOMANDIS OFFICE Thursday 23rd November 2006 PROJECT : The Design and Build of a small airship. ATTENDANCE Michael Nordestgaard
Lachlan Ravenscroft Nick Bartel Maziar Arjomandi, Supervisor MN LR NB MA
ITEM 1
DESRIPTION/EVENT INTRODUCTION:
ACTION/ RESPONSIBILITY
This was the first meeting with project supervisor Note Maziar Arjomandi and other team members. Discussed general details regarding the role of each individual in the team. 2 Timeline Main focus of the meeting was construction of basic timeline of how the project would evolve. 3 Theoretical Design Calculations The theoretical design work should be completed by NB, MN, LR February so materials can be ordered from overseas, if required. 4 Bill of Materials The Bill of Materials should be constructed in basic form, with further expansion once the Design Calculations are complete. LR MN
clxxix
clxxx
5 Sponsorship Try to promptly obtain sponsorship from industry/ DSTO to establish budget restrictions. 6 Research Similar projects should be researched vigorously and NB, MN, LR noted to gain knowledge into design and construction of small airships. 7 Ballonet The airship should not contain a ballonet. This feature Note will add extra weight requiring greater volume of lifting gas. 8 Camera System The airship will be fitted with a camera system. The total weight of the payload (including the camera system) would be 1 kg. Note NB
clxxx
clxxxi
MINUTES
OF MEETING HELD IN MAZIAR ARJOMANDIS OFFICE Monday 4th December 2006 PROJECT : The Design and Build of a small airship. ATTENDANCE Michael Nordestgaard
ITEM 1 Timeline
DESRIPTION/EVENT
MN presented MA with timeline. MA suggested timeline was good but should be split into two parts: Short term timeline (weekly, from Dec-March) Long term timeline (monthly until the end of MN the project) The timelines should be constructed using Microsoft Project. 2 Preliminary Design Calculations Basic calculations of weight of materials should be carried out to allow estimation of volume and dimensions of airship. 3 Bill of Materials Bill of Materials presented to MA. He suggested a more detailed approach closely linked to the preliminary calculations. LR NB, MN
Note
BOM should use a spreadsheet format using Microsoft Note Excel.
clxxxi
clxxxii
4 Preliminary Sketches From the BOM and Preliminary calculations, a number LR of sketches should be produced to allow better conceptualisation of the project. The sketches should be drawn using computer software Note such as Solid Edge. 6 Research MA requested that the research be documented closely NB, MN, LR and be carried out quickly. The focus should be on similar academic projects. A database should be compiled with websites, books, papers etc. and description of the information they contain. The database should be constructed using Microsoft Excel. 7 Ballonet During the week NB and MN discussed the advantages Note and disadvantages of using a ballonet. MA suggested that he was still opposed to the idea and that it would add weight to the design. More research needs to be conducted into this specific NB aspect. 8 Camera System The airship will be fitted with a camera system. MN Note proposed concerns about the large cost of a camera system, relative to the budget available. MA suggested the cost was not more than $200 as the camera will be fixed without remote control about axes. More research needs to be conducted into this specific aspect. MN MN
clxxxii
clxxxiii
9 Project Definition MA will send TT templates to show how to construct a NB correct project definition. The TT template aspects are: Engineering job Administration job Research Component
clxxxiii
clxxxiv
MINUTES
OF MEETING HELD IN MAZIAR ARJOMANDIS OFFICE 11th of December 2006 PROJECT : The Design and Build of a small airship. ATTENDANCE Michael Nordestgaard
ITEM 1 Research
DESRIPTION
Continue to look into similar sorts of projects. Particularly those undertaken by university students. The internet is the easiest way to find such projects. 2 Research General research into historical aspects of airships. 3 Timeline The timeline still needs to be completed and was delayed due to software limitations. Should be completed by next weeks meeting. 4 Statistics
MN NB LR
NB
MN
A database of statistics needs to be compiled. The MN database will be formed from the information gathered NB in the research. The statistics should include as many LR parameters as possible, not just numerical parameters. Stats could include geometric figures, weight, thrust, payload, fuel, drag etc.
clxxxiv
clxxxv
Questions Compile a list of questions that have been discussed in MN the initial stages of the design project. Aim for about NB 100 small questions. Then try to answer these questions LR individually. This exercise will give better understanding of the project as a whole and will promote discussion between group members.
Order to Buy Create a list of websites / companies that have MN necessary materials / equipment available. Note down NB the prices. Try to find companies that sell all LR components as well as fully assembled airships. It is preferable to buy everything from one company if that company is reliable and efficient. This will streamline the ordering process and should allow easier assembly of parts.
Progress Next weeks meeting will be the last for the year. The meetings will start again in Mid-January.
clxxxv
clxxxvi
MINUTES
