A project of Volunteers in Asia lipproprla?

e Technoloav Annotated Bibliography by: David French Published by: United States Agency for International Development Washington, DC 20523 Paper copies are $ 2.95 Available from: Volunteers in Technical Assistance 1815 North Lynn St., Suite 200 P.O. Box 12438 Arlington, VA 22209 USA Reproduction of this microfiche document in any form is subject to the same restriztions as those of the original document. in Social Context: Art

APPROPRIATE TECHNOLOGY IN SOCIAL CONTEXTz An Annotated Bibliography

Agency August

for International 1977

Development

E'PROPRIA~ TFXXNOLoGYW SOCIAL CONTEXT: An Annotated Bibliography

by David French

SubmittedTo: PFC/PDA/CP U.S. Agency for International Develoixnent Washington,D.C. 20523 Contra& AID/ok-147-77-77

August 1977

WTROnUCTION Interestin "appropriate technologies"for people in developingcountries springsfrom a desire to meet specificneeds of the poor. By rough definition,such technologiesshould thereforebe inexpensive enough for the poor to buy, simple enough for them to use and maintain,

- sparing in the use of scarce or importedresourc-8,and - well adapted to local social contexts. The last of these criteria,the consistencyof a technologywith its social environment,is the subject of this bibliography. In the languege of developmentagencies,a project's "social"impact generallyrefers only to changes in employmentand income distribution. These effects are inportent,and they are dealt with in a number of the publicationscited. Fully to understandthe transfer of appropriatetechnology, however,we need a broader conceptionof social reality. Here, "social contextthereforerefers to the whole set of sharedvalues, heliefs, and institutions that join people in common endeavor. Harmonybetween technolo@;y and social context is important. Abundant evidence shows that implantinga socially "inappropriate" technologyin a village has the same result as implantinga foreign object in a person: either the technologyis rejected or the village may "die" as a social organism. Any aid practitioner,for example, can telltales of windmills and pumps scatteredrusting and unwanted through the Third World. Similarly, novelistsand anthropologist6 have long recorded the disruptionof traditionalsocietiesby new technologies,a process more recentlyseen to feed politicaldisorder as well. Whether from empathy or from self-interest, we should give strict attentionto the social context of technologytransfer. if there is clear need to match technologyand society,it is less clear how this is to be done. Taken together,the material includedin this bibliographyconveys a surprisingly unified impressionof how to approach the problem (see Section I, below). Unfortunately, however,this material is normallynot taken together. Instead, it grows from the separateexperiences,perceptions,and preoccupationsof at least four distinct sets of professionals, degree of fragmentation a that raises seriousobstaclesto effective action (SectionII). I. AppropriateTechnoloa -- Social Context in Together,the readings listed below tell the followingtale: In practice, "development' a qualityboth too subtle and too dynamic is

ii

to be measured in such crude and static terms as "GNP," "personalincome," or "productivity." Lasting developmenttakes place when groups of people gain the capacityto build, little by little,on their immediateeconomic, technological, and social realities. The crucialmeasure of soci&l health is e strong self-reliance spirit, expressedthrough locally-based of development institutions. This is an inherentlydecentralized process, details of which will vsr/ greatly from place to place.1 Technologies will be "appropriate" only if they fit comfortablyin such dynamic socisl contexts. This requiresus to considerthe specificeffects of specifictechnoiogical interventions the iives of specificpeople in in their specificsocial environments. We could ignore these effects,but the many case studies in this bibliographywclm vigorouslyagainst it. People have been trying to transferappropriatetechnologies for decades,as often as not unsuccessfully. Ahost 5;ivaris.bu, failure has followedinattention to social context.2 To take full account of context impliesinvolvingthe comuiunity itself' in the mechanicsof technologicalchoice, even if new proceduresand institutions have to be created for the purpose. There is & happy convergence of two objectiveshere. Participationin decision-making !.esds an into creased zapacityfor subsequentdevelopment, well as walking in the short as run toward selectionof technologiesappropriateto the community's needs.3 From the aid donor'spoint of view, this suggestss.requirementin appropriate technologyprograms for
a generel sense of "vicariousness," interest in how development or looks through the eyes of those affected,

- inform&ion about existing technicaland social patterns,group by group, in areas where technologicalchange is sought, - close coll&ooration betweer, local. users of new technologies and o&side "change agents" in project design, implementation, and evaluation, institutional capacityat the village level to make technoloa choicessnd carry out technologyactivities,and

- long-ternassignmentof &id personnel,or of people with whom aid persoilnel can maintain regular contact,within the local weas where projects exe to be carried out. 1. see, for example, entries 10, 32, 34, 99, 120, 123,130,143,151,176. 2. Entries 3, 53, 54, 63, 80, 92, 112,134,136,137, 165.

3. Entries 40, 45, 68, 82, 86, g7, 115,124,123,145,167.

- 111 The Problemg II. Prcfessior.rtl Fragmentation

As drawn from the materialsin this bibliography, the argumentabove has B certainconce$ualunity. Such coherenceis deceptive,however, since it is abstractedfrom four separateliteratures, those of development s&enprograms,and sources of ries, the epplied social sciences,village-oriented technical information. Publicationsemerging from each of these groups have distinct concernsand strengths,all of which need somehow to be combined if appropriate technologyprograms are to be effective: World Bank, U.N. specialized agenA. Develo zeient Agencies (e.g.,AII), cies, Intencediate TechnologyDevelopmentGroup, A.T. Internations,?.): Particularattention is given here to policy issues and the econctic, technical,and administrative aspects of project design.4 In terms of appropriatetechnologyneeds, however, the literatureis conspicuously short on soci&i analysisand field-levelobservation. B. The Ap@ed Social Sciences: Excellent c&se studies of the relationxp between technologyand social context,especiallyin terms of social constraintson the acceptanceof given devices and techniques.5 Inevitably, this iiteratureis iess helpfulwhen it comes to technical mstters &nd to specificguidelinesfor administering development ppojects. C. Village-Based Programs (e.g., Peace Corps, Church World Service, MennoniteCentral Committee,Save the ChildrenFederation): Strong argumentsfor help to village-baseddevel ment efforts,along with $ descriptions some of these in practice, There is considerably of less concernhere with technical researchor with organizedsystems for project developmentand evaluation. of D. Soxxces of TechnicalInformation: Careful descriptions existing technoloaies-kd of vilkze-scale 01:"intermediske" .~: devices to improve on these.7 Since such publicationsusually lack analysis of social context,however, the impressionis sometimesleft that "appropriateness" is a matter of technicalfeasibilityalone. To encompassall essentialskills and understandings, would seem it that appropriate technologyshould be pursuedby machine-shop workers having social sciencedegrees, acting thro.xgh village-based programs supported with develwnent .qency funds! The reality, of course, is different. As the materiE in this bibliographysuggests,a given expert on these issues is likely to be working inside just one of the four categorieslisted, 4. Entries 11, 18, 44, 64, 85, 150, 158, 160, ~63, 175, 178, 179. 5. Entries 9, 16, 30, 58, 72, 102, 106, 110, 116, 140, 144, 156, 173. 6. Entries 34, 51, 93, 99, 100, 127, 130, 138. 7. Entries 1, 8, 12, 56, 67, 95, 101, 119, 121, 164.

- iv with few excursionsand limited collaboration across professional walls. There is need to break down the walls if appropriatetechnologyis to be kept in social context. If this is not doze, the burden of the evidence is that noney x5l.l wssted, societiesdisrupted,and inequalities be &ccSntuated, with human pain and Social disorderthe result. Perhaps the first job here Should be design of an appropriateinetitutionsl "technology" for technolom transfer. It would be an effort well worth making.

David French 4417 Q Street, N.W. Washington,D.C. 20007 Awst, 1977

-lTechnolo@;y 15 Years. for ACTION/PEACEC3XE5, 1976. Peace Corps Intermediate Program p\: Training.Journal Reprint Series No. A. Washington,D.C.: ACTION/ Peace Corps. May. A start at &king technoloE developed throughthe Peace Cwps more widely available,to be followedby a series of technicalmanuals. Included 8-5 plans for a $2 centrifige,a Braille letter block, a 506 crop dust-r,a $300 grain drying and storage system, and concreteroof tiles. Technologyin Agriculture." In AZ4ED, Raisuddin. 1975. "Appropriate BangladeshAgriculturalResearch Council, 1975. Assumes that creation of appropriatetechnologies will require close collaboration between rural users and centralinnovators. Development agencies,however, are accustomedto transferring modern solutionsintact and have no capacityfor involvingusers ir. project design and implementation. In addition,disciplinaryspecializations educationand in governmentservice prevent the sort of applied,multi-disciplinary view that design of appropriatetechnologyrequires. Creation in Bangladesh of a new agency with a fresh perspectivemay be called for. ALEXANDER,Paul. 1975. "Innovationin a CulturalVacuum: The Mechanization of Sri La&a Fisheries." Human Organization (4): 333-344. 34 Winter. Although a governmentprogram to provide mechanizedboats led to a rise in total income,employmentfell and disparities between rich and poor increased. Concentration ownership followedthe forced sale of boats of by people ur.able adjust to requirementsof the program, centralproto visions op which (creditand accountingsystems)were inconsistent with local attitudesand managementskills. ALLEN, Harold B. 1953. Rural Reconstruction Action: Experiencesin in the Near and Middle East. Ithaca: Cornell UniversityPress. ALYE, Susan. 1977. "Anthropologists and DevelopmentAgencies." Amex-ican Azthropologist(79). June. Many ant,?ropologists bear prejudicesagainst power, social manipulation, and bureaucracywhich make it difficult for them to functionwithin developmezt agencies. This is wfortunate, since current experiments with integratedrural developmentprograms raise issues that anthropologists are well prepared to address. Discusses the kinds of accomodations anthropologists need to make to work in developmentagencies,the reasons such compromises rz3.y worth making, and ways of finding jobs. be AMXHTCAN ETKNOLXIST. 1975. "Special Issue: Sex-Rolesin Cross-Cultural Perspectives." Vol. 2 (4).

