Chemistry EOY Notes Chemical Energetics (Energy of Reactions) There are three important types of energy conversions: a) Chemical

l reactions that involve a heat or light change (exothermic and endothermic reactions) b) Chemical reaction reactions that involve an electrical change (in cells and batteries, in electrolysis) c) Nuclear reactions (nuclear fission) Enthalpy is a measure of the total energy of a thermodynamic system. An enthalpy change describes the change in enthalpy observed in the constituents of a thermodynamic system when undergoing a transformation or chemical reaction. It is the difference between the enthalpy after the process has completed, i.e. the enthalpy of the products, and the initial enthalpy of the system, i.e. the reactants. Often represented by the quantitative value of H. Always remember to add the Positive (+) or the Negative (-) for the value. The energy absorbed in breaking a covalent bond is called the bond energy. Bond Breaking absorbs energy, so as to break bonds. Bond Forming gives out heat on the other hand. Reaction Type Temperature Change Nature of Reaction Energy Content Relationship with Bonds Relationship of Products and Reactants H Energy Level Diagram Exothermic Reaction Surrounding Temperature Rises Heat Producing Energy content of the products is lower than the energy content of the reactants. Bond Breaking<Bond Forming Energy of Product<Energy of Reactants Endothermic Reaction Surrounding Temperature Drops Heat Absorbing Energy content of the products is greater than the energy content of the reactants. Bond Breaking>Bond Forming Energy of Product>Energy of Reactants

Negative (-)

Positive (+)

Energy Profile Diagram

Calculating H: Total Energy of Bond Breaking Total Energy of Bond Forming Or Total Energy of Products Total Energy of Reactants Useful algebraic manipulation of standard enthalpy changes

Chemistry EOY Notes Reversing PQ (g) P (g) + Q (g) H = +500kJ/mol P (g) + Q (g) PQ (g) H = -500kJ/mol Multiplying A (l) + B (l) AB (l) H = -500kJ/mol 2A (l) + 2B (l) 2AB H = -1000kJ/mol Common Exothermic Reactions: Combustion, Respiration, neutralization, freezing, condensation, and diluting concentrated sulfuric acid. Note: When a small amount of the substance produces a lot of heat. This material is useful as a fuel. Common Endothermic Reactions: Thermal decomposition, photosynthesis, melting, boiling, and vaporization. Hydrogen Cell Hydrogen Hydrogen is a colorless, odorless and neutral gas. It is highly flammable. Hydrogen is identified when a pop sound is heard as a burning. splint is introduced into the gas in a test tube. Hydrogen is an important fuel. Advantages: (a) Hydrogen burns cleanly in air, producing only steam (H2O), a non-pollutant. Other major hydrocarbon fuels, eg. petrol and diesel, produces carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide when burnt. Carbon monoxide is a poisonous gas, and carbon dioxide is implicated as a greenhouse gas (trapping heat). (b) Hydrogen produces at least twice as much heat energy per gram when burnt, than any other common fuels: hydrogen (125 kJ/gram), methane (61 kJ/gram), butane (49 kJ/gram), petrol (44 kJ/gram) and coal (32 kJ/gram). Disadvantage: Hydrogen has a very low boiling point of 252oC. Hence it cannot be stored, transported and used as easily as liquid Fuels like petrol. Hydrogen is manufactured on a large scale by mainly two methods: (a) Cracking of heavy petroleum fractions. (b) Steam Reforming. A mixture of steam and methane (from natural gas) is passed over a catalyst: H2O + CH4 CO + 3H2 The CO is then reacted with more steam to give more hydrogen: H2O + CO CO2 + H2 The hydrogen is separated from the carbon dioxide by passing the mixture through an alkali to absorb the acidic carbon dioxide. (c) Extracting hydrogen from water by electrolysis is not yet an economical process on the large scale. Uses of Hydrogen (a) As a fuel in big rockets, and in fuel cells. (b) For the manufacture of ammonia in the Haber process. (c) For the manufacture of margarine from vegetable oil. A fuel cell is a device that uses a fuel to react with oxygen in the air to produce electrical energy directly. Most fuel cells use hydrogen as the fuel. The fuel cell consists of two electrodes (carbon or platinum) in contact with the electrolyte. The negative electrode is supplied with hydrogen (the fuel) and the positive electrode is supplied with oxygen (the oxidant). The hydrogen is reduced at the negative electrode, releasing electrons. The electrons flow out of the cell through the external circuit and return to the positive electrode, producing an electric current. At the positive electrode, the oxygen is oxidized by absorbing the returning electrons. The charge transfer within the fuel cell is brought about by the movement of ions through the electrolyte. Example: in the proton-exchange membrane fuel cell:

