Reterritorializing the Relationship between People and Place in Refugee Studies Author(s): Cathrine Brun Source: Geografiska Annaler.

Series B, Human Geography, Vol. 83, No. 1 (2001), pp. 15-25 Published by: Blackwell Publishing on behalf of the Swedish Society for Anthropology and Geography Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/491116 . Accessed: 14/06/2011 13:44
Your use of the JSTOR archive indicates your acceptance of JSTOR's Terms and Conditions of Use, available at . http://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsp. JSTOR's Terms and Conditions of Use provides, in part, that unless you have obtained prior permission, you may not download an entire issue of a journal or multiple copies of articles, and you may use content in the JSTOR archive only for your personal, non-commercial use. Please contact the publisher regarding any further use of this work. Publisher contact information may be obtained at . http://www.jstor.org/action/showPublisher?publisherCode=black. . Each copy of any part of a JSTOR transmission must contain the same copyright notice that appears on the screen or printed page of such transmission. JSTOR is a not-for-profit service that helps scholars, researchers, and students discover, use, and build upon a wide range of content in a trusted digital archive. We use information technology and tools to increase productivity and facilitate new forms of scholarship. For more information about JSTOR, please contact support@jstor.org.

Blackwell Publishing and Swedish Society for Anthropology and Geography are collaborating with JSTOR to digitize, preserve and extend access to Geografiska Annaler. Series B, Human Geography.

http://www.jstor.org

RETERRITORIALIZING THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN PEOPLE AND PLACE IN REFUGEE STUDIES

By Cathrine Brun

the betweenPeople Brun,C.,2001:Reterritorilizing Relationship andPlacein RefugeeStudies.Geogr.Ann.,83 B (1) 15-25.

of understandings space and place; an essentialistconception, a between stating natural relationship peopleandplacesandanalternative to the conception attempting de-naturalize relationship betweenpeopleandplaces.Theconsequences applying of differentconceptions spaceandplaceforthedevelopment refugee of of of are policiesandrepresentations refugeesanddisplaced persons For addressed. manydisplaced is persons,displacement experienced as being physicallypresentat one place, but at the same time havinga feeling of belongingsomewhere else. It is argued that thoughattemptsto de-naturalize relationship the between for peopleandplaceshavebeenimportant how therefugeeexperienceis conceptualized, therehasbeentoo muchfocuson imaginationaccompanied a neglectof the local perspective miof by and of grants displaced people.Inthelocalperspective forcedmithe lives of displaced Esgration, present peopleareemphasized. pecially the attitudesfrom the host communities,the policy environment displaced that of, peoplearepart andtheirlivelihood are and opportunities thefocusof regard.'Territoriality' 'reterritorialization' the relationship of betweenpeople and places are discussedas tools to analysethe local perspective forcedmiof of grationin generalandthe strategies internally displaced persons andtheirhostsin SriLankain particular.

and in contributions anthrofrom studies, place refugee especially A two and distinctiondrawn is between pology geography.main

ABSTRACT. article The of discussesdifferent conceptions space

Introduction Becoming a refugee or a displacedpersonmeans thatone, by some degreeof force,hasto movefrom one's placeof residenceto another place.Analyses of refugeeexperiences broader and issuesof forced often includespatialperspectives. Also, migration refugee-policiesand humanitarian agencies dealing with forced migrationoften use spatialmetaThe way phorsin discoursesaboutdisplacement. spaceandplaceareconceptualized, appliedandexpressedwithin the field of refugee studies and in for policy workareimportant how refugeesareunIn derstoodandrepresented. this article,I question how space, and place in particular been, and has continuesto be understood withinthe field of refugee studies. Spacehas become a centraldimensionof social
Geografiska Annaler ? 83 B (2001) - 1

theoryand social sciences. In refugeestudies,esin has peciallysincethe 1990s,thisinterest resulted debatesconcerningthe relationship betweenpeople, placeandidentity(see Kibreab,1999;Malkki, 1995, 1997; Stepputat,1994, 1999). The firstpart of this articlereviews refugee studies, especially the way spaceandplace havebeen conceptualized in refugeestudies.A maindistinction be drawn will between two approaches space. In the first apto as proachspace is conceptualized stasis, as a flat, immobilizedsurface,andplace is definedas a singular, fixed and unchanging location (Massey, as 1994a,b). This may be understood an essentialist conceptionof place, suggestingthatall people havea natural refplacein the world,andtherefore as ugees havebeenregarded beingtornloose from theirplace andthusfromtheircultureandidentity. Contestingthis view, an alternative understanding of spaceandplace,separates identityfromplaceto showthatthoughrefugeeshaveto movefromtheir places of origin,they do not lose theiridentityand abilityto exercisepower.This approach suggests that space is constructed from the multiplicityof social relationsacrossall spatialscales. In this rearticulation thosereof spect, place is a particular momentin those networksof lations, a particular social relationsandunderstandings (ibid.). of The de-territorialization identityis important for changingthe way refugees and displacedpersons are conceptualizedin research and policy work. However,some of these studieshave had a to tendency neglecttheway manyrefugeesanddisplacedpersonsexpressthe experienceof displacement in essentialistways, and more generallythe local perspectiveof refugees and displacedperI sons. By the local perspective meanthe possibilities andconstraints come frombeingin a parthat ticularplace, here exemplifiedby the attitudesof the host community,the policy environmentin which the refugeesfindthemselvesandtheirlivelihood opportunities. There are advocatesfor a
15

CATHRINE BRUN

need to reterritorialize relationshipbetween the people and places, which implies looking at the changingstatus,powerandmeaningof "territory" and"place". finalpartof thispaperwill discuss The of reterritorialization therelationship betweenpeoand ple andplacesas experienced practised disby placedpeople in Sri Lanka. as Place is not alwaysregarded integrated with space, and it is commonto discuss place without mentioning space andvice versa.However,in this as article,spaceandplaceareregarded closely connected.Spacemaybe understood a fundamental as dimensionof all social processes,as social spatiality.Spatialformsareintegrated partsof socialpractices and social processes and such practicesand in processesareall situated space(andtime)andall involvea spatialdimension.Thusthere inherently areno fundamental differences theorizing in about is space andplace;social spatiality the foundation for bothconcepts(Simonsen,1995, 1996). Studies of forced migration, contributionsof anthropology and the place of geography or Refugee studiesis an interdisciplinary, a multidisciplinary,academic field focusing on refugee processes. From early in the history of refugee studies,the fieldwas definedas "acomprehensive, and historical,interdisciplinary comparative perspective which focuses on the consistencies and in (Stein andTopatterns the refugeeexperience" discussionwithinthe masi, 1981,p.5). A dominant fieldfocuseson the questionof who canbe defined as refugees,ie. who arethe researchsubjects?Suhrke(1993) distinguishes betweenajudicialanda sociological definitionof refugees. The judicial definition a narrower is basedon theUN definition, convention from 19511andfocusingonly on those refugees who have been able to cross an internaA tionallyrecognizedborder. sociological definitioncanpotentially muchbroader independbe and ent of laws andconventions, with emphasison but some degree of force in the causes of migration. Thereis a continuingdebateaboutwhetherto include people in refugee-likesituationsandformer refugeesin the field of refugeestudies(VanHear, that 1998). The increasedrealization refugeesand othermigrants refugee-likesituations partof in are a complexnetwork migrants of who havemigrated with differentdegreesof force andintention,is an for the argument expanding field. To use the UN Convention a delimitation as of the field is to take socially constructed categories
16