-27. and Planned Change in APIXORPE,Raymond. lied.).1970. Rural Cooperatives and Planned Change, Vol. 4. Africa: Case Materials. Rural Institutions Geneva: U.K. Research Institutefor Social Development. Case studies of cooperatives agents of rural change in seven African as countries. 8. International Rice ARBOLEDA,J.R. 1975. Improvementsf the Kiskisan Mil.l,. Research Institute. Mimeo. Describes how improvementscan be made in this widely-used,"traditional' mill. 3. ARXNSRERG,Conrad '1. and Arthur :i. Niehoff. 1971. Introducing Social clm.nge A Manual for CommunityDevelopment(secondedition). Chicago 6 : New York: Aldine/Athertor,. As change has become more consciously and more urgentlypursued, the need has gro>rr, understandthe crosscultural to processesthrough which this often takes place. To further such understanding, this book dispusses the conceptof culture; "the change process,"in which outsiders interactwith prospectiverecipientsof a new idea until this is integrated into local culturalpatterns;motivationsfor change;ways of adaptingan innovationtr existing ideas and customs,where this is needed to fake the innovationacceptable;"such secondarystrategiesas obtainingparticipation...". , primary characteristics developing of nations ar,d the United States; and field problems of the change agent. 10. ARTIARATXZ,A.T. 1976. "The SarvodayaShramadanaMovement: Mobilizing Human Resources for Development." Peace Corps Program and Training Journal 4 (3): 1-8. Describesa Sri Lankan volunteer organization dedicatedto social and economictransformation based on the "awakening"of individuals, families and villages to their own potential. A basic technique is the village-level work camp where problems are identified, projects carried out, and social infrastructure developedto continuethe movement after the camp itself disbands. Foreign volunteerswishing to participate&i-ecautionedthat they should plan to learn and change through such contact,rather than carryingthe "messianicattitude"that they are simply the agents for change in other people's lives. il. ASKIN, Peter W. i976. IntermediateTechnology: An InformalSurvey. Washington,D.C.: Departmentof State, Senior Seminsr in Foreign Policy. (Reprinted in U.S./AID, 1977,) A compact introduction the field. Discusses definitional to problems; criteria;economic measures;attitudesand applicationsin developing countries,especiallythe Philippines,Indonesia,and Sri Lanka; and possibilitiesfor international assistance. The author notes that intermediate technol.ogies not culturally are neutral, and that real danger thereforeexists of second and third generationeffects that can wipe out

-3s
irlitial gains or compoundthe problew to whit;: the technologies were meaningthat directed. These effects are highly location-specific, "research,planning, participationand decisionmaking aust take place in or near the -Jroblem area.v Agencies such as AI3 are poorly staffed to functionat this level, raising serious questionsas to how their appropriate tecbnolo@;y prograrcs might be implemented.
12.

TechnologyMateAUCIELLO, Kay Ellen. 1976, Bibliographyof Intermediate rials Yeld at the international DevelopmentData Center. Atlanta: Engineering ExperimentStation, Georgia Instituteof Technology. February. Primarilymaterial with an engineeringor economicpoint of view, divided into sectionscoveringbackground information, bibliographies, agricultural equiprwzer:t, construction, food, natural resources,power, and a wide rar.ge tecinica1reports. of

13.

AAPKL&DESKAGRIC&"lJ&XLRESEARcr: COu?ICIL. 1975. Proceedingsof the WorkC (Feb.6-%, 1975). Dacca: sho PargledeshAgriculturalResearch Council. Mostly working papers by scir,ltists planners on such topics as wells and and irrigatior, agriculturalimplements,creditand extensionsystems, and storagefacilities. Also included are results of a survey of existing agricult~zal technologiesin Bangladesh. Generallyendorsesthe idea of labor-intensive, low-costagriculturaltechnologies. See also, R. Ahmed,

1975. 14. 15.

16.

BELL, ciioe. 1972. "The Acquisitionof AgriculturalTechnology: ;ts Determinantsand Sffects." Journal of DevelopmentStudies 9: 123-160. Oct. SELSHAW, C.S. 19'i;. "The Contributionof Anthropologyto Development." Current AnthropolopT15 (4):520-536.December. BENNETT, Johr, W, 1974. "'Anthropological Contributions the Cultural to Ecology and Maregementof Water Resources." In L. Douglas James (ea.), Man & water: ??e Social Sciences in Managementof Water Resources. Lexington: :Jniversity Press of Kentuc~. Discussesseveralpertinent topics: First, archeological studies of prehistoricwatezvorks,which provide evidence on the long-runeffects of alternative&signs. Second, large-scaletropicalwater projects,many of which have bad negative,unanticipatedeffects on agriculture, physical and mental health and social organization. Third, anthropological , studies of sinall-scale mter projects. Fourth, competition sod cooperation in water developn;ent.

1.7 .

HERZARD, H. Russell and Pertti J. Pelto. 1972. Technologyand Cultural

Chan@,e. Hew York: M9mnill.9n.

-4-

IA.

BERNSTEm, Her'oere.Undated. An Explorationof the World Bank's Treatment of Water ResourcesProjects. Washington,D.C.: World Bank. Draft. Cites Rank activitieswhere inadequateattentionto social factors ??wit% the project design process may have led to difficulties. 'Over the i>ng run, all those involvedin this process should develop greater "vicariousness"to ensure that projects respondwell to local conditionsand expex:;s applied social sciencemay help by in needs. More immediately, such means as drawing up guidelinesand working on project design. One likely result of such attentio::: "psycho-social" 50 forces in development would be greater use of appropi'.tetechnologies.

19.

BliATTASALI, B.N. 1972. Transfer tiif Technolo@;y Among the Developi.ng Countries. Tokyo: Asianxduct;vity Organization. Covers traditionalissues of technologytransfer: institutional arrange ments, researcn, informationservices,training,finsnce,etc. Emphasis change within a however, is on the "organic"place of technological ;^..-+t-r'e .uLz.'-J social, economic and culturalenvironment. In particular, there is need to fit new technologiesto the sense of work as creative activitythat characterizes developingaresd. The historicalexperience of &pan, China and India with technologicelchange are given special attention.

20.

BLOEM, Kenneth et al. (eds.). 1977. AppropriateTechnoloa in Health in DevelopingCozxtries: Froceedingsof a ConferenceSponsoredby the Nations ComcIl for International Health (Washington, D.C., December 16-17, 1976). Washington,D.C.: National Council for I+%national Health. EOLNICK,arms? R. 1976. "CollectiveGoods ProvisionThrough Counxnity Development." Economic Developmentand Cultural Change 25 (1): 137-150. October. ROIJLDING, Elise. 1975. Women, Bread and Babies: DirectingAid for Fifth Wcrld Farmers. International Women's Year Studies on Women, Paper No. 4. Boulder: Universityof Colorado, Instituteof BehavioralSciences,Progrm cf Research oz General Social and EconomicDynamics. Women's labor, which is actually increasedby many developmentschemes, is often .xxzeeaswed planners and unremunerated society. Discusser by by ways iz which the overall situation could be improved,includingtranSf< cf ir.termediate technologiesfor daily tasks.

21.

22.

23.

ERODE, J. 1969. The Z'ocess of Modernization: An AnnotatedBibliography on the Sociocultur~ Aspects of Development. Cambridge,Mass.: Harvard TJniversity Press. and ComBROKENSHA,David and CharlesErasmus. 1969. "African'Peasants' munity Development." In David Brokensha (ea.),The Anthropologyof Devela Monograph ment in Sub-SaharanAfrica. Society for Applied Anthropology

24.

j-

Xumber 10. Lexington: UniversityPress of Kentucky. eased on observationsin Ghana and Ugada, concludesthat community developmentis consistentwith traditionalforms of communityactivity. 25. Choice: AgriculturalXechaRURCH, D. 1975, The Politics of Technologica; nization in Sri tika. Science Policy ResearchUnit. Mimeo. Any analysisof technoloa selectionmust considerthe benefitsthat different choices confer on various social groups. Analyzes factors leading to adoption of capital-intensive methods in Sri Lanka. 24. An WFVINIC, Mayra. 1974. Women and World Developlcent: AnnotatedBitliography. Preparedimder the auspices of the AmericanAssociationfor the Advancementof Science. Washington,D.C.: OverseasDevelopmentCouncil. An introductory essay suggests (among other poifits) that development processeshave tended historicaily increasesexual inequality, to at least until industrialization become well established. Case studies has in support of this conclusionare scatteredthrough the bibliography itself, a1or.g with works on such other topics as law and politics, inform1 a;id formal associations, family planning,education,and behavior patterns. 27. Rural Africa: Summary BYERLEE, Derek et al. 1977. - . Employment in 'ii:?ical of Findings. Africa Rural Econo~ Program Working Paper NO. 20. East Lansing: MichiganState University. February. Based on a five-year study financedby AID. Concludesthat labortechxlogiea would be more widely used if factor intensive,"appropriate" price distortions were correctedand small-scale activitiespromotedby approacheswith such governments. To replace current, capital-intensive er a policy wofid lead to great employment in agricultureand'ruralindustry wit> lit&z or no sacrifice in national output. In a brief section, the authors report on family labor allocationsassociatedwith various nature of many farm projects in Sierra Leone: given the sex-specific tasks, an ap?roech requiringsubstantialland developmentincreasedmen's work, while a mechanization project led to sharp increasesonly in labor suppliedSjrwornen. 28. CAIiAD-iXN h3JJGER r'OlJXDATICVJ Brace Research Institute. 1976. A Handbook and on AppropriateTechnol.?@. Ottawa: CanadianHunger Foundation. April.
Theory

and practice, including: basic conceptsand issues;a dozen case studies coveringexperimentsin nine countries;glossary; catalog of tools; bibliography;listings of groups and people working on appropriate technology questions. The case studies largelydeal with technical aspects of specific equipmentand processes,although'twoconsidercooperatives as a means of access to new technologies. Summary sectionsgive considerable attentionto the role of outside "Appropriate Technology catalysts," who are cautionedto gain a thoroughknowledge of the community

in which they work and to involve communitymembers throughoutthe process of articulatingneeds, exploring solutions,and introducing new techniques. 3'). UANADTAN ~010'X41> AFRIrm STUDIES. 1972. "SpecialIssue: 4fricanWomen 3F vol. 6 (2). 30. CANCIAN,Frank. 1972. Change and Uncertaintyin a Peasant Econow: 'I'he Maya Corn Farmers of Zinace?tan. Stanford CaXf.: Stanford University , Press. social and economicfactors in decisionsto expand maize ?e:chnical, productionand adopt new technologies. 31. C.4NCUN Frank. 1977. "Can AnthropologyHelp AgriculturalDevelopment?" Culture'andAgriculture (2). March. The social corx?onent developmentprojects has generallybees subordiof nated to tecbricel concerns,with social scientistsprimarily employed to ensure that given technologies are adopted. If developmentof rural areas is consideredto imply a measure of equity, however, social resear into goals and methods of change should be put on a par with scientific research into agronomictechniques. Anthropologists have an advantage here in teIi?.s their insight into cross-cultural of universals,their tradition of open-endedexchangewith people in the field, and the holis nature of their discipline, ., SC. CARR, Marilyn. 1976. Economically AppropriateTechnologiesfor Developing Countries: Ar.Annotated Bibliography. London: IntermediateTechnology PublicationsLtd. About 300 entries coveringtechnologiesfor agriculture,housing,manufarturing,power, water, health, roads, etc. An introductory essay note the diffixlty of generalizing from these selections. Small-scale production is gecerally"appropriate" and labor-intensive, for example,but soluthere are case studies showing contraryresults. If intermediate tions are desired, they may be found by modifications either traditic iti or modern technologies. Resistanceto adopting such techniqueswy have roots in local economic conditionsor simply in habit patterns of aid administrators, In sum, although the evidence generally supportsan in1 mediate approachto development,specific issues and appropriateresponr will vary greatiy dependingon place, technology,stage of development, governmentpolicies, and other factors, 33. CARIUPPIBRS, I.D. 1973. Impact and Economics of CommunityWater Supply: A Stildjr Rural Water Investmentsin Kenya. Wye CollegeAgrarian Developmenl of ilnit. Includes disciissior? individualvs. communalsystems. An economist's of approach.