Chemistry EOY Notes At the negative electrode: 2H2 4H+ + 4e At the positive electrode: O2 + 4H+ + 4e 2H2O The overall cell equation is (summing up the above 2 half-equations): 2H2 + O2 2H2O The fuel cell supplies electricity like a battery. The difference, however, is that the electrodes of a fuel cell do not deteriorate chemically. Therefore, if a fuel cell has a constant supply of fuel, it can supply continuous electrical energy. Benefits of Fuel Cell Technology Despite the current problems (including high cost), fuel cell technology is promising because (a) Fuel cells have no (or few) moving parts, thus they operate in silence and require low maintenance; (b) Fuel cells are more efficient, e.g. Fuel cell car engines can generate electrical power at efficiency as high as 50% at full power, in contrast to 20 30 % for the internal combustion engine; (c) Fuel cells generate electricity electrochemically thus they consume fuel at a rate proportional to the electrical load; (d) Fuel cells convert hydrogen and oxygen directly into water thus there are no pollutant emissions. Reaction Kinetics For a chemical reaction to occur between reactants there must first be a collision between the reactant particles. However, only a small fraction of them can result in a reaction, these are called effective collisions. The Rate of Reaction would therefore be expected to depend of the frequency of effective collisions between reactant particles. All colliding particles need a minimum amount of energy before a reaction will occur. This energy is called the Activation Energy (Ea). Below this, a collision cannot occur to produce a reaction. When the Ea is high, the reaction is slow, since only a few of the collisions give particles sufficient energy to produce a reaction. Whereas Reactions with a low Ea is fast, since many colliding particles have energies equal to or greater than Ea. Activation Energy exists because all chemical reactions would require the breaking of bonds between atoms, and since energy is needed to break the bonds before new ones are formed. Thus the minimum amount of energy is required at the start of a reaction, hence the concept of activation energy. Five Factors that Increase the Rate of Reaction Increase the temperature (Think Physics!) At a higher temperature the particles have more energy and thus they move faster, colliding with each other harder, thereby increasing reaction rate. This is possible because of an increase in the number of reactant particles having the activation energy. For many reactions, a rise about 10 doubles the rate of reaction. Increase in the concentration of reactants At a higher concentration, there are more particles per unit volume. Thus the particles are closer to each other and the frequency of collisions increases, resulting in increased reaction rate. Increasing the concentration of a reactant also means increasing the number of moles of the reactant. Increasing the concentration of a reactant would also result in the increase in the amount of products. Increase the pressure (only for gaseous reactants) At higher pressure for gases, the particles are in closer proximity thus colliding more frequently, resulting in increased reaction rate. (similar to concentration effect) Application of this: Pressure cooker. Increase surface area of reactants An increased surface area means that the area of contact between the reactants increases thus the number of collisions per unit time also increases. Small pieces of solid have a larger total surface area than large pieces of the same mass. Breaking large particles into small ones helps. Because of this, flour dusts in flour mills and coal dusts in coal mines are hazardous because they can react very quickly, causing explosions. Presence of Catalyst A Catalyst is a substance that increases the rate of a chemical reaction without itself undergoing any permanent chemical change. A catalyst provides an alternative pathway which has lower activation energy.

Chemistry EOY Notes The particles of the catalyst somehow affect the collision of the reactant particles, usually by providing a site for collision to occur. An increased amount of catalyst used can also increase the rate of reaction, although a small amount of catalyst would already give a large effect. Catalysts do take part in reactions; a catalyst speeds up the reaction but it is not chemically reacted. Transition elements and their compounds act as catalysts in a range of industrial processes and that enzymes are biological catalysts.