OF MEETING HELD IN MAZIAR ARJOMANDIS OFFICE 18th of December 2006 PROJECT : The Design and Build of a small airship. ATTENDANCE Michael Nordestgaard
ITEM
DESRIPTION
EXPECTED DATE OF COMPLETION
Research Continue to look into similar sorts MN of projects. Particularly those NB undertaken by university students. LR The internet is the easiest way to find such projects. Mid January
Camera System MN presented example of camera MN system for purchase. MA suggested generating database of all available camera systems that could be used. 4-1-2007
Timeline Long term timeline needs to be completed and sent to MA in pdf format. MN 4-1-2007
clxxxvi
clxxxvii
Statistics MA was presented with statistics principally compiled by LR. MA was happy with results but suggested that some of the LR information needed to be sorted by NB year of production etc. A summary of the statistics (1-2 pages) also needs to be written so better use can be made of the information. Questions MA was pleased with the 40-50 MN small questions compiled. Need to NB try to find good answers to the LR questions from legitimate sources
4-1-2007
Ongoing / End of January
Calculations MA suggested that calculations of NB parameters such as thrust, cruising speed and volume need to be carried out and documented on paper. 4-1-2007
Helium MN had conducted preliminary research into helium costs but MN found it difficult to get conclusive figures from the internet. Will establish database similar to that for cameras.
Mid January
clxxxvii
clxxxviii
Weight/Size More accurate estimate is needed for the total weight of the airship with components and payload. Original 5kg estimate seems inaccurate based on some of the statistical information of Wpayload/ Wtotal .
LR NB
Mid January
Engine Database needs to be established for various types of engines. Structure should be similar to that LR required for helium and camera system components. Possible options would be battery/electric or some form of combustion engine.
Mid January
10
Minutes MA was happy with the look of the minutes template but suggested that there be completion dates MN incorporated. The expected date of completion column has been included in these minutes. Next Meeting The next meeting will be held on the 4th of January after the Christmas break.
N/A
11
clxxxviii
clxxxix
MINUTES
OF MEETING HELD IN MAZIAR ARJOMANDIS OFFICE 4th of January 2007 PROJECT : The Design and Build of a small airship. ATTENDANCE Michael Nordestgaard
ITEM
DESRIPTION
Statistics NB and LR have compiled extensive statistics from reliable sources. There should be enough NB information to carry out LR comprehensive analysis. At this stage there should not be any need for any new stats to be added. MA wants a graph comparing the payload, total weight and empty weight of other airships. This is important due to the fact that weight determines many of the other parameters of the airship.
Note
LR
9-1-07
clxxxix
cxc
Camera System As suggested by MA at the last meeting, MN compiled a database of available camera systems that would be suitable. The list includes the supplier, price and weight. The MN next stage is to select the best camera from the options. It appears as though the cameras are all fairly similar and relatively cheap.
Late January
Timelines MA viewed the short term timeline and suggested it needed to be slightly more detailed. The long MN term timeline needs to show the next 40 weeks with a focus on what needs to be done in each week.
9-1-07
4 Questions MN tried to answer most of the 50 questions that the group had previously prepared. The answers are predominantly opinions based on research that has been carried MN out. MN suggested that both LR LR and NB create a similar answer list NB of their own. The group will meet on the weekend and go over the opinions and try to come to some conclusions.
9-1-07
cxc
cxci
Calculations Using the weight estimate MN calculated the required volume of He gas required. The calculation tried to include a buffer, if there are changes. Using a method proposed MN by Lutz & Rigg, the dimensions LR (length and diameter) were also NB calculated based on the volume. The calculation needs to be further refined by the whole team and use fluid dynamics books as a reference.
9-1-07
Helium One of the reasons for the volume calculation was to assess the volume of helium required. This figure was then combined with the helium database, prepared by MN, MN to calculate an overall cost of LR Helium. For 3.6m^3 the cost is in NB the order of $250, and the total volume needed with testing, leakage etc. is likely to be >6m^3. This cost seems extremely prohibitive to the project and extensive investigation is required.
Mid January
Bill of Materials A more accurate version of the BOM needs to be created. The LR research that has been carried out MN should be used to make the BOM.
Mid/Late January
cxci
cxcii
MINUTES
ITEM
DESRIPTION
Mid-week meetings The group members prepared geometric calculations in two meetings held on the 7th and the 8th. Note In these meetings the group came to a couple of conclusions: Payload Based on the calculation, previously done by MN, for the overall volume of the airship, it was agreed that the project should be scaled down. The scaling relates to Note the expense that a large volume of helium would incur. Hence, the payload weight was not fixed at 1kg. A figure of around . 5kg is a more achievable target at present.
Note
Note
cxcii
cxciii