-7CifilRCi S3RVI~cl3 WOMLu . 1976. The Role of Church World Service in Development. CWS Wuking Paper. April. (Reprinted5 J. Wilkes, 1977.)
. . develqmcnt process as one that emphasizesselfDefines a 3rLkv i:,lc%l icl;:ationand social justice. Ultimately,development ~ reliance y 2 ~1 3 can be susidl:3i0nj.y througil indigenousinstitutionsspringirqfro3 the needs of sFec'_fic communities, with control in the hands of local leadership. Since outside agencies can oniy be "enablers"in this process, the role of ckxxh woi-12 Service will be to provide minimalamounts of encc,uragement assistsnceir, end responseto local initiatives.

35.

as CLINTON,Charles A. 1975. "The Anthropologist Hired Hand." &man Organization 3L: 197-204. COHEN~ JohI; N. 1975. "Effectsof Green RevolutionStrate&ie;on Tenants and Small-ScaleSandoNnersin the Chilela Regior of Ethiopi.:."Jownal of DevelopingAreas 9 (3):335-358. CONGDOTJ, R.J. (ed.). 1975. lectures on SociallyAmropriate Technology. Eindhoven,Retherlacds: TechnischeKogeschool. Twelve lec%xes, mostly by mem3ers of the Intermediate TechnologyDevelopment Group, 6i?en at two Dutch universitiesin late 1974. Topics include e&x.&ion system, social criteria,and technologiesfor water, agriculture, energy, chemicals,ari industry. See also G. McRobie, 1975; A. de Wilde, 1975, CURRENS,Gerald 's. 1976. "Women, Men, and Ricer AgriculturalInnovation in Northwestern Liberia." Human Organization (4): 355-365.Winter. 35

39. 40.

ModernDALTON, George. 1971. Economic Developmentand Social Change: Tine ization of Village Communities. Garden City, N.Y.: Natural History Press. URROW, Ken ar.d Rick Pam. 1.976. AppropriateTechnologySourcebook. Stanford, Calif.: Volunteersin Asia. November. Extensivepractical informationon appropriatetechnologies for the Third World, coveringdevices,publications,groups, arid key ideas in a number food preservatiorc sT;orage, and enercf (wind, of areas: egricuulture, weter supply,housing, health water, solar, wood, methane, nedal-power), F the autnors emphasize care, village industries. In their introduction, that the heart of "appropriate technology"lies less in gadgetry than in the process tirough which new techniTdesare found and applied. This process must be comxuity-based and participatory, leavingroom for outsj~ders primarily as catalystsand as sources of limited, short-term technicalsupport.

41.

DEJENX, Tekola and Scott E. Smith. 1973. Experiences in Rural Development: A Selected,Annctated Eibliographyoi' Planning,Implementing, and Evaluating BwalDevefopr.ent in Africa. OLC Paper No. 1. Washington,D.C.: Overseas

Liaison Commiitee,Americau Cour.cil Education. August. on blostly publications authors from North America,Africa, and Europe, hy written in both English and Fren,?h. Covers theory and practice of rural aevelOpment or~grams, includingsupportingactivitiesin extension,educaA tion and trair,:ng. brief final section deals with experiencesin other de-ieloping areas, with partixlar attentionto the ComillaAcadew (Bengla desh) end the Puebla Project (Mexico). 42. DZVELOPNGiTAXGtNATIVES, Inc. 1974. A Seven-Country Survey on the Roles of Women in Rural Development. Report to U.S./AID. Washington,D.C.: D.A.I. December. In most of the countriessurveyed,women take part equally with men in basic agricultu-al production,predominatein petty trading and handicrafts, and supply much of the labor for communityself-helpactivities. Despite this, women are generallyignored in development projects. Assuming that wonen should be integrated more fully into the rural ecommy, the report outlines informationrequirements for design and implementetion of projects to achieve this. Such informationis highly locationspeciftc,and much of it can be found only in the field.

43.

DEVELOPKENT ALiYEK'JATi-VES, 1975. Strategiesfor Small Farmer DevelopInc. ment: An Empiricai Study of Rural DevelopmentProjects. Report to U.S./AID in three volumes: Final Report, Case Studies, and Executive Summary. Weshington,D.C.: D.A.I. Nay. The purpose of rural projects is assumed to be promotionof self-susteinir growth in the small farmer's income,agricultural knowledge,and self-hell capability. Success appears to depend largely on whether farmers (a) ere involved in decision-making during project implementation, and (b) commit their own labor or cash to the activity. To design projectsresponsive to these criteriatakes more tilre end knowledge of local conditionsthen eid agencies normallyasswne is necessary. Such agenciesneed either to edopi a more locally-based, "organic"developmentapproachor to support si~&lle! institutionsa31e to operate on this basis in developingcountries.

44.

DEVF.LOPNXIiT ALTZKIATIVES,Iric. 1976. Date Requirementsfor the Design of Area DevelopmentProjects. Washington,D.C.: D.A.I. October 11. Assumes that area developmentprojectswill seek an equitable,selfsusteicin<gro7t.h process to iccreaseincome, production,levels of heelti and nutrition,and individualor group ability to solve development problems. To design such projects requires information on: governmentpolicies and decision-slaking processes;productiontrends; ecologicaland demographicfact1 ?:; research,extension,credit,end marketing systems; transport,power, and communications facilities;education;health,water. and nutrition strvices,socio-political systems;etc. To collect these data within an area of 30,000-50,000 square kilometerscontainingdiverse farming and social systems should take two rural developmentspecialists three to five weeks.

-9-

45.

DICKSON, David. 1975. The Politics of AlternativeTechnoloa. New York: Universe Books. ., technologiesseem weli suited to the need of the In theorv intermediate Third Worl?'s ooor for self-helpapproachesto development. In practice, however,t:-echoice of these technologiesand the ways in which they ere lx+sd will depend on the interestsof people doing the choosing,and these are generallyWesternersor members of Western-oriented elites. Until politicalection is taken to allow the poor to articulatetheir own demands technologies will have little and make their owe choices,intermediate real impac: 05 underdevelopment. Much of this argument grows out of the author'ser.slysis problems in the industrialized of world, which is the book's r,ajor &rea of concern. DlMA, S.A.J. and V.F. Amann. 1975. "Small Holder Farm DevelopmentThrough East African Journal of Rural Development8 (l&Z). Intermediate Technologyy." Looks at the failure of mechanizationpolicies in East Africa and argues for more appropriateapproaches,includingsmall improvements such in existingtechilologies ox-drawn equipment. as DOMMN, A.J. 1975. "The Bamboo Tube Well: A Note on an Example of Indigenous Technolo&+y." EconomicDevelopmentand Cultural Change 23 (3). April. DORWR, Peter (ea.). 1977. Cooperativeand Commune: Group Farming in the Economic Developmentof Agriculture. Madison: Universityof Wisconsin Press. DRUMMOND, Tberese. 1975. Using the Method of Paul0 Freire in Nutrition Education: An ExperimentalPlan for CommunityAction in NortheastBrazil. International Nutrition MonographSeries No. 3. Ithaca, N.Y. Cornell University. Factors in Community DUBE,S.C. 1959. India's ChangingVillages--Human Development. Ithaca: CornellUniversityPress. Development--The Experienceof DuIANsm, r.larlia;rr,e . 1977. Water~Resource U.S. Non-ProfitOrganizations: Programs, Issues and Recommendations.New Technical York: America Council of VoluntaryAgencies for Foreign Sez-fice, AssistanceInfon-ationClearingHouse. March. Stressesthe importanceof small-scalewater projects which local co-ities can ther,selves develop,finance and maintain. In pursuing snch activities,U.S. non-profitorganizations(e.g., CARE, CatholicRelief Services)have notabls advantages: they are oriented to basic human needs, especiallythose of the poor; since they operate at the village level, they can find and work with the most appropriateindividuals and institutions; they are relativelyflexibleand non-bureaucratic their in operatioi?s. Lists water projects now being carried out by 70 organizations in 42 countries.

52.

for DevelopingCountries. ECKKS, Richard S. 1977. AporopriateTechnoiogies Washington,D-C.: NationalAcademy of Sciences. as "Ap$roprist@" should mean "efficient," defined within neoclassical of economictheory. For the author, the implications this assumption are such that intermediate technologyis more or less dismissedout of hand.

53.

EKi$ERSON, Donald X. 1977. "Introducing Technology: The Need to Consider International DevelopmentReview (1). Local Culture" (interview). Describesa 1974 riot in eastern Java where fishermendestroyednets and motorizedbeets loaned to poor members of the community the central 5y goverrzent. The author hypothesizesthat the new boats were viewed es e threst to social securitymechanismsbased oii existingpatron-client relationships, that they seemed to give unfair advantagesto a limited number of people, and that their neture es e "daytime"technologyreplecir nighttimefishing represented"defect"of the moon as 8 spirituellychargedbody governingthe rhythm of the catch. Concludesthat no technologicalsolution can be effectiveunless based on respect for local cultures.

54.

EFSTXIN,T. Seerlett. 1975. "Th@ Ideal Marriage Between the Economist's Macroapproach and the Social A&?hropologist's Microapproach Development to Studies." Econotic Developmentand CulturalChange 24 (1): 29-45. October. Macroplanswithout microknowledge have & tendency not to work. Effective study et the micro level, however, requiresen unusual combination of economicend anthropological skills. In c&se studies involvingrural wages in South India and cocoe sales in New Guinea, the author shows that .apparentQeconomicproblems could only be undrxtnod and solved through knowledgeo? iocal social conditions. Students within development studiesprogra3ls should thereforebe trained in et l@ast two disciplines, while professionelsin economicsand anthropologyshouldwork more closelytogether.

55.
56.

ERASMUT, Cherles. 1961. Men Takes Control: CulturalDevelopmentand Anericar, Aid. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press. ESHLEi%N,Roger. 1975. The Mochudi Toolbar (Mekgonstsotlhe:The Machine Which Can Do Everything). Geborone,Botswana: AgriculturalInformation Service,Xnistry of Agriculture. August. A technicaldescriptionof the design and applicationsof en animaldrawn implementdevelopedby the expatrietemazeger of the Mochudi Ferzriers Brigade in Botswana. Features of the design were gathered from suggestions tillege experts from e number of North American universiby ties. The implement can be used for such p+oses as planting,fertilizing, cultiveting,soil preparation,and hauling of water, although manufecturir,g requirements are such that local productionnay not be consistent with adequateperformance.

- 11 57.

FI'IZSII&'K#iS, Stephen J. 1975. fiuman Orgaanization 183-196. 34:

"The Anthropologistin a Strange Land."

