AMPLITUDE MODULATION

Introduction
The purpose of the communication channel is to
transmit information-bearing signals through a
communication channel separating the transmitter
from the receiver.
Baseband is the band of frequencies representing
the original signal.
The utilization of communication channel requires a
shift of baseband frequencies into other frequency
ranges suitable for transmission (modulation), and a
corresponding shift back to the original frequency
range after reception (demodulation).
Modulation is defined as the process by which
some characteristic of a carrier is varied in
accordance with a modulating wave.
Demodulation is the way to restore the original
baseband signal at the receiver.
Mathematical description
To describe amplitude modulation
mathematically, consider the carrier
wave given as a sinusoidal wave ,
with a frequency of and amplitude
This can be written as
t f V v
c c c
t 2 sin =
c
v
c
f
c
V
Amplitude Modulation
Without modulation this sine wave will convey no
information.
Reason: We can calculate its value at anytime from
previously known values.
What modulation does is to modify the constant
value with the signal which carries the
information. This results in the amplitude of the
modulated carrier varying in proportion to the
amplitude of the information signal.
Derivation of the AM equation
Let the information signal be given by
Let and
then
and
t f V v
s s s
t 2 sin =
s s
f t e 2 =
c c
f t e 2 =
t V v
c c c
e sin =
t V v
s s s
e sin =
NOTE:
s
often written as
m
( m is message)
Derivation of the AM equation
The amplitude of the resulting modulation is the
sum of the amplitude of the carrier and the
signal.
Substituting for
s c
v V A + =
t V V A
s s c
e sin + =
s
v
where this is index of modulation
0<m<1
The resulting AM wave will thus be
( ) t m V A
s c
e sin 1+ =
c
s
V
V
m =
( ) t t m V
t A v
c s c
c
e e
e
sin sin 1
sin
+ =
=
Derivation of the AM equation
Expanding the brackets
but
such that
t t mV t V v
s c c c c
e e e sin sin sin + =
( ) ( ) | | b a b a b a + = cos cos
2
1
) )(sin (sin
( )
( )t V
m
t V
m
t V v
s c c
s c c c c
e e
e e e
+
+ =
cos
2

cos
2
sin
If we rewrite this in terms of frequencies
( )
( )t
s
f
c
f
c
V
m
t
s
f
c
f
c
V
m
t
c
f
c
V v
+
+ =
t
t t
2 cos
2

2 cos
2
2 sin
Equation is that for an AM signal
Basic Amplitude Modulation
The information
signal varies the
instantaneous
amplitude of the
carrier
AM Frequency Components
Single frequency tone modulation
V(f)
f
(mV
C
)
f
C
f
C
+f
m
f
C
-f
m
V
C
2
V
m
2
Lower
sideband
Upper
sideband
carrier
f
s
= f
m
Complex Signals & Modulation
|v
m
(f)|
f
f
max
|v(f)|
f
f
C
f
C
+f
max
f
C
-f
max
(a) before modulation (b) after modulation
Lower Sideband Upper Sideband
Effects of Varying Modulation
Index
0 0.25 0.5 0.75 1 1.25 1.5 1.75 2
1
0.5
0
0.5
1
Time in millisec
M
o
d
u
l
a
t
i
n
g

S
i
g
n
a
l
0 0.25 0.5 0.75 1 1.25 1.5 1.75 2
10
5
0
5
10
m = 50%
Time in millisec
M
o
d
u
l
a
t
e
d

C
a
r
r
i
e
r
0 0.25 0.5 0.75 1 1.25 1.5 1.75 2
10
5
0
5
10
m = 100%
Time in millisec
M
o
d
u
l
a
t
e
d

C
a
r
r
i
e
r
Examples
In an AM radio broadcast the tone has a
frequency of 1000Hz and the carrier frequency is
1500kHz. What are the resulting sidebands.
What will be the frequency of the sidebands if the
carrier is at 1250kHz?
If the tone has a spectrum of 300 to 3000Hz and
the carrier is at 100kHz then one of the sidebands
will range from 100.3 to 103 and the other will be
from 97 to 99.7kHz.
Signal Power
The power in a system can be defined through voltage as
and through current as
Assume that R = 1 ohm
The carrier power is then
Power in each side band is the given as
R
V
P
2
=
R I P
2
=
2
c c
V P =
2
2
2
4 2
c
c
s
V
m mV
P =
(