Calculations Based on statistics compiled of payload as a % of total weight, the group was able to estimate a target Note total weight. The target total weight is roughly 3-3.5 kg.
Note
4 Shape Using the weight estimate the group also looked at different envelope shapes and their dimensions. MA Note was pleased with the shapes and calculations presented. MA proposed that the group develop a spreadsheet so that repetitive calculations can be LR handled by the computer. This will allow optimisation of the dimensions.
Note
22-1-2007
cxciii
cxciv
Control System MA discussed that the airship must be automatically controlled in its LR elevation. He suggested a meeting MN with Ben Cazzalato to discuss this element. NB also presented MA with a system diagram showing how the control system will broadly function. The main point of discussion was whether or not the MN controller will be onboard or be LR remotely connected on the ground. NB Further research needs to be conducted in this aspect and the meeting with Ben should give a better understanding of what is involved.
Before next meeting
Before next meeting
Report NB prepared preliminary history section. The section was too long at MN ~15 pages. The figure needs to be NB reduced to 5-7 pages. MN will help to edit and cut down this section. Timeline MN prepared a 45 week timeline of the project with breakdowns of the main tasks. He plans to add to it as the project progresses with notes and further tasks. MA was happy with the timeline but suggested a better way to categorise the MN different tasks.
22-1-2007
Ongoing
cxciv
cxcv
MINUTES
OF MEETING HELD IN MAZIAR ARJOMANDIS OFFICE 22nd of January 2007 PROJECT : The Design and Build of a small airship. ATTENDANCE Michael Nordestgaard
ITEM
DESRIPTION
Calculations Based on extensive research conducted by the other group members, LR prepared a spreadsheet containing an automatic calculation method. The procedure works out the dimensions, weight of the envelope and overall total weight based on an input target weight. MA was happy with the spreadsheet as a whole but pointed out some concerns. Primarily he was worried about the inclusion of a safety factor without any reasoning for its value. The spreadsheet needs a little work in specific areas that, once done, will be a very useful and simple way of carrying out new calculations.
Note
Note
LR
29-1-07
cxcv
cxcvi
Research / Correspondence NB was able to talk to an employee with the firm Airship Solutions in Victoria. The company specialises in advertising and photography on small airships. The company advised on various aspects of airship design, principally envelope details. They said that purchasing a ready-made polyurethane envelope from them would cost ~$600. It would also be possible to purchase a PVC envelope from China at a significantly lower cost. The company is also reluctant to sponsor or provide materials for the group. It would be good to remain in contact with them for possible technical assistance, parts ordering etc.
Note
NB
Ongoing
Construction MA wants details on how the airship will be constructed, particularly the envelope. Preliminary research has already been done into this aspect but with no real outcome or findings.
MN
29-1-07
cxcvi
cxcvii
Control System The group contacted Ben Cazzalato for help and guidance with the control system. He was reluctant to help at this stage and recommended that we wait until the new semester starts. He also recommended that we enrol in Advanced Automatic Control and Advanced Digital Control as subjects this year. It is difficult for any of the group to do so. More research needs to be done in this area. MA suggested that the group also look at other past projects involving similar control system philosophies.
Note
MN LR NB
29-1-07
Airship Profiles MN began preparing a database of airships with picture, specifications and short description. As the project continues and other designs are looked at, MA suggested that we add them to the database. The database of all airships will eventually be included in the appendix of the final report.
MN LR NB
Ongoing
cxcvii
cxcviii
Sensitivity Calculations Based on the calculations spreadsheet that LR put together, a sensitivity analysis needs to be completed. The analysis should include graphs of how uncertainty in each variable impacts on the other factors. Some of the variables include payload, envelope properties and weights of components. The graphs can be prepared easily using the same iterative procedure and just inserting the uncertainty.
LR
29-1-07
Drawings With a better calculation and weight analysis done, it is possible to complete a better drawing of the intended design. The drawing should be dimensioned as much as possible. This should be done using Solid Edge, or similar, and should use techniques taught in Design Graphics.
NB
5-2-07
cxcviii
cxcix
MINUTES
ITEM
DESRIPTION
cxcix
cc
Design Drawings MA was happy with the calculations and sensitivity analysis that has been carried out. He is satisfied that the design process must now proceed to from conceptual to drawings. The drawings will need to show sufficient detail to build and assemble the airship. The drawings will need to include: Views from various angles and sides. Fully dimensioned details. Section and zoom-in of parts as appropriate. Part list (BOM) showing items, materials and quantities required. LR MN NB
12-2-2007 Fully Completed by 7-3-2007.