58.

FOSTER, George I<. 1962. TraditionalCulturesand the Impact of TechnologicalChange. New York: Harper & Row. (Revisededition 1973.) Suggeststhat we think of development8s a "sociotechnical" process, in order to make explicit the social factors conditioning the results of aid pro$xts. Among these factorsmust be includedthe technician's own professicxblbackground, rich source of culture-based B assumptions after, inconsistent with local realities. Discussesthe role of applied social scientists, who can predict 8 project'seffect@, suggest ways to neutralizeculturalbarriers to its acceptance,or propose changes in its design to bring it more into line with traditionalsocial patterns. In all of this, developmentpersorxxel should see themselvesprincipally as advisers,ieavtigultimate decisionsto the people they &ye trying to help.

53.

FOSTER, George M.

1969.

Applied Anthropology. Boston: Little, Brown & Co.

A Sasic text. An interestingset of underlyingassumptionsis scattered throu@ the Sook: Most peasants are highly "individualistic."Preferred innovationsare those that people can individually decide about aad adopt. Reel progresswill come when such people can feel free to ignore public opinion and individually enjoy the fruits of their labor. Ideslly, "authority"(ES legitimized through "the democraticprocess")would concentrateon maximizingindividualfreedom. 60.
61.

FOSTER, George M. 1974. 'TechnicalAssistanceMethodology: An Anthropologist'sView." DevelopmentDigest 12 (3): 87-94. FOSTER, George M. 1976. "MedicalAnthropologyand International Health Planning." Medical.4nthropology Newsletter7 (3): 12-18. May. People in developingareas will accept modern medicinewhen this is seen to he better than traditionalmethods and to be availableon acceptable terms. If such people are less tradition-boxnd than gener-lljr bel;evod, however,Western health personnelmay be more so. Practitioners of "scientific" medicine invest great energy in the preservationof their bureaucraciesand routines,leaving them unresponsive such developing to country rquiuirements those for greater reliance on sub-professionals, as more flexible hours for providing clinicalservices,or endorsementof In transferring health techcertain activitiesof traditionalhealers. nologies,therefore,to understandthe implicit assumptionsof project administrators and professionalsis at least as important8s understanding the assumptims of local villagers.

62.

FOSTER, Robert J. 1965. Examples of Cross-Cultural ProblemsEncountered by AmericansWorking Overseas: An Instructcr's Handbook. Alexandria,Va.: ~-

- 12 George Washington;rniversity Human ResourcesResearch Office. May. Primarilye series of specific case referencesfrom development and anthropologicai literature,presentedthrough le'ngthy quotationsin index-cardfornet. Mejor sections cover resistanceto innovation, unanticipated consequences planned change, communiceti.on of difficulties, the resolutionof cross-cultural problems,etc. 63. Parametersin Directed Change." FRASER, Thornas Jr. 1963. "Socioculturel $5. Human Orgenizetion. Spring: 95-104. (Reprintedin A.H. Niehoff, 1966.) Case stludies three pairs of projectswithin en AmericanFriends Service of Coromittee program in India: pump wells vs. sanitarylatrines;vegetable vs. poultry production;cooperetives for leather workersvs. weavers. Within esch psir, one project succeededand one failed, invariablydue to specificfeatures of the local social system. Drawing on these studier the author outltnes & number of questionsdesigned to provide insight into cultureswhere innovationsere to he promoted. The predictiveforce of information wquired in this way is not total, and in fact would probably have led to support for one of the projects that ultimatelyfailed. In general,however, ettentionto such social factors should help planners chooseand impiewnt projects successfully. 64. FROST, Dennis Ii. 1976. Proposals for the Developmentof Small Farm Technol. ogy In Nond~as. Report to U.S./AID. London: Intermediate TechnologyServices, Ltd. J?ine 5. Outlines& project having four major elements: First, 8 study of local agriculture(climate,land use, farm econoq, labor inputs)to find of constreints increasedproduction. Second, introduction equipment on end techniquesto overcomethese constraints. Third, provision of facilitiesfor local manufactureof the equipment. Fourth, establishment of training, informationand feed-backservices. 65. 66. GANlERE,N. 1973. Transfer of Technologyand AppropriateTechniques: A Bibliography. Paris: OECD DevelopmentCenter. GERM FOUNDATIONFOR DEVELOPINGCOUNTRIES,Seminar Center for Economic and Social Deve1opner.t. 1972. Developmentand Dissemination Appropriete of Technologiesin Rural Areas Iworkshop report). Berlin: German Foundation for DevelopingCountries. Proceedingsof e conferenceheld in Kumasi, Ghana, in July 1972. The workingpapers includedhere are primarilytechnicaldescriptions of textiles, specificexperimentsin housing, smell industry,road-building, agriculture, etc. A section summarizing workshop discussionsstresses the desire for closer investigation local economic and social factors of to determinethe need for particulartechnologies, well as the impact as of these technologieson living petterns. A series of formal recommendations emphasizesthat developmentof new technologiesshouldbe based on careful study of existing ones.

- 13 _ GIBBON, D. et al. 1974. "MinimumTillage System for Botswana." World Crops 26 (5). Describes ar. mimal-drawn implementdesigned for local conditions. GODA_F,T, Albert L. 1966. "Social and CulturalAspects of IntegratedRural Labour Review 94 Developmentin Some West African Countries." International (3): 255-273. Septembe,er. Finds a need in several West African countriesfor integratedrural developmentprograms, to be drawn up by interdisciplinary teams under the tutelage of communityleaders. Technology in West African Agriculture." GORDON, E. 1967~ "Intermediate World Crops 19 (3). Argues for t?e use of simple machines to be made by village blacksmiths or carpenters. Development GRANT, James. 1973. Growth From Below: A People-Oriented Strategy. ODC DevelopmentPaper No. 16. Washington,D.C.: Overseas DevelopmentCovxcil. December. IiAMER, J.R. 1967. "VoluntaryAssociationsas Strwtures of Change Among the Sidamo of Southwestern Ethiopia." Anthropological Quarterly40 (2): 73-91. HAMMOND, Peter B. 1966. Yatenga: Technologyin the Culture of a West African Kingdom. New York: The Free press. Notes that anthropologists Africa have concentrated social organizain on tion and re1:gionto the almost total exclusionof technology. Goes on to indicate"some ways in which a beginning understandingof the integration between the envirotlment the technologyof a particular and African people, the Xossi of Yatengs, may be related to the achievementof a better understanding the structuraland functionalinterrelations of between the other aspects of their culture as it is today, as it was, and as it seems likely to change in the future." liANNETT, Ian. 1973. "The Role of the Sociologistin Local Planning." Journal of DevelopmentStudies 9: 493-507. HAVJZNS, Eugene A. and William Finn. 1973. Green Revoj:dt,ion Technologyand CommunityDevelopment. LTC No. 93. Madison, Wisconsin: Land Tenure Center. HILDEBRAND,Peter E. 1976. A Multidisciplinary Methodologyfor Generating New Tecbnolcgyfor Small, TraditionalFarmers. Guatemala: Institutede Ciencis y TecnologiaAgricola.

- 14 76.

HILL, P. 197b. A Plea for the Developmentof IndigenousMethods of Grain Storage in the West African Savannah. Paper presented at the Internationa Seminar on Change in Agriculture,Universityof Reading. September. Describes;?s?itlonalmethods of grain storage, arguing that these shouldbe szuiied and improved.

77.

HOBEN, Allen. 1976a. Social Soundness of the West Benoue IntegratedRum DevelopmentProposal. Washington,D.C.: U.S./Am. May.

'ifi. iIOBEN, Allen. 1976b. Social Soundnessof the Masai Livestockand Range ManagementProject. Washington,D.C.: U.S./AID. October. This proje':t Tad succes&uliy introduceda number of new livestocktech failure,however, in achievinglx noiogies. There was at least partial. c&x&l objectives: reducing herd size and creatingranchingassociati Although some observershad attriiiuted difficulties tradition-bound to constraints behavior,the author argues that the Masai in fact were 011 acting in a rationalmanner under difficultand changingcircumstances. Given this assumption,a series of proposalsindicateshow revised a project could improvethe quality of life within the project area in ways cons',?ter,t Masai needs and perceptionsof self-interest. with 79. 60. HOBEN, Allen. 1976c. Social Soundnessof Agrarian Reform in Ethiopia. Washingtori, D.C.: U.S./AID. December, HOLIBERG,Ailan R. 1952. "The Wells that Failed: An Attempt to Establit: a Stable Water Supply in the Viru Valley, Peru." In E.H. Spicer (ed.), 15 Attemptsto supply water for householdand irrigationneeds had to be abandonedbecause of local suspicionof the project. Although the attitudeof area residentsseemed inexplicable project engineers, to widespreadresistancehad grown from decisionsto drill the initial well on the property of an unpopular landowner,under the general supervisiocof an unpopular local governingbody. Had informal communi leadersbeen involvedin the project from its earliest stages, these problems could have been avoided. 81. INGERSOLL,Jas>er. 1977. Social Analysis of DevelopmentProjects: A SuggestedA:?roech "or Social SoundnessAnalysis. Washington,D.C.: U.S./Am 3evelopuentStudies Program. May. Notes that Am analyses of "social soundness"cover a mass of data wjthin three Idroad areas: a project's "sociocultural feasibility, the likelihoodof its diffusion,and the equity of project effects. Ilnfortunately, little guidance is provided on using these data to i~solate the rr.3st pertinent features of a society and to show specific ways in which projectsaffecting it might be improved. Accordingly, the author suggestsan approach to viewing reward systems,role behavil ar,d other aspects of social organization. with which a project will intt act, and icdlcateshow ,this approachwould nodify Am's current guidel: for social anaiysis.

82.

15 -

INTERNATIONAL DEVELOPMENTRESEARCH 'COUNCIL. 1973. TechnologyAssessment and Research Prioritiesfor Water Supply and Sanitationin Developing countries: With Special Referenceto Rural Populationsand Small Cownities. Ottawa: IDRC. Calls for communityinvolvementin project design, construction and operation. Emphasizesthe need to determinelocal perceptionsand value systems.

83.

INTERNATIONAL IABOR OFFICE. 1973. Mechanization and Employment in Agriculture. Geneva: ILO. Finds that mechanization has benefitedwealthy minoritiesitt the expense of society as a whole.

94.

JACKSON; S. 1972. EconomicallyAppropriateTechnologies for Developing Countries. ODC OccasionalPaper No. 3. Washington,D.C.: Overseas DevelopmentCouncil. February. JANSEN, William ii.II. 1977. Walking an Old Path in New Shoes: Anthropology Returns to A.I.D. Discussionpaper for a workshop on "The Role of Anthropologyin A.I.D." Mimeo. By the mid-1970s, AID was under considerable pressure to serVe the npoor majority." Among other responses,proceduresfor social analysiswere establishedand a number of anthropologists hired. These initiatives so far have been only poorly integratedinto the total AID system,which continuesto stress economic and financial issues. Anthropologists need somehow to assert themselveswithin this system while retainingtheir professionalapproach Bnd criticaleye.