forgranted. UN Convention formulated The was to dealwithone specificsituation, refugeecrisisin the War,andhas today Europeafterthe SecondWorld lost some of its value in dealingwith the complex in crisis of forcedmigration the post ColdWarperiod. Forexample,becauseof the no-entryregime in Western countries, there was an enormous durgrowthof internally displaced persons(IDPs)2 ing the 1990s, while the numberof refugees declined in the sameperiod.In orderto analysecritof constructed icallytherelevance thecategories by thereis a needto expandthefieldof policy-makers, refugee studiesto involveotherkindsof displacement.Tostudythecomplexity migration disof and placementalso facilitatesthe generationof new theoretical studiesof understandings. Accordingly, forcedmigration, shouldaddress way different the and and categories conceptsareunderstood applied and how these conceptualizations influence the way refugeesanddisplaced peoplearerepresented and dealtwith as a policy issue. Finding solutions to complex crises of forced of acthe migration requires involvement different ademicdisciplines.Heretheattention be given will to thepartof refugeestudiesconcerned withtheexperiences and strategiesof being refugees, i.e. those studiesaddressing humanconsequences the - personal,social,economic,cultural, political and - of forced migration(Ager, 1999). During the in 1990s, many anthropologists refugee studies started showincreased in to interest theconceptsof space andplace. This may be seen in relationto a in interest spaceandspatialrelageneralincreased tions in the social sciences. Severalof the contributions from anthropology present valuablecrito tiquesandcontributions studiesof forcedmigration andconceptionsof spaceandplace. Increased interestin spaceandplaceis partof a in broader turn' socialscience,a turnwhich 'spatial drawson humangeography, wherespace is commonly regardedas 'the motherconcept' (Haikli, has 1994). However,thoughmigration long been an important withinthediscipline topicof research of geography,studies of refugees and forcedmihavenothada strong gration position.Black(1991, 1993) andRobinson(1993) havereviewedareasof researchin which geographers have contributed, andsuggestedpotential to futurecontributions refugee studies.They maintainthat geographyas a to disciplineof synthesis,has the potential explain complexcausesof forcedmigration, involvingeconomicdevelopment, environmental as degradation well as ethnicconflict.Also, the close contactbeGeografiska Annaler ? 83 B (2001) ? 1

PEOPLE AND PLACE REFUGEE IN STUDIES THE BETWEEN RETERRITORIALIZING RELATIONSHIP

tween geographers, plannersand decision-makers well suitedfor addressing makesgeography policy alternativesrelated to consequences of refugee movements.Both authorsstress the spatial pergenerated spective,the analysisof spatialpatterns in of by resettlement refugees,andthetradition geof chart,andmonitor patterns ographyto quantify, refugeeflows andrefugeesetrefugeegeneration, a and tlements.This perspective represents narrow positivist view of the geographicalcontribution In on concentrated the 'spatialscience paradigm'. however,it also presentshow geogramanyways moreactivelyto the fieldof refphy can contribute ugee studies.Hence,Robinson(1993, p. 3) continhave ues by statingthat"geographers a passionfor place, as well as space,a concernwhichcan throw muchlight on topics suchas why some individuals become refugees whilst othersdo not, why some whilstothersdo not,and return refugeeseventually destination why refugees'choose'the resettlement whichthey do". who have workedexplicitly with Geographers haveonly to a limitedextenttheforcedmigration orizedthe conceptsof spaceandplace.Geographtendto be of a more ical studiesof forcedmigration and character, also oftenfail regionalgeographical and to take into consideration link differentgeographicalscales (Hyndman,1999).Today,howevin can er, more geographers potentiallycontribute this work throughbroaderresearchon globalization, transnationalism, regionalization,and the movementof people (Massey, 1991;Watts,1991; Smith,1993;Agnew,1994;Mitchell,1997;Lie and Lund 1998). A dialoguebetween anthropologists in and geographers this field would allow further bothfor of usefulspatialconceptions, development of theoreticalunderstandings andpolicy workfor refugeesandrefugeemovements. Duringthe so-calledculturalturnin geography has to andanthropology, geography not, according Marcus(2000), lost its sense of the social to the In sameextentas anthropology. discussionson the meaningof space and place in refugee studies,a a mainaimshouldbe to maintain socialdimension, andlet the refugeeexperienceinformourtheoretical categories.The field is alreadydebatingways and the thatpowerworksthrough organization conof space,placeandmovement (Stepceptualization of putat, 1999). Understandings power and the of maintenance the socialaspects,orlocalperspectives, of displacement exploramay enablefurther tions of geographicalconcepts like territoriality andreterritorialization.
Geografiska Annaler - 83 B (2001) - 1

