Formulae Book

Mentor: Sandeep Joshi, Assistant Professor,

Department of Electronics and Communication

A.Swathi, Ch.Geethika, G.Agastya, K.Varshine, M.Rakesh, N.Swetcha, P.Sai Sandeep, P.Sarath Narayan,P.Sharanya, P.Srinivasa Prithvi

Table of Contents

Circuit Analysis

Network Theorems

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Resonance and Transient Analysis

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Electronic Devices and Components

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Transformers and Magnetic Circuits

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Circuit Analysis
KIRCHHOFF`S CURRENT LAW: Kirchhoff`s current law (KCL) states that the algebraic sum of the currents entering and leaving an area, system, or junction is zero.

KIRCHHOFF`S VOLTAGE LAW: Kirchhoff`s voltage law (KVL) states that the algebraic sum of the potential rises and drops around a closed loop (or path) is zero.

+E - V1 - V2 = 0

CURRENT DIVIDER RULE: For two parallel elements of equal value, the current will divide equally. For parallel elements with different values, the smaller the resistance, the greater the share of input current. For parallel elements of different values, the current will split with a ratio equal to the inverse of their resistor values.

VOLTAGE DIVIDER RULE: The voltage across a resistor in a series circuit is equal to the value of that resistor times the total impressed voltage across the series elements divided by the total resistance of the series elements.

STAR - DELTA TRANSFORMATION:

POWER: The power delivered to a load at any instant is defined by the product of the applied voltage and the resulting current.

P = VI
Apparent Power: The power delivered to a load without consideration of the effects of a power-factor angle of the load. It is determined solely by the product of the terminal voltage and current of the load.

S = VI P = Scos
FP = cos = Power Factor = P / S

Reactive power: The power associated with reactive elements that provides a measure of the energy associated with setting up the magnetic and electric fields of inductive and capacitive elements, respectively.

(As V = IXL)

The Power Triangle: The three quantities average power, apparent power, and reactive power can be related in the vector domain by

S=P+Q S2 = P2 + Q2 since the reactive power and average power are always angled at 900 to
each other. The Total P, Q, and S: The total number of watts, volt-amperes reactive, and volt-amperes, and the power factor of any system can be found using the following procedure: 1. Find the real power and reactive power for each branch of the circuit. 2. The total real power of the system (PT) is then the sum of the average power delivered to each branch. 3. The total reactive power (QT) is the difference between the reactive power of the inductive loads and that of the capacitive loads. 4. The total apparent power is 5. The total power factor is PT/ST.

INDUCTIVE REACTANCE and CAPACITIVE REACTANCE:

For any configuration (series, parallel, seriesparallel, etc.), the angle associated with the total impedance is the angle by which the applied voltage leads the source current. For inductive networks, T will be positive, whereas for capacitive networks, T will be negative.

CDR and VDR:

Frequency Response of series R-C circuit f1 = 1/2RC

Frequency Response of parallel R-L circuit f2 = R/2L THREE PHASE GENERATOR:

EAN=Em(AN)sin(t) EBN=Em(BN)sin(t-120) ECN=Em(CN)sin(t-240) or ECN=Em(CN)sin(t+120) EAN+ EBN+ ECN=0 THE Y-CONNECTED GENERATOR:

The line current equals the phase current for each phase. The magnitude of the line voltage of a Y-connected generator is 3 times the phase voltage.

THE Y-CONNECTED GENERATOR WITH A Y-CONNECTED LOAD:

THE Y- SYSTEM:

For balanced load:

THE -CONNECTED GENERATOR:

Network Theorems
Source Conversion: Two types of source conversions are possible. They are: Voltage to current source. Current to voltage source. Conversion of voltage source to current source: When voltage source is in series with resistance, that can be converted into current source by using

I=
Conversion of current source into voltage source: When current source is parallel to the resistance, that can be converted into voltage source by using

V = IR
Mesh analysis: Identify loops, whether they`re closed or independent. Apply KVL in the loops. Solve the equations in each loop and find the required currents.