Enzymes Organic catalysts which control the rate of biochemical reactions in living organisms. They are protein in nature and are easily destroyed (denatured) by heat. Monitoring the rate of reaction (IMPORTANT!) Measuring the decrease in the mass of the reaction mixture. (Graphs is a downward curved graph with gradient increasing over time) Measuring the increase in the volume of gas formed. (Graph is a upward curved graph with gradient decreasing over time) The steeper the slope of the graph at any particular time, the faster the reaction at that time. Thus the graphs show that the reaction rate is fastest at the start of the reaction when the reactants are at their highest concentration. When the gradient is Zero, the reaction stops. Notes on Monitoring the rate of reaction (IMPORTANT!) To monitor reactions by the above two methods, one of the product must be a gas. Other methods may involve: Measuring the changes in the amount of a reactant or product by titration. Small portions of the reaction mixture is removed and fixed intervals and titrated to check the amount of reactant or a product. Measuring the changes in intensity of the color of the reaction mixture. One of the reactant or product must produce a colored substance and the intensity can be followed using a colorimeter. Measuring the changes in pressure in a closed reaction vessel. This is particularly suitable for reactions in the gas phase, and where the number of moles of gaseous products differs from the number of moles of gaseous reactants. Measuring the temperature change as the reaction proceeds. Important notes on Catalyst When writing an equation involving catalyst, write the chemical name of the catalyst on top of the arrow. Catalysts are used in various industries to manufacture products are an economically beneficial rate. Important processes, products, and catalysts Haber Process: Iron as Catalyst, Ammonia as Product Contact Process: Vanadium Oxide (V2O5) as Catalyst, Sulfuric Acid as Product Homogeneous and Heterogeneous Catalysts Homogeneous Catalyst: Same state as the reactants Heterogeneous: Different state compared with the reactant. Most catalysts used today are heterogeneous and are solids. Chemical Equilibrium and Reversible Reactions Reversible Reactions () Some chemical reactions can proceed in 2 directions: Forward and backward. E.g. When heated, ammonium chloride decomposes to form ammonia gas and hydrogen gas. When cooled, the process is reversed. NH4Cl (s) NH3 (g) + HCl (g) A reversible reaction is represented by a double arrow () Reactant 1 + Reactant 2 Product The reaction from left to right is the forward reaction. And the reaction from right to left is the backward reaction. Reversible reactions tend not to go into completion. As such a mixture of both the reactants and the products is obtained no matter how long you wait. When the concentration of the reactants and the products are constant, the mixture is at equilibrium.

Chemistry EOY Notes Dynamic Equilibrium Reversible reactions attain a state of equilibrium when the rate of the forward reaction is equal to the rate of the backward reaction. The reaction does not stop when equilibrium is attained. As such, chemical equilibrium is described as being dynamic. Le Chateliers Principle It states that: If a system at equilibrium is subjected to a small change, the equilibriums response is to shift so as to minimize the effect of the change. Reversible reactions can be manipulated to increase yield of the products. The equilibrium can be affected by: Temperature. E.g. Haber process. N2 + 3H2 2NH3 + Heat (Exothermic) Lowering the temperature will cause the system to attempt to fill up the gap by speeding up the forward reaction more than the backward reaction. When enough heat is produced to replace the heat lost, the reaction will reach a new equilibrium where there is a higher percentage of ammonia thus yield is increased. Hence lower the temperature the greater the yield of ammonia. However, lower temperature will result in slow speed of reaction. The optimum temperature is 450. Details will be discussed later. Concentration. e.g. the same Haber process The position of the equilibrium will shift to the right as concentration of a reactant increased, as the system tries to reduce the impact by converting some reactants to products. The condensation of ammonia into a liquid also shifts position of equilibrium to the right. Pressure. E.g. using the goddamn same example. And btw the reactants and product in the Haber process are all gases. 4 moles of volumes 2 moles volumes When the volume of the system is changed, the partial pressures of the gases change. If the volume is increased because there are more moles of gas on the reactant side, this change is more significant in the denominator of the equilibrium constant expression, causing a shift in equilibrium. The system tries to minimize the impact by shifting the position of equilibrium to the right, to give less volume of gas. Thus, an increase in system pressure due to decreasing volume causes the reaction to shift to the side with the fewer moles of gas. A decrease in pressure due to increasing volume causes the reaction to shift to the side with more moles of gas. There is no effect on a reaction where the number of moles of gas is the same on each side of the chemical equation. Note that Catalyst increases speeds of both the forward and the backward reactions, but does not affect the yield of the product. Haber process N2 + 3H2 2NH3 + Heat (Exothermic) H= 92.22 kJmol1 Input Nitrogen from Air Hydrogen from cracking petroleum Conditions 450, 200 atm, Iron catalyst Take note: Economic considerations; It is very expensive to maintain high pressure systems; hence low pressure industry setups are preferred. In the interests of cost, as well as considerations in terms of kinetics and equilibrium, scientists/engineers have settled on the 450/200atm configuration. (not something too slow/expensive like 60/1000atm) Output: Ammonia A Highly soluble, colorless gas Used to produce nitrogenous fertilizer e.g. Ammonium Nitrate, which may cause water pollution. Ammonium Nitrate can react with alkalis to produce Ammonia gas. Contact Process Production of Sulfuric acid from sulfur, air and water. 1. Sulfur burns in air to produce Sulfur dioxide (SO2) Which when combined with air and rain, forms acid rain Can be tested by potassium dichromate (K2Cr2O7), orange turn to green.