Conceptions of space and place in studies of forced migration and Outof place - uprootedness an essentialist conceptionof space workon spaceandplacein refugee The theoretical of and studieshasled to a critique thedominant taken for grantedways of understanding space and An place as essentialist. essentialistunderstanding expresses a naturalrelationshipbetween people underhas andplaces.Hereculture a place-focused wherepeopleareseenas beingfirmlysetstanding, as tled in an home environment opposedto a state in The of uprootedness displacement. tendency and as closer to the west to regardnon-western people and to tributed this understanding (Hastrup Olwig, as are 1997).Whenpeopleandcultures understood localized and as belonging to particularplaces, places become fixed locationswith a unique and character (Massey,1994b). unchanging The conceptof places as fixedlocationsis often of by accompanied an understanding nationstates cultures. entitieswithhomogenous as homogenous Therefugeestatusis closely connectedto thisidea, becausethe refugeeswho havebeen forcedto flee their places of residenceare suddenlyout of the place where they originatedfrom. How refugees and havebeen represented viewed is thereforeoften connectedwith an essentialistnotionof place, the becauseto becomea refugeeandbe granted status andrightsof a refugeeyou haveto cross an inWhenpeople recognisedstateborder. ternationally havebecomerefugeesand"movedout"of a nation orderof state,it createsa challengeto the "national (Malkki,1995). things" In academicstudies on refugees the same tendency of viewing and presentingrefugees can be found. Duringthe inter-war period,and since the SecondWorld War,the loss of nationalhomelands by represented refugeeswas often definedby policy makersand scholarsof the time as a 'politicobetween moralproblem'.The physicalseparation the refugeesandtheirnationalhomelandswas understoodas a loss of moralbehaviour,and many refugees were thus no longer regardedas honest citizens (Malkki,1997). Moralbreakdown may no longer be a relevant topic in studiesof refugeesand forced migration, but the premisethatrefugeesrepresenta psychoof is logicalproblem stillvalid.Descriptions therebetweenpeople andplace as being rootlationship ed in a place arecommonlyused, andrefugeesare
17 nature - as more rooted in places - has also con-

CATHRINE BRUN

describedas 'uprooted' (Sorensen,1996). Moving fromone place to anothergenerateseconomic,legal, cultural,and social challenges and touches upon the very essence of existence.A commonly held view is thatdisplacement constitutesa major problemwhere roots are an psycho-pathological existential of identity. Thisis notexclusivelya part view in studiesof forcedmigration, also a cenbut tralpositionin humanist Tuan(1980, p. geography. belief that and 6) statesthat;"Itis a current popular do notknowwho theyreallyareunlessthey people can tracetheirroots, and thata place is devoidof personalityunless it exhibitstime in the differing ages of its edifices". In thismoreessentialistunderstanding thereof lationshipbetweenpeople andplace, to be territomeansto be tornloose fromculture, riallyuprooted to become powerless and to lose one's identity. These essentialistviews have deep-reaching confor the way solutions to the refugee sequences havebeenformulated. example,to reFor problem gardrefugeesas being "outof place",anduprootat ed, also meansthattheirtemporariness the place of arrival stronger. is Refugeescan,in thisperspecwherethey arereftive, neverbelong to a territory andtherefore, only solutionwouldbe eithe ugees, therto endtheirrefugeestatusby integration reor eitherforcedor volunlocation,or by repatriation, tary. Viewing integration and relocation as a solutionto the refugeeproblemis basedon the belief and aim thatrefugeesthen will become naturalizedinhabitants a new nationstate,and thus of neglecttheir"oldidentity",andabsorbthe culture and habitsof the new place. Repatriation also has been seen as a "natural solution"to displacement. A return theplaceof origin,mayin this sense,be to as becausepeoplereturn to regarded unproblematic their native places, like puttingpeople back into place (Allen andTurton,1996; Hammond,1999). a However,this view represents staticview of the between people, identity and places, relationship andis difficultto acceptbecauseit cannotinclude an understanding places as multicultural. of Anothermanifestation consequenceof the and attitudeof refugees as being out of place is 'the right to remainat home strategy'.The closing of bordersin the Westernworld,has spurred greater interestin protectingand assistingdisplacedpeoof ple withintheircountries origin.If theprevailing is attitude thatpeople have a natural place to live, thebestway of helpingthemwouldbe to helpthem at home. Thereforedisplacedpeople are encouraged to stay withintheirnationstates,and assist18

ancewill ideallybe provided themthere(Hyndto man, 1999).Therearerisksconnectedto the 'right to remainstrategy' becausepeoplewill be closerto the reasons for displacement(conflicts, environmental disasters,etc.). Also, it conceals the diswhenthe strategy placement problem, impliesthat withintheirowncountry. peoplebecomedisplaced
Life is elsewhere: images of home

Observingthat more and more of the world lives in a 'generalized conditionof homelessness' - or that there is truly an intellectual need for a new 'sociologyof displacement,' a new 'nomadology' is not to denythe importanceof placein the construction identities. of On the contrary, I have attempted show as to matelylinked:'Diasporas alwaysleave a trail of collectivememoryaboutanother place and time andcreatenew mapsof desireandof attachment' [...]. To plot only 'places of birth' [...], deterritorialization and identity are inti-

anddegreeof nativeness to blindoneself to is the multiplicityof attachmentsthat people form to places throughliving in, remembering, andimaginingthem. (Malkki1997, pp. 71-72) The critics of the essentialist understanding of spaceandplacein refugeestudiesstressthatpeople are moremobile thanever,thatbeing a refugeeis not a pathologicalstate of being, and that understandingsof nativenessare difficult to maintain (Allen and Turton, 1996; Malkki, 1997). Even thoughpeoplehave to flee, they arenot tornloose from theirculture,they do not lose theiridentity, and they do not become powerless.Refugees are not passivevictimsin an abnormal stateof being, rather theyareactiveagentswho areable to develand op strategies thus still functionsocially. Theseviewsrepresent departure a fromtheideas of whole separate and an cultures, towards interest in questions placeandthewaythatculture spaof is tialized in societies increasinglycharacterized by deterritorialization (Guptaand Ferguson,1997a). The question of how understandings locality, of and community regionareformedandlivedis centralto thiswork.Statesof movement, homelessof ness and displacement have resultedin a need for new ways of conceptualizing and understanding the space and place, and to de-naturalise link between people andplaces (Stepputat, 1999). (1991) focuses on the changingsoAppadurai
Geografiska Annaler - 83 B (2001) ? 1