This will be the main focus of the group for the next two weeks. First draft drawings should be ready in two weeks and all drawings should be finished by Mid-March. 2 Price list
Closely integrated with the Part list shall be the price list. This list shall show all known items for the project with their cost. It may also be necessary to include an uncertainty factor in the costs for each item i.e. +/- 20%. This should stop unexpected cost blowouts.
NB MN
13-2-2007 fully completed by 7-3-2007
cc
cci
Control Aspects
NB did more research into the control elements of the project. He has also started communication with a cousin who works for BAE. Along with possible discussion with Ben Cazzalato. There may also be an opportunity to get a Mechatronics student, depending on his availability. It is likely that he has already enrolled into a different project.
NB MN LR
Ongoing
Presentation/Sponsorship
The group also needs to prepare a presentation/slideshow for prospective sponsors of the project. Part of the presentation has already been done but it needs to be cleaned-up and added to. The presentation/letters should be prepared as soon as possible and sent off. Sponsorship information needs to be determined so that the budget for the project can be set and parts can be ordered.
NB LR MN
13-2-2007
Abstract
As a part of the project MA has suggested that a research project also needs to be undertaken. The exact focus of the research has yet to be determined. An abstract of the report, not more than a page, should be prepared by the next meeting. This could also be used in conjunction with the presentation to prospective sponsors.
MN
13-2-2007
cci
ccii
MINUTES
OF MEETING HELD IN MAZIAR ARJOMANDIS OFFICE 12th of February 2007 PROJECT : The Design and Build of a small airship. ATTENDANCE Michael Nordestgaard
ITEM
DESRIPTION
Propeller System Design The group had two meetings since the last discussion with MA. The result of the meetings was a consensus on how the propellers would be integrated into the design. The proposed system would have a fixed propeller, facing downward, solely responsible for the automatic control of elevation. Two propellers fixed to the sides of the gondola would be responsible for yaw and pitch. MA did not agree with the design proposed by the group. He was concerned that it over-simplified the design and that in practice it would not work effectively. After long discussion MA agreed that the group could proceed with the consensus decision. Iterations of the design may need to take place to show the proof of concept.
MN LR NB
5-3-2007
ccii
cciii
Gondola Internals Flowing on from the discussion about the propeller arrangement was a discussion of how the gondola components would be organised. MN had prepared a drawing of the internals based on consensus propeller decision. MA suggested that more work was required on this element. The group argued that it was difficult to prepare a gondola design without a firm knowledge of how the propellers will be set-up. A meeting with Dr Ben Cazzalato would serve as a very good way to gain an insight into the probable components needed inside the gondola and their size, power requirements etc. MN LR NB
5-3-2007
cciii
cciv
MINUTES
OF MEETING HELD IN BEN CAZZOLATOS OFFICE 6th of March 2007 PROJECT : The Design and Build of a small airship. ATTENDANCE Michael Nordestgaard
Lachlan Ravenscroft Nick Bartel Ben Cazzolato, Coordinator MN LR NB BC
ITEM
DESRIPTION
cciv
ccv
Height Sensors The group asked BC for advice on possible methods of measuring the elevation of the airship. BC recommended the use of pressure sensors or ultrasonic sensors. He also suggested that it is possible to use a combination of both for increased accuracy of measurement. A pressure sensor would need to be calibrated for each time it was used to establish the specific the atmospheric conditions at that time. The variance in pressure may not be sufficient for the device to be used effectively. An ultrasonic sensor seems the preferred option over the pressure sensor, although it also has limitations. Principally, it appears as though the ultrasonic sensors can not operate at a height of above 6.5 metres, due to scattering of the reflected waves.
Notes
Automatic control communication uplink BC recommended using a receiver and transmitter communicating via Bluetooth radio frequency. A version 2 receiver and transmitter have a theoretical range of 100 metres, although BC warned that he had problems with drop-outs using Bluetooth. The setup of a Bluetooth system would be inexpensive.
ccv
ccvi
Radio control units BC suggested that it would definitely be possible to use a standard RC unit for our proposed design. The number of channels that would be needed largely depends on the way we choose to connect the various components. It may be possible to use one channel to provide the commands for the rotation of the two axles to provide pitch. Another channel could be used for switching the axle rotation from automatic to manual control.
Batteries Lithium-polymer batteries would be best suited for our design due to the better energy density per weight over NiCd or NiMH. BC also recommended that the powers supply for the automatic control components be separate to the power supply for the motors. This is due to the fact the motors can create fluctuations in the supply voltage, which can damage the LiPo batteries.
ccvi
ccvii