85.

86.

JEDLICKA,Allen. 1975. Diffusion of Technical Innovation: A Case for the Non-SexistApproachAmong Rural Villages. Paper prepared for the Seminar on Worxn in Developrent,jointly sponsoredby the American Associationfor the Advancemento? Science,the U.N. DevelopmentProgram, and the U.N. Institute for Training and Research, Mexico City. Mineo, Ways of introducing new "female" technologies, based on inclusionof women in the formationand functioningof rural participantgroups.

87. JEQUIER, Nicolas (ed.). 1976. AppropriateTechnology: Problems and

Promises. Paris: OECD DevelopmentCenter. Includes 19 short papers, primarily case studies of a great variety of projects in specificdevelopingcountries. In addition,a lengthy introductory essay by the editor summarizesimportantthemes. Taken together, these contributions reflect a number of unresolvedissues within the appropriatetechnology field, including: what sort of technologyis to be defined as "appropriate"; what criteria shouldbe used to judge the value of particularprojects;whether programs should be directedat the very poor or at wealthier innovators;whether new ideas will primarily

- 16 come from local people or from outside experts; and whether individualism or cooperation should be the basis of progress in this field. Observing that most foreign aid officialslack intimateexperiencewith rural areas, the editor concludesthat such groups as local governmentagencies or private voluntary organizationsshould assume primary responsibility (local organizational, legal, and knowfor developingthe "software??' ledge systems)necessaryfor a total "innovation system." See also J. Pilgrim,1976.

as. JOKGTON, Mary Bo2pel.l. 1975. "TrainingNeeds of OverseasAmericans as

Seen by Their National Co-Workersin Asia." Peace Corps Program and TrainingJournal 3 (4): 25-28. Results of a lilcited survey. Training needs consideredmost important includedhuman relationsskills, understanding local cultures,ability of to adapt, orientationfor service, and understandingof mission. Technical competencetied with "sensitivity training"for sixth position.

a9. JONES, G.N. 1%:.

"Strategiesand Tactics of Planned Organizational Change: Case Examples in the Modernization P-recess TraditionalSocieties." Human of Organization 2L;: 192-200. anisms: A Review of Anthropological Perspectives." CurrentAnthropology_ 17 (1): 23-47.

90. KSRRI, James N. 1976. "StudyingVoluntaryAssociationsas Adaptive Mech-

91.

XERRI, James N. 1977. "AppliedAnthropolo@;y, Urbanization, and Development in Africa: Dream or Reality?" Human Organization36 (1): 34-42. Spring. LANCE, Larry M. and Edward E. McKenna. 1975. "Analysisof Cases Pertaining to the Impact of Western Technologyon the Non-WesternWorld." Human Organization (1): 67-94. Spring. 34 Misleadingly titled, since there is no discussionof '%he impact of Western technologyon the non-Westernworld." Instead, emphasis is on conditions under which innovationsare "sicceSsful,l' apparentlymeaning that they have been adopted. In the 50 cases analyzed, "participation" was the only effectivestrategy for introducingchange. Technology hardwareswere more successfully transferredthan softwares. Where projects falled, a major cause was inadequate ~xnderstanding local of culturalbeliefs and political structures. LEAHY, Michael. 1976, "Water Supply Projects." Peace Corps Program and T?aining Jownal 4 (3): 27-p. Drawing on personal experiencein %nisia, the author concludesthat effectivewater projects are lilrely be based on "an 'intermediate to technology'which comes more from common sense and local observation than from engineeringskills." Peace Corps Volxnteer generalists, who are well suited by trainingand motivationto apply such technologies, can be of great use to developmentorganizations that wish to fund local projectsbut lack field personnel to give these the day-to-dayattention they require.

- 17 "Designing Rural DevelopmentPrograms: LessonsFrom Past LELE, ulna. 1976. Experiencein Africa." Economic Developmentand Cultural Change 24 (2): 287-308, January. The Introductionof Wood Preservationinto Papua New TLEVY, C.R. 1975. Guinea and its Effects on the Rural Community. Abidjan: I.U.F.R.O. Feb. New procecsesallowingvillagersto maintainthe advantagesof traditional hoxs-ing while avoiding difficulties associatedwith traditional building materials. and Colonialism." CurrentAnthropology14 LEWIS, D. 1973. "Anthropology
(5): 581-591.

"Considerations Rural Development--One in LINDBLAD,Carl et al. 1975. Perspective: Grain Storage in Dahomey." Peace Corps Program and Training Journal 3 (4): 19-24. Guidelinesfor considering small-scaleprojects. Emphasizesthat initialplanning should be based on carefulanalysis of the problem-in terms of traditionaltechniques,local market realities,and social customs--as seen from the farmer's point of view. LINDEWBAUX,Shirley. 1974. The Social and Economic Status of Women in Bangladesh. New York: Dept. of Anthropology, York College,City University of New York. Mime-o. the economic role of women has narrowed. This is With "development," reflectedin such social changes as having the bride's father make marriagepayments to the groom, rather than the other way around. Suggestsprograms to improvewomen's status. LONGACRE,Doris Janzen. Undated. Nutrition and Development. Development MonographSeries No. 4. Akron, Pa.: MennoniteCentral Committee. Causes and effects of poor nutrition,with special attentionto ways in which nutritionrelates to problems of agriculture, health, and justice. A major section deals with "indigenizing/humanizing nutritionaleducation," as pert of a developmentprocess emphasizingdecision-making the local at level. The author discussesnutritionexperimentsin rural areas, noting that small agencies have an advantage in determiningneeds and priorities in accord with "the people's agenda" in each location. 100. LUZZ&B'O,Francis A. 1976. "Intermediate Technology: The Peace Corps Contribution." Peace Corps Program and TrainingJournal 4 (1): 20-23. Suggeststhat Peace Corps Volunteershave a natural advantagein creating c%;~%zate technologies due to their first-hrtnd experiencewith local * Outlines a series of technologymanuals being written for use by PCVs and others involved in development.

- 18 101. "VillageTechnologyfor Rural MACPHRRSON,George and Dudley Jackson. 1975. Labour Development: AgriculturalInnovationin Tanzania." International Review 3 (2): 102-112. February. Even "intermediatd'technologies often too expenSiVe for poor villagers are to buy and too complex for then to maintain. The authors therefore generally substituting wood experimented with "villagetechnologies," for metal and using such familiar materialsas bush poles and discarded produced in this way were onetires. Costs of ox carts and cultivators fourth to one-half those of "intermediate" equipmentmade in Tanzania. Repairs were greater for the "village technologies," but these required the owner'sown labor instead of cash outlaysand more commonlycould be carriedout during slack seasons. 102. I"AHONY, Frank. 1961. "The Pilot Project in Range ManagementNear Afmadu." CommunityDevelopmentReview. June: 34-39. (Reprintedin A.H. Niehoff, ed., 1 . A mid-projectlook at tensionsbetween technically-based criteriaand local realitiesin a range managementproject in the Somali Republic. As framedby outside experts,the project would have required: financial contributions local nomads, implying a proprietaryinterestin water by resourcesthat could have led to warfare with groups whose access to water would have been restricted;a more settledpattern of grazing, interfering with nomadic tradition;a commercial approachto cattleraising, contraryto prevailingattitudesrelatingprestige to possession of large herds. The author suggests reshapingthe project to bring it more in line with local custom,while trainingSomalis mare carefully in principlesof animal husbandry.
103.

MANN, R.D. 1976. A Survey Technique for Identifyingthe Needs of Small Farmers,And an Example of its Use in Zambia. London: Intermediate TechnologyPublications. March. MARSDEN, K. 1970. "Progressive Technologiesfor DevelopingCountries." International L&our Review 101 (4). May. Case studiesof various industries,includingleather, footwear,ceramic tiles, fiberboard,and bread.

104.

105.

MARTIN, Luann Habegger. Undated. Women and Development. DevelopmentMonograph Series No. 3. Akron, Pa.: MennoniteCentral Committee. Many factors affect women's involvementin development: culturalroles, religiousand class attitudes,educationpractices,politicalstructures, etc. In many parts of the world, these result in systematicinattention to women by national planners,many of whose efforts actually increase women's work. To improve the situation,developmentagencies should considerwomen-oriented projects in intermediate technology,formal and nonformaleducation,handicrafts,child care, credit, family planning, and cooperatives.

- 19 MAYBURY-LEWIS, David. 1977. "Societieson the Brink." Harvard Magazine: 56-61. January-February. An appeal for respect for isolated societiesin danger of being overrun seek by the modein world. Rejects accusationsthat anthropologists simply to preserve such societiesas "human zoos,~ arguing that the real issue is how to regulate changes so,that costs are minimizedand benefits maximized for the affected groups. of MCDOWELL,J. 1973. "Development High Protein/HighCalorieBiscuits in Uganda Using IndigenousProtein Sources." East African Journal of Rural Development6 (l&2). Examinesproblems of packaging and acceptance. McLOUGHLIN,Peter F. (ed.). 1970. African Food ProductionSystems: Cases and Theory. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Press. Cf., for example, Peter Weil's chapteron "The Introduction the Ox of Plow in Central Gambia." McROBIE,G. 1975. "An Approach for AppropriateTechnologists." In R.J. Congdon (ea.), 1975. Suggestsa division of responsibility for three major tasks. First, Western experts can do state-of-the-art surveys and applied research to find models of appropriatetechnolo@;y clothing,shelter,health, for communityservices,growing and using food, etc. Second,people with thoroughknowledge of local conditionscan determinetechnologyneeds, community by comity. Third, centerswithin developingcountriescan make specificadaptationsof availabletechnologiesto local needs. : 110. l@.AD, Margaret (ea.). 1955. Cultural Patternsand TechnicalChange. New York: Mentor. A "manual"for developmentworkers, especiallygood for conveyingthe bewilderingvariety of traditional culturesand change processes. Particularattentionis given to social constraintson technical innovation, and on how to overcome these. As a secondaryconcern,the social consequences successfulinnovationsare examined. A basic point of of referenceis the need to support the "mental health" of people subject to these processes. 111. MELLOR, John W. 1975. The Impact of lJewAgricultura1 Technologyon Emplo ment and Income Distribution: Concepts and Policy. OccasionalPaper No. 1. Ithaca: Cornell University,Departmentof AgriculturalEconomics. May. MINER, Horace. 1960. "Culture Change Under Pressure: A Hausa Case." Human Organization. Fall: 164-167. (Reprintedin A.H. Niehoff, ed., 1966.) A follow-upstudy of British efforts to eliminate sleepingsickness in

112.