RETERRITORIALIZING RELATIONSHIP THE BETWEEN AND PLACE REFUGEE PEOPLE IN STUDIES

A very good exampleof an attempt reterritoand of to cial, territorial culturalreproduction group He of of to identity. exploresnewunderstandings thede- rializeunderstandings spacein relation people territorialized worldthatmanypeopleinhabit,and on themove,is presented a bookeditedby Olwig in the meaningof localityas livedlocal experience in and Hastrup(1997) entitled Siting Culture.The a globalized,deterritorialized world.In his under- book addresses role of placein the conceptualthe is deterritorializationthe looseningof the ization of culture.Here, space is definedas pracstanding, bondsbetweenpeople,wealth,andterritories. This tised place (de Certeau,1984), an understanding leads to whathe sees as a new powerin social life; wherepractice a mobileengagement itself,and is in the imagination wheremorepersonsin moreparts thatparticular placesandpathsformthespatialgrid of the worldconsidera widerset of possible lives definingpeople'smemories,imaginations heuand thanthey did before.Here,fantasybecomes a so- ristic values (Crang,2000). Accordingto the aucial practice,andimagination becomespartof the thors,this makespossible a space thatcuts across of construction people'sbiographies whichin turn boundaries sites in humanrelations, shows and and becomepartlyimaginedlives "tiedupwithimages, how people are involved in complex relationsof ideas andopportunities come fromelsewhere, globalas well as local dimensions that and (Hastrup 01oftenmovedaround thevehiclesof massmedia" wig, 1997). Place is here a culturalconstruction, by (p. 199). Appaduraiidentifies the need for new not a fixedentity;a location,not only aboutideas, the ways to represent increasinglyglobal and de- but aboutembodiedpracticesthatshapeidentities and territorialised betweenimagination social and enable resistance (Gupta and Ferguson, links life. 1997b). Place is definedsolely as a culturalconWorksdealingwith the increasedglobalization struction,and Olwig (1997, pp.17 and 35) illusof social life havebecome extremelyinfluential in tratesthis understanding place with the concept of the social sciences. Howeverthe romanticizing of of "cultural institutionswhich sites" as "cultural exile and diasporaas generalized have developed in the interrelationship between displacement, andoftenpreferred conditions modern is not globalandlocalties.Thesecultural of sitesattain their life, to alwayseasily transferable the plightof the mil- significancebecause they are identifiedwith parlions of refugeesanddisplaced personsin theworld ticularplaces, at the same time as they accommotoday.The problemsrelatedto deterritorialization date the global conditions of life [...]. These instiaretherefore sites'in the sense necessarilyalso problemsrelatingto tutionscanbe viewedas 'cultural between reterritorialization; the changing status, power and thatthey arecreatedthroughan interplay presenceand absence,lomeaning of territoriesfor the refugees and dis- dwelling andtravelling, 1998).Reterritorializa- calizing andglobalizing". placedpersons(OTuathail, tion in Malkki's (1995) understanding means to Olwig showshow peoplehavea strongtendency and a a lose one's territory, thenconstruct new com- to migrate,but at the same time maintain strong to munitywithina new area,like a refugeecamp.She notionof attachment place,anddescribesthis as is not emphasizing present but of the territory, theim- contradictions being physicallypresentin speas age of a community the decisivefactorin the re- cific localities,but at the same time being partof Withinrefugeestudies,manyau- translocalcommunities'rooted'in distantplaces. territorialization. sites correthorshavegainedinspiration fromtheworkof Mal- In manyways the definitionof cultural kki (Sorensen,1996; Turton,1996). Her work is sponds with Massey's (1991, 1993, 1994a,b) unof how the links between derstanding space and place as createdthrough useful for understanding Howev- social relations.Massey sees space as the simultapeopleandplacescanbe de-essentialized. at er, she is actuallystudyingthe social construction neouscoexistenceof socialinterrelations all spaof a nationalpast.In orderto understand crises of tial scales,fromthemostlocal levelto themostgloarticulation those relaof it displacement, is not only the imaginedplace of bal. Place is a particular of momentin thosenetworks sothe pastthatmustbe understood. hereandnow tions,a particular The of cial relations and understanding. The place, or shouldalsobe present whenanalysingsituations forced migration. Thoughmanyrefugeesand mi- ratherthe identityof place, is formedout of intergrantsfeel thatthey live, or wantto live, theirlives relations,both presentat the same locality as well that life, elsewhere,theyhavea present wheretheyneed as interrelations will stretchbeyondthatplace and to survive,to makea livelihood,andthus through itself (Massey,1994b).The placesof migrants their actions constructthe place where they are displaced people constitute complex locations conflictwherenumerous different,andfrequently physicallypresent.
Geografiska Annaler ? 83 B (2001) - 1

19

CATHRINE BRUN

the situation,identitycreationandthe place makof ing of displaced people,thelocalperspective refugees is decisive(see Allen andTurton,1996). Kibreab(1999) identifiesat least three signifiof cant factorsrelevant a local perspective reffor of First,the attitudes the "hostcommunity" ugees. areone of thekey determinants refugeerelationof into shipsandtheintegration thehostcommunities. to to Second,it is necessary payattention thepolicy in environment whichtherefugeesfindthemselves. are Third,the livelihood opportunities important for both idealistic preferencesand practicalactions. In the local perspective forcedmigration, of the "local"is not necessarilyequalto "place", but can be studiedthrough local perspective. the place The local perspective does not meanto disconnect the refugee situationfrom the broaderprocesses and (like decolonization the causingdisplacement of development modemnationstatesandconflicts overscarceresources). Neitherdoesit meanto isolate the refugeesfrom their connectionswith the netpast and their involvementin transnational works.WithMassey's(1994b) definitionof place, The local perspective of displacementthe local perspectiveof refugees should be anabetween experience and analytical categories of lysed throughthe particularity the social inter[...] whateverthe abstractconcept of place actionsthatintersectat the locationwherethe refwhichpeoplehold,therewill alwaysbe differ- ugees arepresent.The intersection these social of ences, debates, even struggles, about how relationsat thatlocationwill in itself producenew places are viewed. There will be differences social processes.Here,I will give a brief example within the place, and differences between from a groupof Musliminternally displacedperthose within (or some of them) and some sons in Sri Lanka. without[...] therewill be relationsof contest of and contradiction, dominanceand subordination, between the groupsof unassimilated 'This is not our place' others[...], andthese relationswill be power- Duringone week in October1990, the Liberation ful in determining what becomes the hegem- Tigers of Tamil Eelam expelled nearly all the onic view of any particularplace. Which 75 000 Muslimslivingin the Northern Provinceof meaningof a place will be hegemonicis al- Sri Lankafor reasonsconnectedto the civil warin ways being negotiated,and it is in that sense the country.Up to now, this is the largestcase of ethniccleansingthathas takenplace in the almost alwaysthe subjectof powerandpolitics. 20 yearsold civil waron theisland.Themajority of (Massey 1994b,pp. 118-119) the northern Muslimscameto an areacalledPuttaDifferentgroupsrelateto the sameplace with dif- lam (see Fig. 1). Tenyearsafterthe expulsionthey ferentmeanings,uses andvalues.Thesearediffer- arestill livinghereas IDPs.Twoof the administraences that may give rise to varioustensions and tive regionsof Puttalam 'hosting'52,000 IDPs are conflictsoverthe use of places.Peoplehavediffer- who live togetherwith 90,000 'locals'. The northent positions to negotiatefrom, and the negotia- ernMuslimslive in camps,resettlement villages,or of in rentedor boughthouses. The massiveinfluxof tionswill be influenced themultipleidentities by a place and complex power-relations. of Refugees' people meant challenges for the maintenance of and displaced people's understandings their livelihoodsfor the displacedpeople as well as for of by placesarenot only determined the past,butalso the local people. In some areasthe arrival disby theirpresentlife at the locationwheretheyneed placed people has certainlychangedthe environto surviveandmakea livelihood.Hence,to analyse ment,bothphysicallyandsocially,to theextentthat
20
Geografiska Annaler ? 83 B (2001) ? 1