Chemistry EOY Notes 2. Sulfur Dioxide (SO2) reacts with Oxygen (O2) to produce Sulfur Trioxide (SO3). *Reversible reaction. Equation: 2SO2 (g) + O2 (g) 2SO3 (g) Conditions: 450, Vanadium (V) Oxide (V2O5) as catalyst When mixed with water produces Conc. Sulfuric Acid. SO3 (g) + H2O (l) H2SO4 (aq) Sulfur Trioxide (SO3) reacts with conc. Sulfuric Acid to produce Oleum, H2S2O7. Equation: SO3 (g) + H2SO4 (aq) H2S2O7 (g) Oleum (H2S2O7) then reacts with water to make conc. Sulfuric Acid Equation: H2S2O7 (g) + H2O (l) 2H2SO4 (aq) Conc. Sulfuric Acid, H2SO4 Can be used to make fertilizers, make detergents Can be Further diluted by water to form dilute Sulfuric Acid Reminder of Acidic properties Sulfuric Acid + Reactive Metals Sulphate salts + Hydrogen gas Sulfuric Acid + Carbonates Sulphate salts + Water + Carbon Dioxide Sulfuric Acid + Bases Sulphate salts + water (Neutralization Reaction)

3. 4. 5.

Organic Chemistry (Finally!) Oil Refinery and the Petrochemical Industry Fossil Fuels are petroleum (or crude oil), natural gas and coal. We obtain energy to operate machines, power motor vehicles, cook our good and light our homes by burning these fuels. Petroleum and natural gas are usually found together, held in between layers of non-porous rocks in the ground. They are made up of substances called hydrocarbons, molecules made up of only carbon and hydrogen. Natural gas is mainly made up of Methane, CH4 Petroleum is a mixture of hydrocarbons and must be refined to make useful fuels and chemicals. The first step in refining is the separation of petroleum into fractions by fractional distillation. Fractional Distillation of Petroleum Petroleum is heated in a furnace so that it vaporizes The Vapors are passed up the fractional column The fractions come out of the column at different heights depending on their boiling points Substances with small molecules have lower boiling points and come out at the top of the column. Substances with large molecules have higher boiling points and come out at the bottom of the column. Smaller molecules (and Mr)Smaller surface areaWeaker van der Waals (IM) forces of attraction Less thermal energy needed to overcome IM forces. Low m.p./b.p./lower viscosity volatile (evaporate more easily) more flammable Fraction Approximate no. of carbon atoms per molecule Petroleum gases 1-4 Petrol/gasoline 5-10 Naphtha 8-12 Kerosene/paraffin 10-14 Diesel oil Lubricating oil 15-25 19-35 Approximate bp/ Below room temperature 35-75 70-170 170-250 250-340 340-500 Uses Bottled gas for gas cooker Fuel for motor vehicles Petrochemicals Fuel for jet aircraft; fuel for oil stoves Fuel for diesel engines Lubricant in engines; for making waxes and polishes To surface roads

Bitumen >70 Over 500 * THE TABLE IS F**KING IMPORTANT! The modern petrochemical industry is not limited to oil refinery but also cracking and chemical conversion. Chemical Conversion The changing the hydrocarbons in petroleum or those obtained from cracking into other useful chemicals like alcohols, detergents, drugs, and plastics. Cracking The process of breaking large hydrocarbon molecules into smaller molecules.