- 20 one erea of northernNigeria. The project's core activity,periodic clearingof brush along streams, continuedten years after the formal project itself was terminated. This apparent success,however, reflected only that the regionalesir annually ordered the work to be done. Local chiefs and villagers,to whom the relationship between brush, flies, and sleepingsicknesshad never been convincingly explained,made it clear that they would abandonbrush clearingif coercionto carry out this work were withdrawu. 113. MITCHNIK,.David A. 1972. The Role of Women in Rural Developmentin Zaire. London: Oxfam. Mimeo. Studiesprojects of voluntary agencies,concludingthat women are too often left out of those concerningagricultureand livestock. Suggests training schemes to support women in productiveactivities. 114. of in MORAWEIZ,D. 1974. "EmploymentImplications Industrialization Developing Countries: A Survey." The EconomicJournal 84 (335):491-542. September. NAPI'TGTYJLU, et al. 1976. "BUTSI'sVillage TechnologyUnit." Peace w.P. Corps Program and TrainingJournal 4 (1): 13-19. Stresses the importanceof placing the TechnologyUnit inside BUTSI, an Indonesianprogram with 1700 universitygraduates servingas community development volunteersthroughoutthe country. This approach makes two-way communication technologyproblems at the village level an on integralpert of the system. NIEHOFF,Arthur H. 1966. A Casebook of Social Change. Chicago: Aldine. Directed at Western "change agents," this book looks primarilyat innovations introduced outside experts into the lives of rural peoples. by In this context, I'successfl "failure"refer siqly to whether or not and the expert's innovationhas been adopted. In a chapteron "The Process of Innovation," the editor outlines a series of forces which impinge on the change process end argues that better understanding these by of development personnel can improve the prospectsfor acceptanceof their ideas. The case studiesthemselves concentrateon such innovation"softwares" as land reform, communitydevelopment, health practices,and cooperatives. For cases of particularinterest,summarizedseparately, see: T.M. Fraser, Jr., 1963; F. Mehony, 1961; H. Miner, 1960; P.T. Orata, 1954.

117.

NIEHOFF,Arthur H. 1969. Planned Change in Agrarian Countries. Report preparedfor the Departmentof the Army, Office of Chief of Research and Development. Alexandria,Va.: Human ResourcesResearchOrganization. December. MIEHOFF,Arthur H. and J. Charnel Anderson. 1964. "The Process of CrossCultural Innovation." International DevelopmentReview 6 (2): 5-11. June.

118.

OKAI,

"The Developme& of Ox CultivationPractices in,Uganda." M. 1975. East African journal of Rural Development 8 (l&2). Desrribes ox-drawn implementsin currentuse and suggestspossible improvements.

.20.

O'KELLY,E.

1973.

Aid and Self-Help. London: Charles Knight & Co.

v,.

Chapter 16 describesthe introductionof small corn mills in the Cameroons during the 13iOs, a process that requiredwomen to form societiesto pur.chase the mills. As the societiesbecame established, women us&d leisure time to organize classes in such subjectsas cooking, child welfare, and hygiene. 21. OLIVF,R, (ed.). P.
1971.

Shelter in Africa. London: Barrie and Jenkins.

Sixteen articles describingtraditionalforms of shelter. suggestsways of improvingcustomarymaterialsand techniques. 22. OPLER, Morris. 1954. "ProblemsConcerningOfficial and Popular Participation in DevelopmentProjects." Economic Developmentand CulturalChange 2
(4): i23. 269-278.

ORATA, Pedro T. 1954. Education. April: 3-10.

"Community Education in Rural Philippines." WW.Y.eaS (Reprintedir. A.H. Niehoff, 1966.)

A teacher'saccount of successfulcommunityprojects in his home village: building of pig pens, a feeder road, a canal. Use of schoolchildren in these activitiesprovided at the same time volunteer labor and the opportunityfor practical education in comity needs. In all.cases, "leaders"also assistedwith manual labor. Among other things, the experience'broved once more that the longestway round is the shortest way to the goal": construction a winding road around the property of of antagonistic landownersallowed this project to be completed,for example, altho;ahnot accordingto plan. And there was emphasis throughouton solicitingopinions, support,and participation communitymembers, a of time-consuming process essential to project sufxe*s.
124.

OWENS, Edgar. 1976. "SmallFarmer Participation and World Agricultural Development." Public Administration Review 36 (2): 142-148. March/April. Four kinds of organizationcan be used for small ferner participationat the village level: local governments,farmer cooperatives, irrigation and other land improvementassociations,and land tribunals. In countries such as Egypt and Taiwan, where such mechanismsare healthy and widespread,agricultural productivityis high. Most developingcountries, however, have given attentiononly to cooperatives, typicallyrun on organizational and financiallines of limitedvalue to C5- small farmer. Since productivityis low in such cases, and prospects for huger high, the U.S. should use its aid programs to promote greater participation by small farmers in development.

125.

22

Health, Culture and Coumxnity: Case Studies PAUL, BenjaminI).,ed. 1955. of Public Reactions to Health Programs. New York: Russell Sage Foundation. "The Role of Non-Governmental Institutionsin the PILGRIM,John W. 1976. InnovationProcess." In N. Jequier, 1976. Describesthe introduction maize and supportingtechnologiesin of colonialKenya. The particular success of religiousmissions as agents in this process followed from their institutional commitmentto low-cost, locally-based programs;their general concernwith educationand training activities; and the absence of any rigid time limits for completing projects. The innovationsthemselveshad a number of results,notably enclosureof formerly communal lands and the concentration benefits of on a restrictedgroup of "innovators"consistinglargely of mission members.

126.

127.

PROGRAM OF ADVANCED SI'UDIES INSTITUTIONBUILDING AND TECHNICALASSISTANCE. IX Private VoluntaryOrganizationsand AppropriateTechnology. Blooming1976. ton, Ind.: PASITAM. Jme. (Reprintedin U.S./AID, 1977.) Notes that the "appropriateness" a technologymust be measured against of local needs in specificplaces. Since PVOs typically concentrateon field operations,especiallyin impoverished rural areas, they are uniquely qualifiedto identify and respond to these needs. Most FVOs are considerably less strong, however, in technicalareas required for researchand development, well as in the formal assessmentand as dissemination their experience. In a general conclusion, of the authors stress the need for applied social science in evaluatingthose "vital conventions" particularsocietiesthat will determinetheir response of to given technologyprojects.

128.

REMY, Dorothy. 1974. Social Networks and Patron-Client Relations: Ihadan Market Women. Washington,D.C.: Federal City College, Departmentof Urban Studies. Mimeo. Describesnetworks serving financial,marketing and politicalfunctions. T?ese associationshelp Yoruba women maintain economic independence from their husbands at a time when "development" otherwisemaking this is difficult.

129.

Churches in Rural Development: Guidelinesfor SARTCRIUS,Peter. 1975. Action. Geneva: World Council of Churches. A strategybased on appropriatetechnoloa and popular participation.

130.

SAVE TXE CHILDRENFEIIERATION.1977. CommunityReport: Bangladesh (No. 21. westport,ct.: Save the Children Federation. Briefly describesprogress of a drum-makers'cooperative establishedwith SCF assistance. In line with usual SCF practice, a decision to support the co-op had emerged from consultations between SCF's Field Coordinator

- 23 -

and a local "communitycommittee"createdto select and implement approachgrows from a basic SCF belief projects. This community-based that the ability of villagers to understand, plan, and manage their own affairs is essentialto development. SCmcE FOR THE PEOPLE. York: Avon Books.
1974.

China: Science Walks on Two Legs. New

Describesthe Chinese attempt to use various kinds of technology--big and small, modern and traditional--in decentralized manner as as a possible. The Place of the BehavioralSciences in Development SCUlDER,Thayer. 1977. Based on PersonalExperiencesWith Multilateral A,zencies:Three Propositions Organizations. Working paper for meeting on "The Role of Anthropologyin A.I.D." May. First, there is a crucialneed for the behavioral sciencesto be used at all stages in the developmentprocess, rather than simply for "troubieshooting"after a project has been given shape by nationalplanners. Second,behavioral science must be institutionalized within the development agency, rather than being suppliedonly by occasionalconsultants. Third, behavioral science must have friends in high places within the organization, that its contributions so are not undercutby project plannersunconvincedof its value. SEWARD, Shirley B. 1977. Technology,Non-MarketActivities,and Household DevelopmentResearch Center. Productivity(draft). Ottawa: International Narcb 31. Interest in xw technologiesfor developmenthas stressedproductionOf goods for the market, generallyby men. This paper argues that the definitionof "productive" effort shouldbe broadenedto include other shoilld activitiesof households. In this view, technical inventiveness also be appiied to domestic tasks (child care, food preparation,provision of fuel and water, making of clothes)and "inf.srmal income-generating Icrafts and other gsods made by women). Changes activities"(primariiyhand' in these areas could have significant effects on human capital formation (throughimprovements nutritionand education),fertility (throu@ in increasedincomes and access to jobs), and so 011. The author reviews papers and developmentprojects concernedwith technological impact on householdproductivity,and ccncludesthat additionalresearch in this area is needed. SHARP, Lauriston. 1952. "Steel Axes for Stone Age Australians." Human Organization 11 (2): 17-22. Also in E.H. Spicer (ed.), 1952. Ways in which stone axes were acquiredand used by Australianaborigines helped define sex, age, and kinship roles for owners and users, trading partners, etc. Viewing axes only as means of production,however, local missionariesin pursuit of "progress"began to distributemore "efficient"

1
steel axes. As seemed rational,these were given to the people who might use thea most, includingwomen and children,who traditionaLly had never owned axes. Ultimately,these new patterns for acquisition and possessionof axes led to serious role confusions, diminished a place for the ceremoniesat which axes had been traded and other social relationships affirmed, creationof heretoforeunknown leader-follower relationships, widespreaderosion of values, intolerable pressure on the totemicbelief system, and profound demoralization.Although the missionariescould hardly have foreseen this, the resultingatmosphere of culturaland Tsychologicaldisintegration was ideal for introduction of the new "culturaluniverse"which their Christianity represented.

135. 136.

China." SIGURDSOl'4, 1973. "The Suitabilityof Technologyin Contemporary J. Impact of Science on Society 23 (4): 341-352. Paris: UNESCO. SmGH Rudra Datt. 1952. "The Village Level: An Introduction Green of Man&g in Rural India." In E.H. Spice=, 1952. Initial attwpts to introducegreen manuring failed due to strained relationships between villagerssnd governmentofficials,who were seen as authoritarian and paternalistic. With American support, a fresh project relied on young, non-governmental field workers, much of whose training took place on the job and stressed the need for close involvement in village life. Coupled with considerable delegationof authority, this deemphasisof technical criteriain favor of creating interpersonal bonds between workers and villagers led to widespreadadoption of the new technology.

137.

SOLES, Roger. 1968. Experiencesof a Peace Corps Volunteer Introducing Family Gardeningin Colombia. LTC No. 52. Madison,Wisconsin: Land Tenure Center. July. Describesthe early failures of a gardeningproject introducedwithout village participation project development. Partial success followed in endorsementof the program by an influentiallocal family.

138.