ing, communitiesintersect(Massey, 1994a).This means thatrefugees are not out of understanding of place, theirplace is definedby the particularity at theirsocialinteractions intersect the specific that locationwherethey arepresent.To talk aboutrefugees and displacedpeople as out of place, or as guestsin someoneelse's placedoesnotmakesense accordingto Massey'sdefinitionof place. To de-naturalize links between people and the places leaves greater potentialfor conceptualizing the experience and practices of displacement. and However,the focus on imagination the fearof in becomingessentialistseemto haveresulted a neglect of the location where displacedpeople and are followAnother migrants present. consequence of ing fromthe neglectof the local perspective refare ugees is thatthe so-called"hostcommunities" in many studies. Host communitiesare ignored those groupsof people alreadypresentat a place, andwho in mostcases becomepartof thenetworks the constituting places of refugeesandmigrants.

RETERRITORIALIZING RELATIONSHIP THE AND PLACE REFUGEE BETWEEN PEOPLE IN STUDIES

Jaffn

Northern Province

Trlncomalee

Puttaiam NorthWestern SProvince Kandy Batticaloa

Colombo

Matara
s 0 5 t0iome

Fig. 1 Mapof SriLanka.

both the northern Muslimsand the locals express The the experienceof displacement. areahas also economic development experienceda substantial of Muslims.New followingthearrival thenorthern economic activities and new commercialcentres are emerging,new forms of doing business have and to netbeenintroduced, in addition theinternal works,new externalnetworkshavebeen formed. At thetimeof arrival settlement thenorthand of ern Muslims,the receptionfrom the local people, in the authorities organizations the areawere and very effectiveandwelcoming.The locals gave the displacedfood andclothes,landto live on, andoffered them places to fish the lagoon. Both locals and displacedconsideredthe situationas tempoand rary, aftera coupleof yearsthelocalpeoplefelt with thattheycouldno longersharetheirresources backto thenorthern Muslims,andwantedto return their formerlives. The northern Muslims, on the An otherhand,becametiredof beingdisplaced. atmosphereof dissatisfactionand insecurityled to tensions and open conflicts between as well as
Geografiska Annaler ? 83 B (2001) ? 1

within those two groups.In many refugee situations, scarcityof landis a majorproblemin the relief workandsettlement processof displacedpeoandoftenthe sourceof tensionbetweendifferple, ent groups.Before 1990, landwas not in shortsupply in the district,and people seem to have taken withthe arrivaccessto landfor granted. However, al of the northern Muslims,the price for land increased, and createda new consciousnessof the meaningof land.Changesin access to landhadsevere consequencesfor the local landless people, who had to competewith the displacedfor casual of work.Followingthe arrival the IDPs andthe increasedcompetition work,the wagesfor casual for work became lower.Many local people therefore and experienceda kind of doubledeprivation, felt theneedto protect themselvesfromtheseprocesses by claiming theirrights to land. Local fishermen thereforeresumedan old and not much practised to systemof rightsto fishing,according which addivisionpeople belongedto. This exministrative Muslimsbecausetheywerenot cludedthenorthern 'citizens'of the area. Thepolicyenvironment theIDPsis dominatfor that ed by thepoliticsof theSriLankan government acknowledgesthe IDPs, and considers them as theirresponsibility. strategy Thoughthe preferred is the of the government repatriation, situationin the north has made it almost impossible for the Muslims to return.With a new governnorthern ment in power, a strategyof resettlementfrom in housingstarted 1995. campsto morepermanent The resettlement policy,however,cameunderdisMuslims'organizations pute.Some of the northern a wouldrepresent greater arguedthatresettlement back to their barrier the possibilityof returning to when wouldbe normalized homes,as the situation people settled more permanentlyin Puttalam. However,with the economic supportfor resettlethe mentgiven by the government, displacedpeoland at an increasingrate and builtreple bought settlementvillages in orderto control their own lives. The need for a place of theirown was also pressing,as people felt they still lived in someone vilelse's place, and thatto establishresettlement lages would create a possibility for maintaining theirsocial networksfromhome. The attitudesof the host communities,and the Muslimsas displaced(outof statusof the northern place)arealso determined the livelihoodopporby tunitiesin the area.In Sri Lanka,afterliving in a districtpermanently(i.e. on your own land) for morethansix months,you can become a 'citizen'
21

BRUN CATHRINE

of the province.The northern Muslimshave now lived in Puttalam ten years,andalmost50%of for them have boughttheirown land. However,most peoplehavenothadthechanceto registerin Puttalam, anddo not possess votingpowerthere.To restricttheirvoting poweris partlya politicaldecision takento preventa politicalupheaval with unforeseenconsequencesfor the local groups.Partly it is a collectivepressure to amongthedisplaced remaincitizensof theNorthern and Province, to have theirown politiciansfightingfor the rightsof the northern Muslims.In spite of the economicdevelis opment,underemployment an unresolved problem in Puttalam. One factorcontributing the into terestof maintaining statusas displaced(outof the place) is thereforeclosely linked to the rights or 'privileges'of being displaced,becausebeing displacedmeanshavingtherightsto food rationsgiven by the WorldFoodProgramme the governand ment. Manyof the conflictsbetweenthelocals andthe displacedhavebeen conflictsoverthe relationship betweenpeopleandplacesandespeciallytherights to resources thoselocations.Butpeoplemostofat ten settlethe conflictsby clarifyingthe rightto the of place, or the "ownership" the place. Commonly usedarguments bothgroupshavebeenbasedon by the "natural" rightsto landuse andfishing.Thisis notourplace,displaced peoplewouldtell me when explaining their strategies.The classificationof of placebasedon ownership the placeis appliedas a way of solving conflicts among people themand selves, but is also used by authorities organizationsworkingin Puttalam.
Reterritorialising the link between people and places [...] if one says deterritorialization one appar-

the ently also has to introduce notionof reterritorialization.For various (good) reasons, 'essentialist'perspectivesin anthropological culturalanalysishave in recentyearsbeen increasingly submittedto criticism. However, non-essentialist has theorizing tendedto leave too little space for the occurrence often siof or multaneous, parallelprocessesof essentialisation. (SteenPreis, 1997, p. 90)