Controller / Processor BC suggested the use of a minidragon controller. This unit has been used on previous projects with good results. The price was around $200. The programming needed for the controller would not be beyond the groups capabilities, despite the apparent lack of knowledge in this area. Using the notes for Advanced Automatic Control the group should be able to create a SISO system. The programming needed for this could be done using a variety of different languages. The most likely is C (++) as the group has some experience with this language.
ccvii
ccviii
MINUTES
OF MEETING HELD IN MAZIAR ARJOMANDIS OFFICE 6th of March 2007 PROJECT : The Design and Build of a small airship. ATTENDANCE Michael Nordestgaard
ITEM
DESRIPTION
Control System The group reported to MA the results of the meeting with Dr Cazzolato. MA suggested that the group also arrange meetings with Tien-Fu Lu and Lei Chen to gain more practical information on control as well as robotics. MA still thinks that the control system is difficult to conceptualise, although he believes that the group has an understanding. Mainly for his benefit, he suggests that a summary of the control commands be developed to aid understanding. 9-3-2007 LR
13-3-2007 MN
ccviii
ccix
Gondola The group should be able to create a relatively accurate gondola design with the knowledge of parts required and their weights and sizes. MA suggested that fibre-glass be used as the material for the construction of the gondola. The workshop would be able to make the gondola if given sufficient detail of dimensions and design.
LR
13-3-2007
ccix
ccx
Envelope MA wants to finalise the design and order of the envelope as quickly as possible. The lead time on this part is expected to be long so it is essential that it is ordered soon (the original deadline for ordering of the envelope was March 18th). This poses problems in that the gondola design and weight has not been finalised and hence the total weight has not been finalised. The volume and design of the envelope is dependent on the amount of helium required to provide neutral buoyancy for the airship. The envelope and gondola design processes must be closely linked to one another as a result. NB has been in contact with two suppliers of envelopes. Rough quotes have been obtained for the construction of the envelope. The suppliers need to be contacted again with a view to purchasing ASAP. The design requirements need to be accurately conveyed to the suppliers so that they can produce the envelope. The leakage of the envelope is also an issue, with helium being relatively expensive. Modelling of the leakage needs to be carried out based on estimates of leakage rates from manufacturers. The modelling will be used to establish a testing itinerary for the airship and also to establish the total amount of helium required.
NB
13-3-2007
NB
16-3-2007
MN
13-3-2007
ccx
ccxi
Construction MA suggested that the initial goal of the group should be to construct the airship solely with the manual control system in mind. Once this has been achieved successfully, the automatic control system will be added to the gondola. Space in the gondola will still need to be allocated for the parts that make up the automatic control system.
Note
ccxi
ccxii
MINUTES
OF VISIT TO MODEL FLIGHT ON 8th of March 2007 PROJECT : The Design and Build of a small airship. ATTENDANCE Michael Nordestgaard
Lachlan Ravenscroft Nick Bartel MN LR NB
ITEM
DESRIPTION
General Information Group members had general discussion regarding speed controllers, motors and RC units.
Note
RC Unit It appears as though a more complex unit than was initially thought of. Changes in propeller setup may mean that the complexity of the unit will be reduced. Expected price range is $500$1000.
Note
ccxii
ccxiii
MINUTES
OF MEETING HELD AT NICHOLAS BARTELS HOUSE ON 3rd of May 2007 PROJECT : The Design and Build of a small airship. ATTENDANCE Michael Nordestgaard
Lachlan Ravenscroft Nick Bartel MN LR NB
ITEM
DESRIPTION
Drawings Fix shell pieces Check normal sizes Fix dimensions Order drawings for Workshop 8-5-2007 LR
Thrust Experiment Safety Report Make table/graph of results Compare experimental with theoretical results Write overall analysis of experiment and conclusions Ground Station Layout General outline of all necessary components and their role.
MN
8-5-2007
MN
8-5-2007
ccxiii
ccxiv
Control Aspects Group needs to decide on all parts needed for control system and begin purchasing. Coding discussion needs to progress Level Sensor should be finalised RC control and unit Need to work out modes/ channels based on the flight requirements and control. Decide on and purchase control unit. New Engine and ESC Purchased new reversible motor and appropriate speed controller. Need to arrange test setup with electronics workshop
MN NB LR
8-5-2007
MN NB LR
8-5-2007
NB
8-5-2007
ccxiv
ccxv
MINUTES
OF MEETING HELD IN S238 17th of May 2007 PROJECT : The Design and Build of a small airship. ATTENDANCE Michael Nordestgaard
ITEM
DESRIPTION
EXPECTED DATE OF COMPLETION 25-7-2007
Control System Located level sensor, but still searching for distributor of unit. Continuing code writing research and viable options for control system. Design of ground station including hardware needed completed. NB
NB
25-7-2007
NB
17-5-2007
Drawings Fix shell pieces Check normal sizes Fix dimensions Order drawings for Workshop
LR
31-5-2007
ccxv
ccxvi
Envelope Ordered, awaiting delivery NB 17-5-2007
RC control and unit Need to work out modes/ channels based on the flight requirements and control. Decide on and purchase control unit. NB LR MN