By applying KVL in 1st loop: E1 + i1R1 + R2(i1 i2) = 0 2nd loop: E2 + R2 (i2i1) + R3i2 = 0 Find i1 & i2, by solving these equations.
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Super Mesh: If a current source can`t be converted into voltage source, then super mesh is applied. The current source which can`t be converted into voltage source is to be open circuited. Then apply KVL to all the remaining independent path of the network using the mesh currents and solve them to find the required currents.

Nodal Analysis: Determine the number of nodes within the network. One node is to be taken as a reference node and the others are labeled as v1, v2etc. Apply KCL at each node except the reference. Assume that all unknown currents leave the node for each application of KCL. Solve the resulting equations.

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Super Node: In the circuit, if the voltage source isn`t in series, it can be converted into current source by following these steps:

Start as specified in nodal analysis and assign a nodal voltage to each independent node of the network. Now write the combined equation of both the nodes V1 and V2 by assuming all currents away from nodes.

From the resulting equations find V1 and V2.

Thevinin`s Theorem: Any two-terminal, linear bilateral dc network can be replaced by an equivalent circuit consisting of a voltage source and a series resistor.

Remove the component of the network, where Thevinin equivalent circuit is found. So RL is temporarily removed. RTh / ZTh is calculated by setting all sources to zero, current sources to be open circuited and voltage sources to be short circuited. ETh / VTh is found across the open circuit by returning all sources to their original positions. Now, Thevinin Equivalent circuit is drawn which consists of RTh / ZTh, ETh / VTh, and RL.

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Norton`s Theorem: Any two-terminal linear bilateral dc network can be replaced by an equivalent circuit consisting of a current source and a parallel resistor. Remove the position of network across which Norton`s equivalent circuit is to be found. Find RN by setting all sources to zero i.e., by replacing voltage sources with short circuits and current sources with open circuits. Now, IN is found by replacing all sources to their original positions and then finding the short circuit current between the marked terminals.

Superposition Theorem: The current through, or voltage across, an element in a linear bilateral network is equal to the algebraic sum of the currents or voltages produced independently by each source.
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Millman`s Theorem: Through the application of Millman`s theorem, any number of parallel voltage sources can be reduced to one.

Convert all voltage sources to current sources. Combine parallel current sources. Convert the resulting current source to a voltage source, and the desired single-source network is obtained.

Maximum Power Transfer Theorem: A load will receive maximum power from a linear bilateral dc network when its total resistive value is exactly equal to the Thvenin resistance of the network as seen by the load.

Note: All the above mentioned Network Theorems are applicable also in the case of AC except Maximum Power Transfer Theorem.

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Resonance and Transient Analysis

Resonance: It is the tendency of a system to oscillate at greater amplitude at some frequencies than at others. Resonance in the electric circuits occurs when Reactance and Capacitance are equal.

XL = XC
Series Resonance:

Resonant Frequency:

Current through the resonant circuit:

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THE QUALITY FACTOR (Q): The quality factor Q of a series resonant circuit is defined as the ratio of the reactive power of either the inductor or the capacitor to the average power of the resistor at resonance.

Half Power Frequency: Half-power frequencies are those frequencies at which the power delivered is one-half that delivered at the resonant frequency.

Cutoff Frequencies:

Band Width: The difference between upper and lower cutoff frequencies is called Band width.

The ratio (f2 - f1)/fs is sometimes called the fractional bandwidth, providing an indication of the width of the bandwidth compared to the resonant frequency.

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Parallel Resonance:

Resonant Frequency:

Maximum Impedance:

Quality Factor:

Cutoff Frequencies:

Band Width:

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Response of R, L, C Network: Complete Response = Transient Response + Steady State Response RL Transients:

RL Decay Transients:

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RC Transient:

Decaying Transient:

RLC Transients:

RL Transients (AC):

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RC Circuit (AC):

RLC Circuit (AC):

Second Order Circuits:

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Step Response of series RLC circuit:

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Step Response of a Parallel RLC circuit:

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Electronic Devices and Components