SO-R, J&n G. 1975. U.S. VoluntaryAid to the Third World: What is Its Ku:we? ODC DevelopmentPaper No. 20. Washington,D.C.: OverseasDevelop-ment Council. December. Stresses the major potential of private voluntaryorganizations "because of their flexibilityand because their projects generallyhave been qualitatively more effectivethan have parallel governmentefforts in reachiag the poorest groups in the developingcountries..."

139.

SPENCER, D.S.C. 1976. African Women in AgriculturalDevelopment: A Case Study in Sierra Leone. African Rural Economy Working Paper No. 11. East Lansing: MichiganState University.

- 25 .40.

Human Problems in Technological Change: A SPICER, E.H. (ea.). 1952. Casebook. New York: Russell Sage Foundation. (Also, John Wiley & Sons edition, 1967.) This book originatedin a Cornell program concernedwith "facilitating the introduction modern agriculture,industry,and medicineto areas of that are deficient in these technologies." Cases, organizedaround "suggestions for &xl&' and other teaching devices, include material on the introduction green manuring in India, steel axes in aboriginal of areas of Australia, stable water supplies in Peru, and democratic leadershipin Micronesia. The remaining studiesare draw" from various parts of North America. See A.R. Holmberg, 1952; L. Sharp, 1952; R.D. Singh, 1952.

141.

SPINDIER,Louise S. 1977. Culture Change and Modernization: Mini-Models and Case Studies. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston. Aspects of American Culture: Assumptionsend STEWART,Edward C. 1966. Values That .Affect Cross-Cultural Effectiveness. Pittsburgh. MiWO, Widely used in Peace Corps training programs. Thor5ht.s Development (revisededition). Developon STOESZ, Edgar. 1977. -. ment MonographSeries No. I.. Akron, Pa.: MennoniteCentral Committee. Since under-development reflectsmore a poverty of spirit than a lack of wealth, true progress will begin only with transformations basic in attitudes. Changes should have a strong communitybase, expressedthrough locally-owned developmentinstitutions. Generally,local capabilities for management,financing,and technical action should determinethe scale of new activities. Outside assistancewill be helpful only if it is viewed as subordinateto a primarily indigenousprocess. STOLMXICER, Charlotte. 1974. Adaptations of TraditionalPeasant Practices Anthropological to Modern Needs. Paper presentedat the Southwestern Associationmeetings, Santa Monica, Calif. April. Mimeo. Describesattempts of a peasant village in southernMexico to fit outside eioderrizing pressures into a traditionalsocial framework. Identifiesfactors leading to adoption or rejectionof certain innovations. SUSCOMMITTEXON WOMSN IN DEVgLOPMENT,Committeeon DevelopmentAssistance, American Council of VoluntaryAgencies for Foreign Service. 1975. Criteria for Evaluationof DevelopmentProjects InvolvingWomen. New York: TechnicB Assistance InformationClearingHouse (ACVA). December. Among criterialisted are whether women are involved in initiatingand directingprojects;who benefits and how, includingany improvementin the participants' ability to pursue other objectivesafter initial ones are achieved; social changes, such as increasesin women's status;the

142.

26

extent to which projects treat developmentas a continuingand flexible process. Several projects are measured against these criteria,notably a case where support of a women's club in rural Hondurasby the Comeiunity DevelopmentFoundation led to a number of economic and institutional advances. The authors concludethat much remaius to be done to acquire information about successfulprojects, as well as to use this to improve developmentefforts affectingwomen.
146.

Between Technologyand SUTER, D.A. and B.J. Wallace. 1972. Interaction Social Developmentsin Farming Conmunitiesin Northern Luzon, Philippines. American Society of AgriculturalEngineers,Paper No. 72-684. TECHNICALASSISTANCE INFORMATIONCLEARING HOUSE, American Council of Voluntary Agencies for Foreign Service, Inc. 1976. Bibliographyof Materials in the TAICH Infor!uation System on Case Studies and Program Planning,Managemnt and Evaluation. New York: TAICH. May. Material on small-scaleoverseas developmentin such areas as construction co-ops,education,human resources,industrialdevelopment, public health, rural and urben planning.

147.

,:
;>, : : :

148.

TlIIESENHLiiN, William C. 1972. Green Revolutionin Latin America: Income Effects, Policy Decisions. LTC Reprint NO. 83. Madison, Wisconsin: Land Tenure Center. (Originallyin Monthly Labor Revievl, March 1972.) Although many Green Revolutiontechnologies are theoretically neutral with respect to farm size, the credit and extension servicesnecessary to disseminatethem are heavily oriented to the larger farmer. In practice,benefits of these technologies-<ill thereforeflow primarily to the relativelywealthy. In reuch Latin America, smallerfarmers of will profit from the Green Revolution only if there are "msssive,rapid, and drastic"reforms in land tenure and the provision of agricultural services.

149.

THIESENHCSEN, William C. 1974. what ChangingTechnologyImpliesfor Agrarian Reform. LTC Reprint No. 116. Madison,Wisconsin: Land Tenure Center. September. (Originallyin Land Economics 50 (l), Feb. 1974.) The Green Revolutionmay intensify socialproblems by (1) diminishing agricultural employment,and (2) enrichingthose elites having greatest access to new technologies. Even where total employmentdoes net fall, a" intensification seasonalpeaks in demand for labor may cause hired of workers to displace resident farm labor, leading to major social dislocations. In general, solutionsmay lie in reforms providingpoorer farmerswith land, small-scaletechnologies, and greater institutional sunport. International developmentagencies can support such tendencies in various -xays, and should conduct more researchto ensure that loans are in fact benefitingthe poor.

27 -

150.

THOMAS, John Woodward. 1975. "The Choice of Technologyfor Irrigation Tubewellsin East Pakistan: Analysis of a DevelopmentPolicy Decision." In C.P. Timmer et al., 1975. Planners chose medium-costtubewells,even though the low-costalternatives promiged a higher rate of economic return, greater opportunities for employmentand training,& more equitabledistributionof benefits, superioropportunities for local industry,and improvedprospectsfor long-termsuccess through involvementof local villagers in construction of their own wells. This seemingly irrationalchoice followedfrom organization&l perspectivesof the implementing agencies,includingthe World Bank, which gave great weight to risk avoidance,the appearance of modernity, establishedproceduresand familiar techniques,and centralized control over the process &a & whole, conditions better fulfilled by the more expensivetechnology.

151.

Applied THOMPSON,L&U-.&. 1976. "An AppropriateRole for Postcolonial Anthropologists." Hum&n Organization35 (1): l-7. Spring. Many anthropologists are still operatingin the "colonialharness," seekingto induce or direct change accordingto Western viewpointsas to what people in new nations require to "develop." A better approach would be for anthropologists considerlocal groups &a their real to "clients," using professionalskills to help the groups themselves define options and select courses of action.

,152.

TIMMgR, C. Peter. 1975. "The Choice Tinmer et al., 1975.

of Technique in P:ldonesi&." C.P. In

Three re&sons for the choice of capital-intensive techniqueseven where these may be inappropriate for local economic conditions. First, Sector&l pianners are led in this directionby factors ranging from ignoranceof national capital availability opportunities to for corruption. Second, entrepreneurs are pushed toward capital-intensive choicesby distortions in tariffs, credit, labor costs, availability man&gementskills, and of governmental red tape. Third, the expertswho prepare end evaluate projects often identify capital-intensive with modern, and modern with good. Policy-makersin countries such as Indonesiacan counteractthese tendenciesby insistingthat projects follow economically rational guidelinesthat stress employmentmaximization. 153. TIMMER, C. Peter, et al. 1975. The Choice of Technologyin Developing Affairs Countries: Some CautionaryTales. Harvard Studies in International No. 32. Cambridge,Mass.: Harvard UniversityCenter for International Affairs. in Four studies: irrigationtubewells in f+st Pakistan,petrochemicals Colombia,rice milling and small industryin Indonesia. The authors find technological decisionsto be influenced a wide range of economic by end non-economicfactors, includingmarket distortions,the administrative convenienceof planners and foreign assistanceagencies,and a general

- 28 preferencefor "modern"methods. Together,these factorspush both policy-makers and entrepreneurstoward inappropriately capital-intensive 1 I choices of technique. See J.W. Thomas, 1975; C.P. Timmsr, 1975. 154. TINKER, Irene and Michele Bo Bramsen (eds.). 19768. Women and World Development. Preparedunder the auspicesof the AmericanAssociationfor the Advancementof Science. Washington,D.C.: OverseasDevelopmentColmcil. Includesessays on the general impact of developmenton women; specific problems of women in Moslem countries, Latin America, and sub-Saharan Africa; women in cities; wumen in agriculture;etc. Also reviews proceedingsof the AAAS Seminar on Women in Developmentheld in Mexico City during June 1975. See I. Tinker and M.B. Bramsen, lg6b. 155. 'TINKER, Irene and Michele Bo Bramsen. 1976b. "Workshop1: Food Production and the Introduction Small-ScaleTechnologyInto Rural Life." In I. of Tinker and IY.B. Bramsen (eds.), 19768. Participantsin this workshop noted that developmentoften adds to the work of rural women: they must do more of the farmingwhen men take on "modern" jobs; where men stay home but expand cultivation with new machinery,women have a larger area to weed by hand; shifting of land from subsistence cash crops makes proper nutritionmore difficultto to maintain,etc. A first need is for governmentsto view women's work as trxe "ecoI;omic activity." Support for such activitymight then come thrxxgh encouragement women's organizations, of provisionr,Pcredit, and transfer of technologiesappropri&teto women's needs. 156. UCZZNDU,Victor C. 1970. "The Impact of ChangingAgriculturalTechnoloa on African Land T~enure."Journal of DevelopingAreas 1"(4): 477-485. July. In large parts of Africa, there has been a traditionof multiple interestsin given areas of land, with many people having rights of &ccess to these. As innovationssuch as tree crops, iwroved cattle, and high-valuecash crops have been introduced,however,there often has been an individualization land tenure systems. To be most of effective,agents of technical change should become aware of the tenure implications innovationsthey seek to introduce. of 157. UCHENDU,Victor C. 1975. "The Role of Intermediate Technologyin East African AgriculturalDevelopment." East African Journal of Rural Development 8 (i-2): 182-190. U.N. ADVISORY COMMITTEEON THE APPLICATIONOF SCIIZNCE AND TECHNOLM;YTO DEVELOPMENT. 1977. Report of the Ad Hoc Working Group on Appropriate Technoloa. DocumentE/AC.52/XXIII/CRP.2.New York: United Nations. June 10. Suggests that technological "appropriateness" primarilya matter is of saving scarce capital and providingjobs. Briefly reviews policies and broad programs in support of appropriatetechnologyon the part of

158.

- 29 UNC&%D, iliJID0, UNITAR, ILO, FAO, UNESCO, WHO, IERD, and WIPO. Calls for more research and better exchange of informationon the subject.
i59.