We all use differentways of thinkingaboutspace in different situations 1996).Theprocessof (Curry, categorizingplaces into 'our places' and 'their
22

to places',orthetendency connectpeoplewithcertain territories an essentialistunderstanding is of we shouldnot acceptessentialism, place. Though theremay still be a place for whatwe tendto term essentialist of understandings space,as long as it is includedin the way displacement experienced. is Canwe thenintegrate bothunderstandings space of discussedhere?As discussedabove,attempts reto territorialize were attempts overcomethe to place of contradictions being physicallypresentat one location,andsimultaneously beingpartof translocal communities. In the more "traditional" geographicalunderand is standingof territory territoriality, territory a of spatialextensionas well as a demarcation social relations. is Territoriality theway actorsandgroups of actorstryto gaincontrolovera geographic area, to or through attempts affect,influence, controlactions and interactions people, things and relaof territionships(Sack, 1986).In this understanding torialityis aboutexercisingpowerandcontrolover space,andpowerinvolvesthe use andorganisation of space(Allen, 1997;Herbert, 1997).Territoriality as may be understood an everydaystrategyand a of reflection different modesof powgeographical er (see, for instance,Simonsen,1994;Paasi, 1996; Allen, 1997, 1999;Radcliffe,1999).These different modesof powermay be domination, coercion, authority, inducement, and seduction (Allen, 1999). Criticswouldarguethattheterritory itselfhasno is only a site for acspecialsignificance. Territory tivities, and becomes secondaryto the activities thattakeplace withinit (Warner, 1999).However, as territoriality a strategy may sometimesbe a way of analysing theseactivities,andthewaysdifferent modesof powerworkthrough organization the and of conceptualization space,place andmovement. As statedearlierthereis a tendencyto thinkof refugees and displacedpeople as powerless, and withoutcultureandidentitybecausetheyhavelost theirplace.However, ways different the groupstry to gain controlover places and classify places in showa different In Puttalam picture. someways,the northern Muslimsappear a muchstronger as group thanthelocals.Theyarebetterorganized, theyfeel a strongunity,theyhavemoreunifiedinterests, and theirinterestshave been disseminated external to actorslike government and agencies,international localnon-governmental and organizations religious However,the strongidentityas disorganizations. placed,in the meaningof belongingto somewhere the The else, also marginalizes displaced. rightsto
Geografiska Annaler - 83 B (2001) - 1

THE BETWEEN PEOPLE AND PLACE REFUGEE RETERRITORIALIZING RELATIONSHIP IN STUDIES

for livelihoodsarerestricted the displaced,andthe of and are ownership properties resources still prein the handsof local people.Displaced dominantly peopledo not havemuchaccessto formalpolitical and powerin Puttalam, very few have been given Thusthereis no singular posts in local institutions. in of and picture domination resistance therelationshipsbetweenlocals anddisplaced. One exampleis the way territoriality put into is in of practice theestablishment resettlement villages. In this processboundaries important are marknot ers of territory, only physicalboundaries, but also creation of boundaries through symbolic The meanings,like membership/non-membership. resettlement of thenorthern Muslimshave villages become important promotingfeelings of befor longing and unity, and also symbolise the places they were forcedto leave. Manyof the villages are of attemptsat the social reconstruction villages fromthe north,some of the villages areevengiven place-namesfrom the north, and they represent segregated places only for displaced people. Though they may be marginal,they are places wheredisplaced peoplecanexercisepoweranddevelop a strong sense of solidarity(Brun, 2000). They are like hooks' (1990) concept of 'homeof place', constructions safe places thatact as positionsto negotiatethe meaningsof place from. is Reterritorialization therefore not only the Reprocessof movingfromone locationto another. territorialization in thisway,be understood as may, thewaydisplaced localpeopleestablish and new,or rather expandnetworksand culturalpracticesthat definenew spacesfordailylife. Thisunderstanding of reterritorialization involves the emergenceof voices andalternate otherwisemarginalized reprethat sentation canbe carried overintothe"host" soandcarried backinto the "homeland" (Knox, ciety in to 1995).Reterritorializationrelation refugeeexperienceand refugeepractices,may thereforenot be so muchabout but powerandcontroloverothers, rather controloverone's own life, aboutsafetyand and protection,and the maintenance development of social networks.Reterritorialization to find is one's place, not only findinga house or a plot of land,butas muchto findone's positionin the society in whichone is present(Olwig, 1997).Reterritorialization an analyticalconcept, thus repreas sentsthe"spatial and that process" spatialstrategies refugeesanddisplacedpeople develop,in the conof in tradictory experience beingphysicallypresent one location,butatthe sametimelivingwitha feelelse. ing of belongingsomewhere
Annaler- 83 B (2001) - 1 Geografiska

Conclusion The way we characterize place is fundamentally for political,andhasimplications howwe represent displacedpeople and for the policies of displacement. In this article,two differenttheoreticalapproachesto place and space have been reviewed. First an essentialistconceptionof place gives an of understanding refugeesas tornloose fromtheir place and thus from theircultureandidentity.An this link bealternativeapproachde-naturalizes tween people and places. The latterapproach has been very usefulfor analysingthe way manyrefugees and displacedpersonsarephysicallypresent at specificlocalities,butatthe sametimebeingpart of translocal communities. in One of the mainarguments this articleis that the experienceof displacement the local perand mustinformour analysis spectiveof displacement andtheoretical work.Tode-naturalize linksbethe tween people,places andidentitiesis necessaryto avoidlooking at refugeesand displacedpeople as torn loose from their culture,as being powerless and withoutidentity.However,both the displaced and locals in Puttalamexpress the experienceof and displacement theirimageof placein essentialist ways. Oneof thechallengesis therefore leave to in space for these processesof essentialization the the way we analyseand represent refugeeexperience. No one has naturalrights to any place, but some of the workscriticizingthe naturallink between people and places have had a tendencyto overlook that these essentialist conceptions of to placemaystillbe of importance thestrategies applied by people in creatingplaces andboundaries. The consequence oftenthatthe local perspective is of refugeesanddisplacedpersonsareneglected. The basis for territorial strategiesand the languageusedby displacedandlocals in the Puttalam areato solveconflictsandto protect livelihoodsand of scarceresourcesoften involveanunderstanding a natural betweenpeopleandplaces.Tenyears link Mushaveelapsedsince the arrival the northern of lims. Duringthis time, some of the IDPs feel that in they have settled more permanently Puttalam, howevertogetherwiththe otherIDPs,local people and the policy-makers,they still consider themselves as Northern Muslims- as Muslimsbelongto the Northern Province.How therelationship ing affectsthe betweenpeopleandplacesis understood policies andthe wayrefugeesanddisplacedpeople arereceivedandsurviveat the places of arrival. thandeterritorialization, way to inteone Rather 23