Diodes: Ideal diode: It acts as a switch. It`s a short circuit for the region of conduction. For short circuit resistance is zero and for open circuit is infinity. In the region of non-conduction it acts as open circuit. Semiconductor materials: Increase in temperature increases the number of electrons in the material. Doping in a semi-conductor material gives extrinsic conductor. Semi- conductor diode is formed by bringing n type and p type materials together. The region covered by both positive and negative ions is called depletion region. No bias: Voltage across diode is zero Forward Bias: Voltage across diode is greater than zero Reverse Bias: Voltage across diode is less than zero Id =Is(ekVd/TK 1)- for forward and reverse bias Voltage across silicon diode= 0.7V Voltage across germanium diode=0.3V Reverse saturation current (Is) doubles for every 10C increase in temperature. Characteristics: 1) Piecewise linear model 2) Simplified model 3) Ideal case

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In the reverse-bias region we have the transition- or depletion-region capacitance (CT); while in the forward-bias region we have the diffusion (CD) or storage capacitance. Zener Diode: Reverse bias potential results in change in potential called zener potential. The maximum reverse-bias potential applied before entering the Zener region is called the peak inverse voltage (PIV) or the peak reverse voltage (PRV).

Comparing zener diode and normal semi-conductor:

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Diode applications:

By KVL, E -VD -VR = 0 For a sinusoidal half-wave, Vdc = 0.318Vm

For half-wave rectifier, Vdc = 0.318(Vm - VT) and PIV ratingVm

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Full-Wave Rectifier:

Voltage for full-wave rectifier, Vdc =0.636Vm Vdc = 0.636(Vm - 2VT) and PIV Vm Centre-Tapped Transformer:

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PIV 2Vm CLIPPERS (showing input and output):

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CLAMPERS (showing input and output):

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Transistor: It is an electronic device used as a switch to change from the state of conduction to non-conduction. It is also used as an amplifier to increase the signal. They`re two types of Transistors: 1) BJT (current controlled) i. ii. npn pnp

2) FET (Voltage controlled) npn:

I/P IE, VBE (variable) & VCB (constant) O/P IC, VCB (variable) & IE (constant)

Common Base: It is called so because base is common for input and output. One pn junction is forward biased and other is reverse biased. pnp:

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Transistor Characteristics: Input Characteristics: Output Characteristics:

Three Regions: Cut off (off state) [IE = 0 & Ic = 0] Saturation (doesn`t act like amplifier) [VCB = 0] Active (functioning zone)

In active CB Junction is reverse biased while BE is forward biased. Cut off region CB and BE are both reverse biased. In saturation CB and BE are both forward biased. Once the transistor is on BE voltage is considered to be 0.7V

Amplification Factor ():

(dc) =

Common base configuration

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IC = IE+ICBO (ac) =
E

Maximum Value is 1 Range is 0 to 1 (Ideal) and 0.8 to 0.9 (Practical)

ICEO = ICBO /1-

: Current gain in common emitter configuration: I/P B-E current O/P C-E Current

(dc) = =
Biasing:

(VCE constant)

Operating Point or Quiescent Point is the region employed for amplification of applied signal. Maintenance of Operating point is given by stability factor (S) which gives the degree of change of Operating point due to temperature zone. Fixed Bias Circuit:

For DC, capacitor works as an open circuit. VCC IBRB VBE = 0 Forward Bias of base emitter. VCC ICRC VCE = 0 Collector Emitter Loop

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Maximum Saturation Value = VCC / RC VCE = VC - VE VBE = VB VE Emitter Biased Configuration:

Base Emitter Loop VCE = VCC IC(RC+RE) Collector Emitter Loop VCC - VCE = RE - ICRE

Voltage Divider Bias:

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ETh IBRTh VBE IERE = 0 VCC = VCC IC(RC+RE) Operational Amplifier (Op-Amp): Function: When two inputs are there, the difference of two voltages is amplified.