New Engine and ESC Purchased new reversible motor and appropriate speed controller. Need to arrange test setup with electronics workshop NB LR MN
ccxvi
ccxvii
MINUTES
OF MEETING HELD IN S238 31h of May 2007 PROJECT : The Design and Build of a small airship. ATTENDANCE: Michael Nordestgaard
ITEM
DESRIPTION
Control System Located level sensor. Obtain through Applied Measurement Australia Continuing code writing research and viable options for control system. NB
NB
25-7-2007
Drawings Gondola Drawings Completed LR 31-5-2007
Envelope Ordered, awaiting delivery NB 17-5-2007
ccxvii
ccxviii
RC control and unit Need to work out modes/ channels based on the flight requirements and control. Decide on and purchase control unit. NB LR MN 21-6-07
New Engine and ESC Set up completed Ready for test in next week NB LR MN 7-6-07
ccxviii
ccxix
MINUTES
OF MEETING HELD IN S238 7h of June 2007 PROJECT : The Design and Build of a small airship. ATTENDANCE Michael Nordestgaard
ITEM
DESRIPTION
Control System Continuing code writing research and viable options for control system. Found Matlab writing software. Located ultrasonic sensor. NB
NB
19-7-2007
RC control and unit Purchased RC unit NB LR MN 21-6-07
New Engine and ESC Repeat test using new engine, forward and rear engine. NB LR MN 7-6-07
ccxix
ccxx
Purchase of Ducted Fan Purchased brushed ducted fans for forwards and rear engines. NB LR MN 7-6-2007
Side Engines Find suitable side engines NB LR MN 21-6-2007
ccxx
ccxxi
MINUTES
OF MEETING HELD IN S238 21h of June 2007 PROJECT : The Design and Build of a small airship. ATTENDANCE Michael Nordestgaard
ITEM
DESRIPTION
Control System Continuing code writing research and viable options for control system. Purchase remaining parts for automatic control. RC control and unit Test unit with front and rear engines. NB
NB
5-7-2007
NB LR MN
5-7-07
New Engine and ESC Test completed, expected thrust achieved NB LR MN 21-6-07
ccxxi
ccxxii
Purchase of Ducted Fan Purchased side engines from model flight (reversible) NB LR MN 21-6-2007
Test of New Fans Test new fans for achievable thrust NB LR MN 5-7-2007
ccxxii
ccxxiii
MINUTES
OF MEETING HELD IN S238 5th of July 2007 PROJECT : The Design and Build of a small airship. ATTENDANCE Michael Nordestgaard
ITEM
DESRIPTION
Control System Continuing code writing research and viable options for control system. Start plans for electrical workshop to construct autopilot. NB
NB
19-7-2007
Side engines Found Suitable side engines, test completed. NB LR MN 5-7-07
Prepare for Open day 23-8-2007 Get graphics from Adelaide University and BAE systems to use on airship banner Make list of this needed for completion. NB LR MN
ccxxiii
ccxxiv
Prepare for upcoming test Make list of flight procedures and uncompleted tasks
ccxxiv
ccxxv
MINUTES
OF MEETING HELD IN S238 19th of July 2007 PROJECT : The Design and Build of a small airship. ATTENDANCE Michael Nordestgaard
ITEM
DESRIPTION
Control System Continuing code writing research and viable options for control system. Put auto-parts in for construction NB
NB
19-7-2007
Prepare Poster X-Stand poster for open day. Also can use for final exhibition. MN 23-8-2007
Prepare for Open day 23-8-2007 Get graphics from Adelaide University and BAE systems to use on airship banner Make list of this needed for completion. NB LR MN
ccxxv
ccxxvi
Test Carry out initial flight test, gaining data for blimp response. MN LR NB 26-8-2007
ccxxvi
ccxxvii
MINUTES
OF MEETING HELD IN MAZIAR ARJOMANDIS OFFICE Thursday 26th July 2007 PROJECT : The Design and Build of a small airship. ATTENDANCE Michael Nordestgaard
ITEM 1
DESRIPTION/EVENT Automatic Control NB had made progress in developing the control system using Simulink. By next meeting MA would like to see a demonstration of the control hardware functioning.
NB by next meeting
2 Assembly of Gondola With the gondola being finished by the workshop it is now possible to install all wiring and components into MN and LR the floor. This will be a priority this week and requires the input of the electronics workshop. 3 Test Venue Test venue location and date needs to be finalised as soon as possible. NB
ccxxvii
ccxxviii
4 Test procedures LR presented test procedures for all the tests that need LR by next meeting to be conducted. MA suggested that they be divided more concisely into pre-flight, flight and post-flight categories. 5 Publicity for project MN suggested that publicity for the project should be MN organised when a strong visual impact can be made ie when the airship is flying properly. Helium MN organised the delivery of a GX size (9.1m^3) cylinder of helium from Air Liquide. The Mechanical Workshop also advised that they had a cylinder of helium that could be made available to the project. Safety issues with the helium cylinder need to be discussed with Richard and Joel the two principal safety officers of the School. 7 Pressure Tests The envelope was filled with air to record the leakage rate of gas. Further tests will be conducted on an MN and LR ongoing basis. 8 Envelope Workmanship NB contacted Airship Solutions to discuss holes/ patches on the envelope. There may have been a mix- NB up with the envelope and Airship Solutions will advise of further action- possibly making a new envelope.
MN and LR
ccxxviii
ccxxix
MINUTES
OF MEETING HELD IN S238 2nd of Aug 2007 PROJECT : The Design and Build of a small airship. ATTENDANCE Michael Nordestgaard