=
The power in both side-bands
The total transmitted power is
Since
Bandwidth = 2 x f
s
2
2
2
2
2
2
2 4
2
2
2
c c
c
s
V
m
V
m
x
mV
x P = =
(

=
|
.
|

\
|
+ = + =
2
1
2
2
2 2
2
2
m
V V
m
V P
c c c T
2
c c
V P =
|
.
|

\
|
+ =
2
1
2
m
P P
c T
Comment
The maximum power in the sidebands is 50% of the carrier power at
m = 1 or 33% total power.
The carrier and one sideband may be suppressed without destroying
the information
Examples
A carrier of 1000W is modulated with an index of 0.8. What is the
total power?
For a carrier of 250W and 90% modulation, what is the total power?
What is the carrier power if the total power is 1000W and the
modulation index is 0.95.
EXAMPLE
A transmitter radiates 9 kW with the carrier
unmodulated, and 10.125 kW when the carrier
is sinusoidally modulated. Calculate the
modulation index.
If another sine wave, corresponding to 40%
modulation, is transmitted simultaneously,
determine the total radiated power
Solution
P
t
= P
c
( 1 + m
2
2)


m
P
t
P
c
2
2
1
10 125
9
1 0 125 = = =
.
.

m = 0.5

When two sine waves modulate the carrier, total modulation index is

64 . 0 4 . 0 5 . 0 m m
t
m
2 2
2
2
2
1
= + = + =

P
t
= P
c
( 1 + m
t
2
2) = 9( 1 + 0 64 2
2
. )

= 10.84 kW
End 2
AM signal generation
Double Sideband Transmission DSB
( ) t t m V v
c s c
e e cos cos 1 + =
AM is a nonlinear process
Sum and difference frequencies are created that carry the information
USED IN MOST BROADCAST SYSTEMS
m
X
E
V
c
cos
e
s
t
cos
e
C
t
+
+ v(t)
Non-linear device
( ) t t m V v
c s c
e e sin sin 1 + =
Assume non-linear device characteristic
i = a + bV + cV
2
V = input voltage = V
c
sin
c
t + V
s
sin
s
t
f
m
= f
s
AM signal generation
Double Sideband Transmission DSB
i = a + bV
c
sin
c
t + bV
s
sin
s
t + cV
c
2
sin
2

c
t +
cV
s
2
sin
2

s
t + c V
c
V
s
cos(
c

s
)t - c V
c
V
s
cos(
c
+
s
)t
{ 2sin
2
A = 1-cos2A }
i = a + bV
c
sin
c
t + bV
s
sin
s
t + cV
c
2
sin
2

c
t +
cV
s
2
sin
2

s
t + 2c V
c
sin
c
t. V
s
sin
s
t
{ sinAsinB = [cos(A-B) cos(A+B)] }
i = a + b(V
c
sin
c
t + V
s
sin
s
t) + c(V
c
sin
c
t +
V
s
sin
s
t)
2
Expand the equation
Now remove the unwanted components at 2
c
A filter (tuned load) in the amplifier output can select
wanted components near
c
. (Acts as a band pass
filter)
i = bV
c
sin
c
t + cV
c
V
s
[cos(
c

s
)t - cos(
c
+
s
)t ]
AM signal generation
Double Sideband Transmission DSB
AM Transmitter
Know how to generate an AM signal but how do we receive it?
AM Detection
Methods
Non-linear - square law detector (small signal)
Linear - non-coherent envelope detector
- coherent synchronous detector
[see SSBSC demodulator]
Envelope detector very common used for audio
and video applications needs large signal
SQUARE LAW DETECTOR
i = aV + bV
2
where V= V
c
(1 + m sin e
s
t)sin e
c
t
i = aV
c
(1 + m sin e
s
t)sin e
c
t + bV
c
2
(1 + m sin e
s
t)
2
sin
2
e
c
t
i = aV
c
sin e
c
t + aV
c
m sin e
s
t sin e
c
t + bV
c
2
sin
2
e
c
t (1 + 2m sin
e
s
t + m
2
sin
2
e
s
t )
BUT 2sin
2
x = 1 cos 2x
Hence m
2
sin
2
e
s
t = 0.5 m
2
(1 cos2e
s
t )
bV
c
2
sin
2
e
c
t = 0.5bV
c
2
(1 cos2e
c
t )
Expand equation and then carrier is filtered out and only
signal frequencies remain:
Component at e
s
has amplitude bV
c
2
m (sin e
s
t)
Component at 2e
s
has amplitude 0.25 bV
c
2
m
2
(cos 2e
s
t)
Second harmonic term = 0.25 m
2
= m
Fundamental term m 4
- So must keep m small to avoid harmonic distortion (0.3)
Demodulation of DSB-LC: Envelope
Detector
- Any circuit whose output follows the envelope
of the input signal waveform will serve as an
envelope detector
- The simplest form of an envelope detector is
a non-linear circuit with a fast charge time and
a slow discharge time. Characteristic is
essentially linear for large input signals or if
small input voltage use a dc bias.
Demodulation of DSB-LC: Envelope
Detector
- It can be constructed
using a diode in series
with a capacitor, as
shown below.
Envelope Detector
Operation
In the positive cycle of v
i
(t), the diode is ON.
v
i
(t) v
o
(t)
If the signal is very small the diode will
not be turned on!
Envelope Detector
Operation
In the negative cycle of v
i
(t), the diode is OFF.
v
i
(t) v
o
(t)
Effect of RC on demodulated AM signal
RC too large