Single Ended Mode:

V2-V1 Amplified V1>V2 Inverting V1<V2 Non-inverting Common mode for testing Op-amp: Amplitude, Phase, Frequency are same. Ideal Op-amp:

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Access Amplifier Input Z Output 0 Gain is

When we give same inputs, the transistor amplifies the disturbance around. To avoid this CMRR is used. CMRR = AOL / ACM Inverting Amplifier:

AV = ifRf / iinRin Non-Inverting Amplifier:

AV = VO / VIN = 1+ (R2/R1) Input offset voltage Difference in dc input voltage applied such that Vout=0. Input bias current Average of input currents. Input offset current difference in input currents. Sleve Rate Change in Vout per time. fmax = S.R / 2Vpp S.R =
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Voltage follower / Unity gain Amplifier:

Inverting / V Vo = -RfVin / Rin Non-Inverting / V Vo = [1+(Rf / Rin)]Vin Op-amp as summer:

1 f

IT = I1+I2+I3 Vout = -Rf[(Vin1/R1)+(Vin2/R2)+(Vin3/R3)] Op-amp as subtractor:

Vox+Voy = -R2(Vx-Vy) / R1

(If R1 = R3 then R2 = R4)

Voy = Vy[R2 / (R4+R3)][1+(R2 / R1)]

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Vox = -R2Vx / R1 Op-amp as differentiator:

Vo = -RC
Op-amp as integrator:

Vo = (-Vin / R1C)dt

Log Amplifier:

Vf =[ KRT / q][log((Vin/R)/IR]

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Transformers and Magnetic Circuits

Transformer is an apparatus by means of which electric power in one circuit is transformed into electric power of the same frequency in another circuit.

Principle of Working Mutual Induction Primary connected to input

Secondary connected to output Self-Inductance:

ep = Np.dp /dt = Lp.dip/dt es = Ns.dm /dt = Ns.dm /dt

m is the portion of flux in primary coil that links the secondary coil.
Co-efficient of Coupling: k=

m/ p

Mutual Inductance:

M = Nsdm/dIp = Npp/dIs M = kLpLs es = Mdip/dt = Mdis/dt

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E.M.F. Equation of a transformer: Any rate of change of flux = Average emf = 4f Form factor = rms value/average value = 1.11

m volts

E1/N1 = E2/N2 = 4.44fm

Voltage Transformation Ratio: E2/E1 = N2/N1 = k i. ii. If k>1, then it is called step-up transformer. If k<1, then it is called step-down transformer.

Transformer with losses but no magnetic leakage: Transformer on load iron losses and copper losses. No Load input Power, Wo = V1Iocoso Primary current Io is divided into Iw and I

Iw = Iocoso and I = Iosino

Transformer when loaded I2 is setup. It is in phase with V2 if load is inductive. I2 lags V2 load is inductive. I2 Leads V2 load is capacitive. I2`- load component of primary current. 2=N2 X I2 in opposition with =N0 X I0

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Secondary Flux, I2` in phase with I2- 2= 2` N2 X I2= N1 X I2` I1=I0+ I2` I2`/I2 = I1/I2= N2/N1= k Equivalent Resistance, Resistances are transferred to one side, R2 (secondary) = R2/k2 R2`- equivalent secondary resistance w.r.t to primary side I12 X R2`= I22 X R2 Ro1= R1 + R2`= R1 + R2\k2 Ro2= R2 + R1`= R2+ R1 X k2

X- Reactance: Magnetic LeakageX1= eL1/I1; X1- leakage reactance in primary coil X2= el2/I2; X2- leakage reactance in secondary coil

Transformer with resistance and reactance: V1= E1+ I1*Z1 E2= V2+ I2*Z2
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Xo1= X1+X2` Xo2= X2+ X1`

Transformer Tests: I0= I + Iw R0= V0/ Iw , X0= V0/I Wo= Vo*Io*cos(o)

Core losses: Wi= Wh+ We Core losses= Af+ Bf2 Short circuit and Impedance Test:

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3 Readings- Isc, Vsc, Wsc Wsc- I2sc*r; I2sc*z Zeq2= Req2+ Xeq2

Efficiency = output losses/input losses Pcu= I12R1+ I22*R2 Conditions for maximum efficiency is, I = (Pcore/Req) 0.5 % regulation = (I2*R2cos() I2R2sin())\V2(0) (+) - Lagging and (-) is for leading V2 (0) - terminal voltage at no load V2- terminal voltage at full load Phasors:

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