ITEM
DESRIPTION
EXPECTED DATE OF COMPLETION -5-2007
Control System Continuing code writing research and viable options for control system. Start programming interface with existing code. Prepare for Open day Pick up airship banner Complete remaining tasks for open day. NB
NB
25-7-2007
NB LR MN
23-8-2007
Seminar Begin work on seminar. Power point presentation/talk Test Write up findings for test. NB LR MN MN LR 17-9-2007
9-8-2007
ccxxix
ccxxx
Envelope Design and send away for new envelope. NB 9-8-2007
ccxxx
ccxxxi
MINUTES
OF MEETING HELD IN MAZIAR ARJOMANDIS OFFICE Thursday 9th August 2007 PROJECT : The Design and Build of a small airship. ATTENDANCE Michael Nordestgaard
ITEM 1 Testing
DESRIPTION/EVENT
NB organised a test date on Saturday 11/8 from 1pm to 5.30 pm at the Scotch College Gymnasium. MA may NB attend also. Most of the tasks that need to be performed relate to this test. 2 Banner Printing MN has organised the banner to be printed by Visualcom, on Currie Street. Should be ready by Friday MN afternoon for the test on Saturday. Expected cost is $150 3 Helium Regulator A helium regulator nozzle needs to be found for the MN cylinder. The electrical engineering department has lent us a regulator.
ccxxxi
ccxxxii
Battery Charging All batteries need to be charged and ready to go on Saturday. The battery charger also needs to be with us MN, LR when testing to recharge batteries. The charger belongs to Ben Cazzolato and he needs to give permission to borrow it.
Gondola Attachment The Velcro used to attach the gondola to the envelope is not a perfect connection. The group plans to MN, LR distribute the load through the hook connector on the under side of the envelope. Further strips of Velcro will also be added but they are unlikely to have such as significant effect as the hook connection.
Camera Computer and camera system needs to be re-tested on NB, MN Friday to ensure all is working correctly.
Tail Fins The tail fins need to be attached to the envelope on Friday using a different configuration of tensioning wire. MN, NB, LR
Transporting materials The gondola, helium cylinder and all other necessary components need to be collected on Friday and then MN, LR, NB transported to the test venue. A small trolley is needed to transport the helium when at Scotch College.
Open day Signage Need to organise open day signage. MA suggested to consult with UAV and Pulse Jet groups. MA also suggested an upright banner (2m high) as well as a poster.
MN and LR
ccxxxii
ccxxxiii
10
Seminar and Report The seminar and draft report need to be discussed more MN, NB, LR frequently and more work needs to be done.
11
Safety Procedures and Risk Assessment Need to prepare safety precautions for flight testing. A MN Risk Assessment document also should be prepared before Saturday.
MINUTES
OF MEETING HELD IN S238 16th of Aug 2007 PROJECT : The Design and Build of a small airship. ATTENDANCE Michael Nordestgaard
ITEM
DESRIPTION
Control System Continue programming and refining code. Test and confirm all parts work properly. NB
NB
30-7-2007
Seminar Continue work on seminar. Power point presentation/talk NB LR MN 17-9-2007
ccxxxiii
ccxxxiv
Prepare for Open day Complete remaining tasks for open day. Organise compressed air for open day. Envelope Waiting delivery of new envelope NB 30-8-2007 NB LR MN 23-8-2007
ccxxxiv
ccxxxv
MINUTES
OF MEETING HELD IN S238 30th of Aug 2007 PROJECT : The Design and Build of a small airship. ATTENDANCE Michael Nordestgaard
ITEM
DESRIPTION
Control System Continue programming and refining code. NB
Send away for new ultrasonic sensor Contact Zebb Prime for hardware advice. 2 Seminar Continue work on seminar. Power point presentation/talk Increase work load. Prepare for practice with MA and Dorethy.
NB NB
6-9-2007 6-9-2007
NB LR MN
17-9-2007
ccxxxv
ccxxxvi
MINUTES
OF MEETING HELD IN S238 13th of Sep 2007 PROJECT : The Design and Build of a small airship. ATTENDANCE Michael Nordestgaard
ITEM
DESRIPTION
Control System Finalise code NB
Test Finalise preparations for test NB LR MN 28-9-2007
ccxxxvi
ccxxxvii
MINUTES
OF MEETING HELD IN S238 27th of Sep 2007 PROJECT : The Design and Build of a small airship. ATTENDANCE Michael Nordestgaard
ITEM
DESRIPTION
Control System Completed NB
Test Complete any last minute test procedures. Complete tasks remaining for test NB LR MN 28-9-2007
Report Start compiling documents needed for report. Start reviewing preliminary report. LR MN 19-10-2007
ccxxxvii
MINUTES
OF MEETING HELD IN S238 4th of Oct 2007 PROJECT : The Design and Build of a small airship. ATTENDANCE Michael Nordestgaard
ITEM
DESRIPTION
Test Write up results of test. Compile data and write lab report LR NB 11-10-2007
Video Footage Edit footage for use in a movie for exhibition. Write story board for video sequence. Return Equipment. Report Continue with work for report. Finalise for draft hand up on 8th. MN LR NB 8-10-2007 MN NB 26-10-2007
ii
Exhibition Make a list of tasks to be completed before exhibition. Begin completing tasks
ii
iii
MINUTES
OF MEETING HELD IN S238 11th of Oct 2007 PROJECT : The Design and Build of a small airship. ATTENDANCE Michael Nordestgaard
ITEM
DESRIPTION
Video Footage Edit footage for use in a movie for exhibition. Continue editing work on footage with use of story board Report Increase work load on report to finalise. MN LR NB 19-10-2007 MN NB 26-10-2007
Exhibition Arrange for helium return. Make new fins
iii
iv
iv