missing signal

cant follow the AM envelope

RC too small

poor smoothing efect

high frequency generation

Effect of RC on demodulated AM signal
Conclusion: choice of RC value is IMPORTANT in
reconstruction of the AM signal.
m must be 0.3 to 0.4 to fulfill RC requirements (P81
Connor)
The envelope detector is simple, efficient, and cheap to
build. It is almost universally used for the purpose of
detecting DSB-LC signals.
OPTIMUM TIME CONSTANT
AM signal
Envelope is v = kV
c
[1 + m cos
s
t], k is detector constant
At time t
0
the slope of the envelope is (dv/dt)
t0
= -kmV
c

s
sin
s
t
0
Capacitor voltage
( ) t t m V
c s c
e e sin cos 1 v + =
v
c
t
t
0
v
0
At time t
0
the capacitor voltage
is v
0
.
Then at a later time it is v
c
where
CR t t
c
e v v
/ ) (
0
0

=
Hence at t = t
0
CR
v
dt
dv
t
c 0
0
=
|
.
|

\
|
0
0 t
t
c
dt
dv
dt
dv
|
|
.
|

\
|
>
|
.
|

\
|
Now capacitor voltage must follow envelope voltage
Hence
Since v
0
= kV
c
[1 + m cos
s
t],
0
0
sin t kmV
CR
v
s s c
e e >
0
0
cos 1
sin
t m
t m
x
s
s
e
e
+
=
x
CR
s
e
1
s
Hence
For minimum value of CR, dx/dt
0
= 0
i.e. cos
s
t
0
= -m or sin
s
t
0
=
Hence Equn 1
2
1 m
s
m
m
RC
e
2
1
s
wt m
wt m
x
cos 1
sin
+
=
( )
2
cos 1
) sin ( sin
cos 1
cos
wt m
wt mw wt m
wt m
wt mw
dt
dx
+