Chemistry EOY Notes Important because the heavy fractions obtained after fractional distillation of petroleum are less in demand than the lighter fractions. Thus cracking can convert heavy fractions such as lubricating oil into lighter fractions such as petrol. On Cracking, the products obtained will depend on the actual conditions used. The products always contain an alkene, and may contain hydrogen, carbon, and other alkane molecules. E.g. A decane molecule could crack as follows C10H22 (l) C7H16 (l) + C3H6 (g) C10H22 (l) C10H20 (l) + H2 (g) C10H22 (l) C4H10 (g) + C3H8 (g) + C2H4 (g) + C (s) Types of Cracking Thermal Cracking: alkanes are heated to temperatures of about 800 to 850 under high pressure. Catalytic cracking: alkane molecules are passed over a catalyst at about 300. The catalysts used alumina (Al2O3) and silica (SiO2) After cracking process is completed, the mixture of products is separated by fractional distillation. Three important applications of cracking. Changing Heavy fractions (lubricating oil) which are low demand into lighter fractions (petrol) which are of high demand Changing naphtha into alkenes (especially ethane) To make hydrogen gas (for Haber process & More) BTW, fossil fuels are limited in supply and they may cause pollution problems. An Introduction to the real organic chemistry Organic chemistry is the chemistry of carbon compounds, especially when it pertains to compounds of plant or animal origin. Organic compounds are made up of strikingly few types of elements. Other than the main element, carbon, which is always present, and hydrogen and oxygen which are usually found, only nitrogen, the halogens, phosphorus, sulfur and some metals are sometimes present. However, there many way too many organic compounds. This is because each carbon atom is able to bond to other carbon atoms to form long chains. Some important characteristics of organic compounds are: a) Most organic compounds are covalent in nature. Thus they are largely non-polar and generally do not ionize in solution b) By largely non-polar, they are generally insoluble in water. However organic molecules (e.g. glucose and ethanol) that contain polar groups (e.g. OH at one end) can dissolve in water. c) Most organic compounds mix well with non-polar solvents like hexane. d) Organic compounds generally have lower melting and boiling points than inorganic compounds. e) Many organic compounds are thermally unstable, decomposing into simpler molecules when heated. f) Most organic compounds are flammable and burn exothermic in plentiful of air to yield CO2 and H2O. g) Reactions involving organic compounds are usually slower than ionic compounds. Thus they usually require heating, thorough mixing and the use of a catalyst to speed up the reactions. h) The carbon atom is able to form 4 single covalent bonds by sharing electrons with neighboring atoms. The 4 single covalent bonds are directed symmetrically in space in a tetrahydra arrangement. i) A homologous series is a family of organic compounds which follows a regular structural pattern; A group of compounds with a general formula, similar chemical properties and showing a gradation of physical properties as a result of increase in size and mass of the molecules, e.g. melting and boiling points viscosity and flammability understand how molecular structure affects physical properties. i. An example is the alkanes, a series of hydrocarbons. Its members include: methane, ethane, propane and butane. j) A functional group is an atom, a radical (group) or a bond common to a homologous series, and which determines the main chemical properties of the series. For example, the members of the alcohol homologous series all contain hydroxyl, OH, group. Thus methanol is CH3OH, ethanol is C2H5OH. k) A saturated organic compound contains atoms joined only by single covalent bonds l) An Unsaturated organic compound contains carbon atoms joined by double or triple covalent bonds. m) Empirical formula is the simplest formula of a compound that indicates the relative numbers of each element. Molecular formula indicates the actual numbers of each kind of atoms as deduced from the relative molecular mass and its empirical formula. Structural formula tells the arrangement of atoms.