Executive Summary: Design and Build A Small Airship

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Description:

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Executive Summary: Design and Build A Small Airship

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Design and Build a Small Airship

Design and Build a Small Airship

Design and Build a Small Airship

Design and Build a Small Airship

Design and Build a Small Airship

Design and Build a Small Airship

Design and Build a Small Airship

Design and Build a Small Airship

Design and Build a Small Airship

Design and Build a Small Airship

Design and Build a Small Airship

Design and Build a Small Airship

Design and Build a Small Airship

Design and Build a Small Airship

Design and Build a Small Airship

Design and Build a Small Airship

1.2 Flight Characteristics

Category Payload weight Cruise Speed Time of Flight Cruise height

Value 0.5kg 1m/s 30 mins 6m

Design and Build a Small Airship

Table 12 - Manoeuvrability Requirements

Manoeuvre Yaw Pitch

Control Controlled manually Controlled automatically

1.3 Standard Requirements

1.4 Budget Constraints

Design and Build a Small Airship

Design and Build a Small Airship

2.2 Analysis of Similar Projects

2.2.1 Envelope and Gondola Design

Figure 21 - Envelope shape analysis (C.S. Jin, 2003)

Design and Build a Small Airship

Figure 22 - Gondola belonging to the airship project Simon (Lutz, 1998)

Design and Build a Small Airship

2.2.2 Propulsion System

Figure 23 - Ducted fan example (University of Bombay, 2004)

Design and Build a Small Airship

Figure 24 - Servo controlling swivel of a tank turret (RC tankcombat.com, 2007)

2.2.3 Performance Characteristics

2.2.4 Special Systems

Design and Build a Small Airship

Figure 25 - Automatic Control system (C.S. Jin, 2003)

Design and Build a Small Airship

Figure 26 - Heavy Duty SLR/Digital Camera Mechanism (Airships Solutions, 2007)

2.3 Statistical Analysis

2.3.1 Length to Width Ratio

Design and Build a Small Airship

Figure 27 - Length / Width Graph All Airships

Design and Build a Small Airship

Figure 28 - Length / Width Graph, Airships (Wo < 1 tonne)

2.3.2 Thrust to Weight Ratio

Design and Build a Small Airship

Figure 29 - Thrust to Weight ratio graph

Design and Build a Small Airship

Figure 210 - Thrust/Weight vs Weight graph

Design and Build a Small Airship

2.3.3 Empty Weight to Takeoff Weight Ratio

Figure 211 - Empty weight to takeoff weight ratio graph

Design and Build a Small Airship

Figure 212 - We / Wo ratio vs Takeoff weight graph - (Wo < 1 Tonne)

Design and Build a Small Airship

Design and Build a Small Airship

Figure 31 - Turning moments of an airship in flight (Khoury, 2004)