Nuclear Energy

Nuclear reactions;
Fission = one large atom splits into smaller daughter atoms Fusion = two smaller atoms fuse to form a larger atom

Fission and Fusion

Fission or fusion of an atom produces energy as the conversion from one large into many small (fission) or many small into one large (fusion) doesnt occur cleanly Both reactions produce energy, neutrons, alpha particles, beta particles, gamma rays, etc.

Fission

Fissile and Fertile Materials

Fissile Material
Undergoes nuclear fission (splitting of atom) upon bombardment by slow/fast neutrons Uranium 235, Plutonium239 and Uranium233

Fertile Material
Fertile material is the one which by itself is not fissionable but will capture the neutron and will get converted to a fissile material Eg. Uranium 238 becoming Plutonium 239 & Thorium 232 becoming Uranium 233 etc

NUCLEAR POWER PLANT

NUCLEAR POWER PLANT WORKING

Nuclear fission creates heat inside the reactor Heat transfers to steam generator where steam forms Steam turns turbine and generator which converts steam into electricity Steam routs to condenser. Cool water removes excess heat, condensing steam into water Water is then pumped back to steam generator

Components of Reactor
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. Fuel Moderator Control Rods Coolant Steam Generator Turbine/Generator Pumps Heat Exchanger

Nuclear Reactor
A nuclear reactor for a power plant is designed to sustain a continuous chain reaction but not allow it to amplify into a nuclear explosion A chain reaction can be achieved using a moderator, which slows down the neutrons that produce fission, so that they are traveling at the right speed to trigger another fission Nuclear power plants have to be located near a water source to have access to water Water is both a moderator and a coolant

Fuel
One of the most common fuel used in nuclear reactors is uranium Uranium is found abundantly in nature, with the majority of uranium being the more stable isotope U-238 Uranium also has a radioactive isotope U-235, which is very rare. In nature the percent of U235 of all uranium isotopes is < 0.05% to 0.3% Raw uranium (mostly U-238) is mined The radioactive uranium (U-235) has to be distilled from the raw uranium (U-238) through a process called enrichment For uranium to be used in nuclear power plants, the goal is to increase the abundance of U-235 via enrichment to about 4%

Fuel Rods, Full of Enriched Uranium

Fuel Rods
Groups of fuel rods are placed close together to form a reactor core The reactor core is contained within a fortified reactor vessel that holds moderator, reactor core, coolant, safety equipment, control rods, etc Heat given off from the reactor core is used to boil water and generate steam. The steam is used to turn turbines to generate nuclear power. Spent Fuel Rods have to be replaced (after about 10 years) with fresh new ones

Control Rods
Control rods are used to regulate the fission reaction.
They absorb neutrons When inserted in between the fuel rods they slow down the chain reaction.

The chain reaction is controlled by rods of neutron-absorbing materials.

Reactor Core: Fuel Rods Plus Control Rods

Moderator
Reduces the kinetic energy of the fast electrons Increases the probability of reaction Graphite, Heavy water and Beryllium can be used as moderator for natural Uranium. Ordinary water is used for enriched Uranium

Types of Reactor
Pressurised Water Reactor (PWR) Boiling Water Reactor (BWR) Canadian Deuterium Uranium (CANDU) Reactor Fast Breeder Reactor Gas cooled Reactor

PWR
Water is contained in a pressurized primary loop and absorbs heat from the reactor core The water which passes over the reactor core acts as moderator and coolant does not flow to the turbine The primary loop water produces steam in the secondary loop (heat exchanger) drives the turbine Any fuel leak in the core would not pass any radioactive contaminants to the turbine and condenser Another advantage is that the PWR can operate at higher pressure and temperature, about 160 atmospheres and about 315 C. This provides a higher Carnot efficiency than the BWR

Basic Diagram of a PWR

BWR
In the boiling water reactor, water which passes over the reactor core acts as moderator, coolant for the core and also the steam source for the turbine The disadvantage of this is that any fuel leak might make the water radioactive and that radioactivity would reach the turbine and the rest of the loop A typical operating pressure for such reactors is about 70 atm at which pressure the water boils at about 285 C. This operating temperature gives a Carnot efficiency of 42% with a practical operating efficiency of around 32%

Basic Diagram of a BWR

CANDU reactor
Heavy water (Deuterium oxide) cooled and moderated reactor Fuel assemblies are placed horizontally in a tank Heavy water coolant is pumped through tubes containing the fuel assemblies to pick up the heat generated from the nuclear reaction The coolant then moves to the steam generators to produce steam from ordinary water and back to the reactor Heavy water is a rare but natural form of water and is the most effective moderator used in nuclear reactors to maintain continuous fissioning The advantage of heavy water is that it permits the use of unenriched uranium as fuel. This means two less steps are required in the conversion process resulting in a more economical fuel source

CANDU reactor

FBR
The Fast Breeder Reactor (FBR) has a core of plutonium surrounded by rods of U-238 The U-238 nuclei absorb neutrons from the core and are transformed into plutonium (P-239) For every four atoms of plutonium that are used up in the core of the breeder, five new plutonium atoms are made from the U-238 Therefore, FBRs "breed" plutonium Work at such a high temperature and need a special coolant such as liquid sodium They are not equipped with a moderator to slow down neutrons, and for this reason are called "fast" breeders.

FBR

GCR
Alternative to conventional light-water cooled and moderated reactors GCRs are cooled with carbon dioxide and moderated with graphite The core consists of graphite bricks with coolant channels, in which the fuel elements are contained The core is confined in a steel or concrete pressure vessel The turbine is driven by a secondary steam-water circuit.

GCR

Advantages
Nuclear energy has no typical pollutants or greenhouse gases One million times as much energy in one pound of Uranium as in one pound of coal The amount of uranium needed is relatively small compared to coal-burning power plants The coal plant produces 600,000 tons of ash requiring land disposal; nuclear power produces only 250 tons of radioactive waste requiring safe storage

Disadvantages
The problem of radioactive waste is still an unsolved one. High risks: It is technically impossible to build a plant with 100% security. Uranium is a scarce resource, its supply is estimated to last only for the next 30 to 60 years depending on the actual demand.

Radiation Exposure
People exposed to radiation can become very sick Radioactive decay produces direct products and indirect products
Direct products = daughter elements (30 possible ones, such as radioactive isotopes of iodine, strontium, cesium, cobalt, etc.) Indirect products = alpha particles, beta particles, gamma rays, errant neutrons

Any material in and around radioactivity will absorb these indirect radioactive emissions These radioactive byproducts cause significant harm to the body

Possible Biological Effect of Radiation

Immediate Death: radiation destroys cells and burns tissues Stops cell division: organic tissues that absorb radioactive emissions will cease cell division, which leads to radiation sickness. Red blood cells (RBC) are continuously being produced, for example, and if a person is exposed to too much radiation this will stop the production of new RBCs. Without new RBCs a person will die. Skin and hair cells will also stop dividing. Long-term effect = mutation of DNA and higher risk of cancer. Birth defects are also possible.