CATHRINE BRUN

gratethe local perspectiveand experienceof disthe placementmay be to reterritorialize relationship between people and places; to look at the changingstatus,powerandmeaningof territories for people on the move. Refugees and displaced out people'splacesareconstructed of the socialinteractions intersectthe specificlocationwhere that involves the they are present.Reterritorialisation processof how displacedandlocal people expand theirnetworks, makelivelihoodsanddevelopstrategies to controltheirown lives. Acknowledgements I thankNicholasVan Hear for constructive comments duringthe preparation this paper.Warm of thanksto all the participants organizers the and of PhDCourse'Local/Global Fieldsof Teninspiring of sion', University Lund,April/May 2000, andespecially to CindiKatzwho was the discussantfor a draftof this paper.I also thankGunhildSetten, AnneSofieLaegran, Clark two anonymous Eric and referees for useful comments. Thanks to Frank RobertHauganfor makingthe map.
Cathrine Brun, Department of Geography, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, N-7491 Dragvoll, Norway.

and WILLS, J. (eds.): Geographies of Economies. Arnold,

406 London, p. J. of fromdominaALLEN, (1999):'Spatial assemblages power: tion to empowerment', MASSEY, D., ALLEN,J. and in 340 Cambridge, p. T. D. In of ALLEN, andTURTON, (1996): 'Introduction. search
cool ground', in ALLEN, T. (ed.): In Search of Cool Ground. War, Flight and Homecoming in Northeast Africa. James SARRE, P. (1999): Human Geography Today. Polity Press,

London,336 p. Curry, A. notesandqueries APPADURAI, (1991):'Global ethnoscapes: fora transnational in anthropology', FOX,R.G.(ed.):RecapAmerican Research Press,SantaFe, 248 p. R. BLACK, (1991): 'Refugeesanddisplaced persons: geographicalperspectives research and directions', ProgressinHuman
Geography, 15: 281-298. turing Anthropology. Working in the Present. School of

and R. BLACK, (1993): 'Geography refugees: current issues',in V. and BLACK,R. andROBINSON, (eds.):Geography RefLondon,220 p. of and BRUN,C. (2000): 'Spatial practices integration segregationamonginternally displaced personsandtheirhostsin Sri M. in CRANG, (2000):'Relics,placesandunwritten geographies the workof Michelde Certeau (1925-86)', in CRANG,M. andTHRIFT, (eds.):Thinking N. London, Space.Routledge, 384 p. in CURRY,M.R.(1996): 'Onspaceandspatial practice contemin K. porary geography', EARLE,C., MATHEWSON, and manandLittlefield, 486 Lanham, p.
KENZER, M.S. (eds.): Concepts in Human Geography. RowDE CERTEAU, M. (1984): The Practice of Everyday Life. UniLanka', Norwegian Journal of Geography, 54: 96-101. ugees. Patterns and Processes of Change. Belhaven Press,

E-mail:cathrine.brun@ svt.ntnu.no Notes

Press,Berkely,229 p. versityof California J. GUPTA,A. AND FERGUSON, (1997a): 'Culture, power, at place:ethnography the end of an era', in GUPTA,A. and
FERGUSON, J. (eds.): Culture, Power, Place. Explorations in Critical Anthropology. Duke University Press, Durham,

TheUN RefugeeConvention includesanypersonwho: for [...] owing to well foundedfearof beingpersecuted reasons of race,religion,nationality, of membership a particular social groupor politicalopinion,is outsidethe country of his nationality is unableor, owingto suchfear,is unand willing to avail himself to protectionof that country;or and who, not havinga nationality beingoutsidethe country of his former habitual as residence a resultof suchevents,is unableor, owingto suchfear,is unwillingto return it. to 1991,p.6). (FromHathaway, Internally displacedpersonsare refugeeswithintheirown countries. of They are still underthejurisdiction theirgovand ernment, do nothaveanyadditional legal statuslike refborugees who have crossedan internationally recognised der.

361 p. J. GUPTA,A. AND FERGUSON, (1997b): 'Beyond'culture': and in A. space,identity, thepoliticsof difference', GUPTA, ham,361 p. L. the HAMMOND, (1999): 'Examining discourseof repatriation:Towards moreproactive a of in theory return migration', Oxford,275 p. in HASTRUP,K. AND OLWIG,K.F. (1997): 'Introduction', K.F.andHASTRUP, (eds.):SitingCulture. K. The OLWIG,
Shifting Anthropological Project. Routledge, London, 236 p. HATHAWAY, J.C. (1991): The Law of Refugee Status. Butteral Geographer 49: 86-94. HOOKS, B. (1990): Yearning. Race, Gender, and Cultural PolBLACK, R. and KOSER, K. (eds.): The End of the Refugee Cycle: Refugee Repatriation and Reconstruction. Berghahn, and FERGUSON, J. (eds.): Culture, Power, Place. Explorations in Critical Anthropology. Duke University Press, Dur-

252 worths,Toronto. p. and S. HERBERT, (1997):'Territoriality thepolice',Profession-

References
on AGER,A. (1999): 'Perspectives the refugeeexperience',in asAGNEW,J. (1994): 'The territorial trap:the geographical of relations sumptions international theory',Reviewof Interof ALLEN,J. (1997): 'Economies powerandspace',in LEE,R.
national Political Economy 1: 53-80. AGER, A. (ed.): Refugees. Perspectives on the Experience of Forced Migration. Pinter, London, 262 p.

itics. SouthEndPress,Boston,236 p. J. war of miHYNDMAN, (1999):'Apost-cold geography forced 104-114. and HAKLI,J. (1994): 'Territoriality the rise of modemstate',
Fennia 172: 1-82. KIBREAB, G. (1999): 'Revisiting the debate on people, place, identity and displacement', Journal of Refugee Studies, 12: 384-410. Annaler- 83 B (2001) - 1 Geografiska gration in Kenya and Somalia', Professional Geographer 51:

24

THE BETWEEN PEOPLE AND PLACE REFUGEE RETERRITORIALIZING RELATIONSHIP IN STUDIES citiesandthe organization global of KNOX,P.L. (1995): 'World P.J. and WATTS, R.L., TAYLOR, space', in JOHNSTON,
M.J. (eds.) Geographies of Global Change. Remapping the Worldin the Late TwentiethCentury.Blackwell, Oxford, 462 p. LIE, M. and LUND, R. (1998): Globalisation, Place and Gender. SON, V. (eds.): Geography and Refugees. Patterns and Proc-

esses of Change.BelhavenPress,London, p. 220

SACK, R. (1986): Human Territoriality. Its Theory and History.