Chemistry EOY Notes Alkanes, Alkenes, Alkynes Alkanes Alkanes saturated (Single bonds only) hydrocarbon. They are the main constituent of petroleum. General molecular formula is CnH2n+2 The first four members are: methane (CH4), ethane (C2H6), propane (C3H8) and butane (C4H10) Most alkanes are gases or liquids at room conditions (they have simple molecular structure). The first 4 members are gases. Chemically, alkanes are inert. They undergo few reactions, mainly combustion and substitution reactions: a) Combustion: in a good supply of oxygen, methane burns to produce carbon dioxide and water, e.g. CH4 + 2O2 CO2 +2H2O b) Substitution with Chlorine: methane reacts with chlorine in sunlight (ultra-violet acts as catalyst) to give a mixture of products. Each Hydrogen atom in methane can be substituted by a chlorine atom If one hydrogen atom is replaced the product formed is chloromethane (CH3Cl) i.e. CH4 + Cl2 CH3Cl + HCl. Since hydrogen atoms replaced one at a time, if 2 hydrogen atoms are replaced it would be something like CH3Cl + Cl2 CH2Cl2 +HCl. The product is called dichloromethane (CH2Cl2). Alkenes Alkenes are unsaturated hydrocarbons with a carbon-carbon double bond (C=C) General molecular formula is CnH2n (for alkenes with 1 C=C double bond), begins with n=2 The First three members are ethane (C2H4), propene (C3H6) and butane (C4H8), Methene (CH2) does not exist because it is too reactive and practically impossible to exist. Most alkenes are also gases or liquids at room conditions. Chemically alkenes are very much more reactive than alkanes. This due to the presence of the carbon-carbon double bond alkenes undergo addition reactions. (one which two or more molecules react to give a single molecule) a) Combustion: similar to alkanes, alkenes burn in excess oxygen to produce carbon dioxide and water. E.g. for ethane, C2H4 + 3O2 2CO2 +2H2O b) Addition of hydrogen (hydrogenation): e.g. C2H4 + H2 C2H6. Nickel is used as a catalyst. Ethane is produced. c) Addition of water (hydration): e.g. C2H4 +H2O C2H5OH. The reaction rakes place under high temperature (300) and pressure (60 atm). Water, in the form of steam and the catalyst phosphoric acid, H3PO4 is used. d) Addition of Bromine: e.g. C2H4 + Br2 C2H4Br2 (1,2-dibromoethane). This reaction (bromine test) is a useful way to test for un-saturation. When liquid bromine is shaken with an alkene, the brown color of bromine disappears (i.e. turns colorless) quickly. e) Addition of potassium permanganate (VII) (KMnO4): acidified potassium permanganate (VII) is decolorized (i.e. form purple to colorless) by an alkenes; a variety of products may form. f) Polymerization: many small alkene molecules can link together (i.e. polymerize) to form a long chain, e.g. ethene poly(ethene) Alkynes (Not tested) Unsaturated hydrocarbons with a carbon-carbon triple bond (CC) General formula CnH2n-2, starting with n=2 The first three members are ethyne (C2H2), propyne (C3H4), and butyne (C4H6) Combustion of Hydrocarbons Complete combustion occurs when sufficient oxygen is present. Complete combustion of a hydrocarbon produces carbon dioxide and water. When there is insufficient oxygen present incomplete combustion occurs. This results in the production of carbon monoxide and carbon (soot). For a Bunsen burner, complete combustion gives a clean flame that is non-luminous. Incomplete combustion gives a brighter yellow/orange flame that contains carbon particles. Ethene burns with a sootier and more yellow flame than ethane because 1 g of ethene contains less carbon than 1 g of ethene.

Alcohol, Carboxylic Acids & Esters

Chemistry EOY Notes Alcohols Alcohols are organic compounds that contain the hydroxyl, OH, group. The names of all alcohol ends in ol. (Alcohols with 2 OH groups are called diols, and with three OH groups are called triols) General molecular formula is CnH2n+1OH First four members are: methanol (CH3OH or CH4O), ethanol (C2H5OH or C2H6O), propanol (C3H7OH or C3H8O) and butanol (C4H9OH or C4H10O). Ethanol is also called ethyl alcohol. All alcohols are colorless liquids at room conditions. The 4 above-mentioned alcohols are soluble in water. Preparation of Ethanol Preparation from ethene (hydration of ethene): C2H4 + H2O C2H5OH A mixture of ethene and steam is passed over phosphoric acid (catalyst) at a high temperature of 300 and a high pressure of 60 atm. Preparation by fermentation: C6H12O6 (glucose) 2C2H5OH + 2CO2 Fermentation is the slow decomposition of organic compounds induced by micro-organisms like yeast. The active factors actually responsible for the reaction are the enzymes present in the micro-organisms. The underlying reaction in the production of ethanol by fermentation is the catalytic conversion of the sugar, glucose, into ethanol by the enzyme zymase present in the yeast. The process is carried out in an oxygen free environment as the reaction is anaerobic. Must be below 40, recommended 37. The sugar may come from fruit, honey or molasses; although most of the time is came from starch from potatoes, rice or barley. The dilute solution of ethanol obtained needs to be concentrated and purified by fractional distillation. Chemical properties (exemplified by ethanol) Ethanol, C2H5OH can undergo the following reactions: Combustion: C2H5OH +3O2 3H2O + 2CO2 Dehydration (Convert back to ethene): C2H5OH C2H4 + H2O Ethene is formed by heating ethanol with concentrated sulfuric acid, H2SO4 (the dehydrating agent) Oxidation: C2H5OH +2[O] CH3COOH +H2O A Carboxylic Acid is formed. [O] Represents the oxygen that comes from an oxidizing agent. In the above example, ethanol is oxidized to ethanoic acid. Acidified potassium dichromate (VI) is a good oxidizing agent. Oxygen from air can also oxidize alcohols. Thus, beer or wine left exposed to air becomes sour due to the formation of ethanoic acid. Esterification Alcohols react with carboxylic acids to produce an ester & water. Alcohol + acid ester + water Use of ethanol As a solvent In alcoholic drinks As a fuel for motor vehicles (in some countries) Carboxylic Acid All carboxylic acids contain the carboxyl group, COOH, as their functional group. All the names end with oic acid. (Acids with 2 carboxyl groups have names ending with dioic). It contains a C=O General molecular formula: CnH2n+1COOH (with n=0 as first member) First four members are methanoic acid (HCOOH or CH2O2), ethanoic acid (CH3COOH or C2H4O2), propanoic acid (C2H5COOH or C3H6O2), and butanoic acid (C3H7COOH or C4H8C2) Ethanoic acid is also called acetic acid. Vinegar is a solution of ethanoic acid in water. The above mentioned carboxylic acids are liquids at room conditions. The acids do not completely dissociate in aqueous solution and are therefore weak acids. Preparation of ethnoic acid a) From ethanol: C2H5OH +2[O] CH3COOH + H2O Ethanol is oxidized by air (oxygen) or acidified potassium dichromate (VI) to form ethanoic acid b) From methane: Mathane is used to manufacture methanol and carbon monoxide, and these two product are in turn reacted together in the presence of a catalyst to form ethanoic acid. Chemical properties (exemplified by ethanoic acid)