U.N. ECONOMlC COb%Z3SIONFOR AFRICA, Human ResourcesDevelopmentDivision, Women's Program Unit. 1974. The Role of Women in PopulationDynamics Related to Food and Agricultureand Rural Developmentin Africa. Addis Ababa: U.N./E.C.A. Mimeo. Women have a predominantrole in food productionand other activities, but so far have received little development.81 aid. Recommendstechnologiesto help women on tinefarm and at home.

160.

U.N. INDUSTR-& DEEVELOPMENT ORGANIZATION. 1977. Cooperative Program of Action on AppropriateIndustrialTechnology: Report by the Executive Director. DocumeztIO,%%%. Vienna: IJNIDO. April 14. Defines technology8s "appropriate"if it contributesto such development goals as growth, an increasedstandardof living, reduced income dispsxities, greater employment,and self-reliance. Suggests8 program for encouraging appropriateindustrialtechnologies through research, collection and dissemination practical experience,evaluation, of application of technologyto rural development,adjustmentof nationaland internationalpolicies, training,etc.

161.

U.S. AGENCY FOR IXBRNATIONAL DEVELOPMENT. 1975. "SocialSoundnessAnalysis." Appendix 5A o? AID Handbook 3, Project Assistance. Washington,D.C.: U.S./ AID. September1. A suggestedapproach to "social soundnessanalysis" of AID projects. Originally, this was to be included "to the extent it is considered applicable"ir. the PRP, 8 recently-abolished, intermediate stage of project documentation. Now, such analysiswill mostly appear in the final Project Paper. Covers three major topics. First, the compatibility of the project with the sociocultural environmentin which it is to be introduced, based on determination local values, beliefs, of social structureand organization. Second, the likelihoodthat new practicesor institutions will spread outside the immediateproject area. Third, the distributionof benefitsand burdens in terms of access to i-esources, implicationsfor employment,displacement of people, and cranges in power and participation. With the use of "professionalexpertise,"to collect this informationfor a region or project area should take 2-3 weeks.

162.

U.S. AGF,NCY FOR INTERXATIONAL DEVELOPMENT. 1976. Women's Roles in Development (ProjectPaper). Ouagsdougou: USAlD/Upper Volta. A proposal for support in Upper Volta to such "micro-projects" 8s individualgardeningor collectivemills, fields, and poultry-raising. These activitieswould be carried out by village women, assistedby local extension agents, according to expressedneeds of the women themselves.

- 30 163. U.S. AGENCY FOR INTERNATIONAL DEVELQPMT.' 1977. Proposalfor 8 Program in AppropriateTechnoioge(revisededition). Washington, X.C.: U.S. GovernmentPrinting Office. Februeiy 7. Proposesestablishment an independent of organization(now A.T. International)"to assist developingcountriesstrengthentheir own capacities to develop, adapt and utilize appropriatetechnology." Describes the process--workshops, meetings,papers--through which AID arrived at various contributors cover this position. In 8 series of attachments, such topics 8s policiesand institutions for appropriatetechnology, the role of private and voluntary organizations, appropriatetechniques for industryand agriculture, and the inducementfor U.S. firms to adapt products and processesto conditionsin developingcountries. See P. Askins, 1976; Program of Advanced Studies...,1976. 164. VOLUNTEERSIN TECHNICALASSISTANCE. 1975. Village TechnologyHandbook. Mt. Rainier,Md.: VITA. Technicalinstructions for appropriatetechnologiesin health and sanitation, water resources,agriculture, food processingand preservation, construction, home improvement,crafts and village industries, and commuxZcations. 165. WALLENDER,David E. 1976. %ys&ns Progressistes Dakiri." Peace Corps of Program and Tratiing'Journal (5): 31-34. 4 A Volunteer'sdiscussionof problems in creating cooperative farming venturesfor school graduates in Upper Volta. A first attempt failed largelyas 8 result of trying to move studentsaway from their families into 8 separate cooperativehaving no organicbasis in traditional society. Greater successfollowed from encouragingstudentsto form cooperatives their own villages under the directionof local elders. in 166. WARD, BarbaraE. 1970. "Women and Technologyin DevelopingCountries." Impact of Science on Society 20 (1): 93-101. Ways in which technologicalchange has limited the range of activities availableto women, while freeing them Rain some previous chores. L,,~' 167. WARREN, Dennis K. 1976. "IndigenousKnowledgeSystems for Activating Local Decision-l&king Groups in Rural Development." .InGodwin C. Chu et al. (eds.),Communication for Group Transformation Development. 1976. in Communication MonographsNo. 2. Honolulu: East-WestCenter. September. Although experts speak of the need for full local participationin development, the communication process remains largelyunidirectional, with informationpassing simply from planners or techniciansto villagers. By offering8 set of techniquesfor understanding indigenous knowledgesystems,ethnoscienceallows informationto move more easily in the other directionas well. Practicalimplications are suggested in a brief discussionof the disease classification system of the

Ghanaiar,

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Bono. In general, the requirementis for an approach to develop ment which takes full account of village realitiesas perceivedby villagers themselves.

WFXKS, Daniel. 1976. The Photonovei: A Tool for Development. Program& Training Journal Mazual Series No. 4. Washington,D.C.: ACTION/PeaceCorps. September. to A detailed "how-tc"introduction educationaluses of the photonovel,a publicationsimilar to a comic book but with photographsused in place of Referringto his own experiencesin Ecuador, the author dra?xi:?gs. stresses the need to direct photonovelsat specific class and Cultural groupF, whose clothes,mannerismsand speech habits can be clearlyreprewhere intendedreaders sented. Of special importanceis the "pre-test," are ssnpled to determinea given photonovel'seffectiveness. Aspects of the Productionand UtilizaWi?A~X, Robert W. 1976. Socioeconomic tioi; Potatoes in Peru: A Bibliography. Lima: Centro International of de IS Papa. WERGE, Robert W. ;977. Anthropologyand AgriculturalResearch: The Case of de Potato Anthropoloa (draft). Lima: Centro Internacionsl la Papa, Socioeconomic Unit. April. An anthropologist's case for applicationof his disciplineto agricultural developmentproblems,includingan account of his ow? work at the International Potato Center in Peru. Werge has tried to make the Center's research program more responsive,for example, to traditionalstorageand processingpractices. In addition,he has added reporting,field trip, and role playing elements to the Center's train:ngprograms, in order to help participatingspecialistssee farmers as sources of information rather than simply recipientsof advice. Medieval Technologyand Social Change. New York: WHITE, Lynn, Jr. 1962. Oxford UniversityPress. Three long essays: (1) Followingvast increasesin the horseman'smilitary advantagethrough introduction the stirrup in the eighth century, of feudal institutions and attitudesevolved to supporta class of mounted knights. (2) iiost fruitfullyin Northern Europe, a combinationof agriculturalinnovations--the heavy plow, horses as draft animals,threefield crop rotation--led the ninth century to increasedfarm producby tivity, urbanization, ar,d the rise of an artisan/merchant class. (3) p. great array of basic mechanicalinventionsbetween the eleventh and fifteenth centurieswas associatedwith a new conceptionof the universeas a source of energiesto be exploited. for hunan use. WHYTE, William Foote. 1975. Organizingfor AgriculturalDevelopment. New Brunswick,N.J.: Transaction.

- 32 Food Behavior Jean C. 1776. "MaternalNutritionand Traditional 173. WIESE, ii. in liaiti." iiuman Organization35 (2):193-200. Rural Haitiansbase diet on a "hot/cold"classification life states of and foods, accordingto principles of humors1medicine. Even more than economicor environmental factors, this may be a serious constrainton attemptsto improve nutritionthrough dietary change. Training: 174. WIGHT, William L. 1970. Guidelinesfor Peace Corps Cross-Cultural Part IV, Annotated Bibliography. Washington,D.C.: Peace Corps Office of Training Support. Mar&.

1'75. de WILDE, A. 1975. "Some Social Criteria for AppropriateTechnology." In

R.J. Congdon (ed.), 1975. Resources,peopie, technologvand economic/political structuresall need to be in harmony for new technologiesto be applied successfully. With this in mind, the author reviews severalappropriatetechnologyorganizations. Some of these (International Rice Research Institute)give relatively little attentionto the broad contextof technologgtransfer, while others (Brace Research Institute)give more. In studyingthe experienceof such organizations overseas,we may better understandthe role of technoiogy in Western societiesas well.
1

176. WILKSS, Joy. 1977. "But We're Not Afraid to Speak Anymore": A Report on
the Church World Service Consultationin India on Women and Development. New York: Church World Service. Concludesthat women shouldbe helped to participatemore fully in development, especiallythrough activitiesemphasizinglocal cooperation and self-reliance. Severalbrief case studiesfrom India supportthe point that local participationin project design and implementation will help villagers owe?? the long term by raising their consciousness, their sense of community,and their knowledgeof how to tap outside resources. 177. WOOD, DeborahA. 1975. Directed Cultural Change in Peru: A Guide to the Vices Collection. Ithaca,N.Y.: Cornell UniversityLatin American Studies Program. Civil Construction;.: ProgressReport. Washington,D.C.: World Bank. July. A A significant part of Bank lending is for civil construction: roads, irrigationchannels,dams, reservoirs,etc. Given improvedtools, special organization and management skills,and availability an of adequate labor supply during the construction season, labor-intensive methods for doing these jobs are economicallycompetitiveat low wage rates. Unfort-tunately, there are many developingcountrieswhere theSe conditionsdo not prevail. To improveprospects for use of laborintensivetechnologies,the Bank will carry out demonstration/training programs and conduct further research.

178. WORLD BANK. 1976~. Scope for the Substitutionof Labor and Equipment in

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WORLD BANK. 19760. AppropriateTechnologyin World Bank Activities. Washington,D.C.: World Bank. July 19. The Bank believes that technologyused in its projects should be appropriate to developmentgoals and local conditions. In practice, howwar, a number of factors may lead to technologychoiceswhich deviate from these criteria. The Bank thereforeneeds to consider"appropriate" innovations in product design, productionsystems,and market institutions. Examles are provided of appropriatetechnologyin Bank activitiesin agriculture, rural infrastructure, urban housing, public works, telecommunications, and other areas. WRICRT, David L. 1977. AporopriateTechnologyfor Small-ScaleIndustries: PossibleRoles for DevelopmentFinance Institutionsin Africa. Document AIAFD/77/SEM.l/DoC.l. Abidjan: Associationof African DevelopmentFinance Institutions. If governmentswish to create employmentfor the rural and urban poor, they should give active support to appropriatetechnologies. Unfortunately, there are a number of obstaclesto this approach, ixluding: lack of awarenessthat smll-scale technologies exist, resistanceor limited intereston the part of governmentagenciesand research institutes, and lack of funds for proving the commercial viability of new techniques. In spite of these barriers, a number of countries (e.g.,Ghana, Zambia, India, Pakistan,Sri Lanka) have establishedappropriatetechnologyorganizations. Other countriesshould create such units, in order to encourage research, development, adaptation,testing, educationand training in support of appropriatetechnologies.