Skriftserie3/98, Senter for Kvinneforskning, Norges Te24 Universitet, Trondheim, p. knisk-Naturvitenskapelige

MALKKI, L. (1995): Purity and Exile. Violence, Memory, and National Cosmology among Hutu Refugees in Tanzania. The

256 Press,Cambridge, p. Cambridge University K. territoriumom livet SIMONSEN, (1994): 'Ken,generation, in J. Rumi et storbykvarter', TONBOE, (ed.):Territorialitet.
lige, Historiske og Kulturelle Perspektiver. Odense Univer-

of University ChicagoPress,Chicago,352 p. L. the MALKKI, (1997): 'Nationalgeographic: rootingof peoof ples and the territorialization nationalidentity among scholarsandrefugees',in GUPTA,A. andFERGUSON, J. DukeUniversity 361 Press,Durham, p. thropology. of MARCUS,G.E. (2000): 'The twistingsandturnings geograin in phy and anthropology winds of millennialtransition', COOK,I., CROUCH,D., NAYLOR,S. and RYAN, J.R. MASSEY,D. (1991): 'A globalsenseof place',Marxism Today June:24-29. MASSEY,D. (1993): 'Politicsand space/time',in KEITH,M.
and PILE, S. (eds.): Place and the Politics of Identity. (eds.): Cultural Turns/Geographical Turns: Perspectives on Cultural Geography. Prentice Hall, Harlow, 292 p. (eds.): Culture, Power, Place. Explorations in Critical An-

Odense,281 p. sitetsforlag, K. SIMONSEN, (1995): 'Sted,kenog social praksis- om en af NordiskSamhillsge'konnet'forstAelse stedsbegrebet',

ografisk Tidskrift, 21: 22-31.

K. kindof spacein whatkindof soSIMONSEN, (1996): 'What N. SMITH, (1993): 'Homeless/global: scalingplaces',in BIRD, G. J.,CURTIS, PUTNAM, ROBERTSON, andTICKB., T.,
NER, L. (eds.): Mapping the Futures. Local Cultures, Global cial theory?', Progress in Human Geography 20: 494-512.

London,288 p. Change.Routledge, STEENPREIS,A.B. (1997): 'Seekingplace:capsizedidentities andcontracted Tamilrefugees', belonging amongSriLankan in OLWIG,K.F. andHASTRUP,K. (eds.):Siting Culture. 236 p. International S. STEIN,B.N. andTOMASI, (1981):'Foreword',
Migration Review 15: 5-7. The Shifting Anthropological Project. Routledge, London,

London,235 p. Routledge,
MASSEY, D. (1994a): Space, Place and Gender. Polity Press,

280 Cambridge, p. D. a MASSEY, (1994b):'Doublearticulation:placein theworld',

in BAMMER, A. (ed.): Displacements. Cultural Identities in

F. and STEPPUTAT, (1994): 'Repatriation the politicsof space: thecaseof themayan and Journal movement', diaspora return F. STEPPUTAT, (1999): 'Deadhorses?Responseto Kibreab', A. i SUHRKE, (1993): 'Denvanskeligemigrasjonen vandring enverden barrierer', SUHRKE, andGJERDAKER, med in A.
S. (eds.): Dagens Folkevandringer - Berorer de oss? Chr. Journal of Refugee Studies 12: 416-419. of Refugee Studies 7: 175-185.

286 Indiana Press,Bloomington, p. Question. University K. discourse: MITCHELL, (1997): 'Transnational bringinggebackin', Antipode, 101-114. 29: ography sites:sustaining homein a dea K.F.(1997): 'Cultural OLWIG, territorialized world',in OLWIG,K.F. and HASTRUP,K.
(eds.): Siting Culture. The Shifting Anthropological Project.

Michelsens Institutt/Cappelen, Bergen,265 p. 247 Press,Amsterdam, p. University versussense of place', LandTUAN, Y.F. (1980): 'Rootedness TURTON,D. (1996): 'Migrantsand refugees.A Mursi case London,336 p. VAN HEAR,N. (1998): 'Editorial Journalof Refintroduction', D. and WARNER, (1999): 'Deterritorialization the meaningof 12:411-416. M. imWATTS, (1991):'Mapping difference, meaning, denoting dialectical geograaginingidentity: imagesandpostmodern
phies', Geografiska Annaler, 73 B:7-16. space: a reply to Gaim Kibreab', Journal of Refugee Studies ugee Studies 11: 341-349. study', in ALLEN, T. (ed.): In Search of Cool Ground. War, Flight and Homecoming in Northeast Africa. James Curry, scape, 25: 3-8. SORENSEN, B.R. (1996): Relocated Lives: Displacement and Resettlement within the Mahaweli Project, Sri Lanka. VU

London,236 p. Routledge, K.F. andHASTRUP, (eds.) (1997):SitingCulture. K. OLWIG, 236 p. G. III: OTUATHAIL, (1998): 'Politicalgeography dealingwith
deterritorialization', Progress in Human Geography 22: 81The Shifting Anthropological Project. Routledge, London,

93.
PAASI, A. (1996): Territories, Boundaries and Consciousness. The Changing Geographies of the Finnish-Russian Border.

353 Wiley,Chichester, p. of and S. RADCLIFFE, (1999):'Popular statediscourses power', in MASSEY,D., ALLEN,J. andSARRE,P. (eds.):Human 340 Geography Today.PolityPress,Cambridge, p. V. wherenextfor and ROBINSON, (1993):'Retrospect prospect: in and R. geography refugeestudies?', BLACK, andROBIN-

Geografiska Annaler - 83 B (2001) - 1

25