Chemistry EOY Notes Acidic properties Reacts with a base to form salt and water; Ethanoic acid + Sodium hydroxide Sodium ethanoate + Water CH3COOH + NaOH CH3COONa + H2O Reacts with some metals to liberate hydrogen gas Ethanoic acid + magnesium magnesium ethanoate + Hydrogen gas 2CH3COOH + Mg (CH3COO)2Mg + H2 Reacts with a carbonate to liberate carbon dioxide gas Ethanoic acid + Calcium Carbonate Calcium Ethanoate + Carbon Dioxide + Water 2CH3COOH + CaCO3 (CH3COO)2Ca + CO2 + H2O Ester Formation Ethanoic acid reacts with an alcohol to form an ester and water, an ester is a colorless liquid with a sweet smell. (Aroma Chemistry) Examples of Ester Formation H2O is form by the OH- ion from the Alcohol and the H+ ion form the carboxylic acid. Ethanoic Acid + Ethanol Ethyl Ethanoate + Water CH3COOH + C2H5OH CH3COOC2H5 +H2O Ethanoic Acid + Propanol Propyl Ethanoate + Water CH3COOH + C3H7OH CH3COOC3H7 + H2O Methanoic Acid + Butanol Butyl Methanoate + Water HCOOH + C4H9OH HCOOC4H9 + H2O In the lab, concentrated sulfuric acid is used as a catalyst and heating is required in the making of an ester. This is a reversible reaction. The forward reaction is Esterification while the backward reaction is hydrolysis. Uses of Ethanoic Acid To Manufacture ester, which in turn are used as solvents In the manufacture of insecticides In the manufacture of drugs Redox in Organic Chemistry Oxidation means Reduction means Gain of oxygen atom Loss of hydrogen atom Gain of hydrogen atom Loss of oxygen atom

Summary of Organic Chemistry Cracking (Alkene + H2) Alkanes Hydrogenation (+H2) Alkene

Hydration (+H2O) Dehydration (-H2O) Alcohol

Oxidation (+O, -H) Reduction (+H, -O)

Esterification ( + Alcohol) Carboxylic Acid Ester

Hydrolysis (*Reversible Reaction)

Isomerism Isomers are molecules that have the same molecular formula, but a different arrangement of atoms in space. Structural Isomerism Some isomers arise because of the possibility of branching in carbon chains. Position Isomerism In position isomerism, the basic carbon skeleton remains changed, but important groups are moved around on that skeleton. E.g. Bromine atom can be attached to different carbon atoms in C3H7Br Functional Group Isomerism Molecules may belong to 2 different homologous series although they have the same molecular formula. E.g. C3H6O2 can be expressed as CH3COOCH3 (methyl ethanoate) or C2H5COOH (Propanoic Acid)