+
=
m wt
wt w m w m wt w m wt w m wt mw
wt w m wt m wt mw
=
+ = = +
= +
cos
cos ) cos 1 ( cos cos
sin ) cos 1 ( cos
2 2 2 2 2 2 2
2 2
= 0 for min or max
In practice can meet this for low values of m = 0.3 to 0.4 for music
broadcasting to ensure minimum distortion.
Choose R >> diode forward resistance, C>> diode capacitance.
Remember:
[y=uv then dy/dt=vdu/dt + udv/dt]
(i) Analysis assumes small linear capacitor discharge
between carrier peaks. This requires f
c
> 100 f
s
. Hence
the hidden dependence of equation 1 on f
c
. If this is not
fulfilled the discharge becomes sawtooth-like with
increased distortion.
(ii) When m approaches 1, parts of the signal envelope
approach 0 and the voltage is then below the diode
turn-on point. Hence distortion of the demodulated
signal.
See Tutorial Sheet 4 Q4
end3
Suppressed-Carrier AM
Full-carrier AM is simple but not efficient
Removing the carrier before power amplification allows
full transmitter power to be applied to the sidebands
Removing the carrier from a fully modulated AM system
results in a double-sideband suppressed-carrier
transmission DSBSC
The carrier is removed using a band stop filter (pilot
carrier -26dB)
The carrier must be reinserted at the demodulator at
exactly the same frequency
DSBSC Modulator Circuits
Balanced modulators
Use non-linear devices
Carrier is in phase and modulating signal out of
phase
Output signal of the form:
V
DSBSC
= 2km sin e
s
t sin e
c
t or
V
DSBSC
= km [cos(e
c
+ e
s
)t + cos(e
c
- e
s
)t ]
- Signal has only USB and LSB
Suppressed-Carrier Signal
V= V
c
(1 + m sin e
s
t)sin e
c
t
V
DSBSC
= km [cos(e
c
+ e
s
)t + cos(e
c
- e
s
)t ]
DSBSC MODULATOR CIRCUITS
+
-
+
+
-
DSBSC MODULATOR CIRCUITS
i
1
= k(1 + m sin e
s
t)sin e
c
t
i
2
= k(1 - m sin e
s
t)sin e
c
t
Current in o/p transformer = i
1
i
2
i
1
i
2
= 2km sin e
s
t sin e
c
t
i
1
i
2
= km [cos(w
c
w
s
)t - cos(w
c
+ w
s
)t ]
This is a DSBSC signal
DSBSC MODULATOR CIRCUIT
Cowan modulator
~
~
~
BPF
~
Carrier
Audio
~
Cowan Modulator
~
~
~
BPF
~
Carrier
Audio
~
Cowan Modulator
A
B
Square wave form
DSBSC MODULATOR CIRCUIT
Cowan modulator
Need carrier amplitude > modulating amplitude to turn diodes on
If A > B diodes on - modulation signal is s/c
If A < B diodes off - modulation signal is o/c
Modulation is switched on/off at carrier frequency
Switching signal is a square wave given by
v
sw
= 0.5 + 2/t (sin e
c
t + 1/3 sin3e
c
t + )
Output is v
o
= kv
sw
V
s
sin e
s
t ( k is constant < 1)
= kV
s
sin e
s
t [0.5 + 2/t (sin e
c
t + 1/3 sin3e
c
t + )]
= 0.5kV
s
sin e
s
t + kV
s
/t [cos(w
c
w
s
)t - cos(w
c
+ w
s
)t + 2/3 .]
Filter out second term i.e. DSBSC
DSBSC MODULATOR CIRCUIT
Cowan modulator
v
s
v
c
DSBSC demodulator
DSBSC demodulator
Multiply the DSBSC received signal with a replica
carrier
At o/p of multiplier:
v
o
= (kmV
c
sine
c
t sine
s
t ) . sine
c
t (k <1)
= kV
s
sin
2
e
c
t sine
s
t = kV
s
sine
s
t . 0.5 [1 cos2e
c
t]
= 0.5kV
s
sin e
s
t - 0.5kV
s
sine
s
t . cos2e
c
t
Output from LPF is 0.5kV
s
sine
s
t
DSBSC demodulation
Use low pass filter to recover signal.
Carrier must be in phase otherwise phase error will
occur reducing output to zero if 90 degrees out of
phase.
Recovering coherent carrier in the receiver (cos
c
t)
AM DSBSC
V cos
c
t cos
s
t
LP
filter
Squaring cct BP filter 2
V cos
s
t
V
2
/4[1 + 0.5cos(2
c
+2
s
)t + 0.5cos(2
c
-2
s
)t + cos2
c
t + cos
s
t ]
Select cos2
c
t using band pass filter and divide by 2 to get cos
c
t
Single-Sideband (SSB) Modulation
Conventional DSB AM systems have disadvantages:
Two thirds or more of the total transmitted power is in
the carrier which has no signal information;
The two sidebands of an AM signal are mirror images
of one another;
As a result, one of the sidebands is redundant.
Using single-sideband suppressed-carrier transmission
results in improved efficiency and reduced bandwidth and
therefore twice as many signals may be transmitted in the
same spectrum allotment
Typically, a 3dB improvement in signal-to-noise ratio is
achieved as a result of SSBSC (due to bandwidth
reduction)
Single Sideband (SSB) Modulation
- SSB modulation is a suppressed carrier modulation,
therefore it must be demodulated using synchronous
demodulator, as for DSB-SC. Since synchronous
demodulation is required, SSB is not used for
commercial broadcasting, but it is very popular in
applications where the channel bandwidth or the
available power are limited, such as: mobile radio
communications, military communications, maritime
mobile communications (i.e. ships) and amateur radio
communications.
- SSB is also used in telephone systems to combine
many voice channels into single band limited channel.
This is called Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM).
SSB Spectrum
upper sideband(USB)
lower sideband (LSB)
SSB Generation: Frequency Discrimination
Method
- From the frequency domain description of
SSB we can see that the SSB signal is simply
a DSB-SC signal with one sideband removed
- This leads to an obvious method of
generating SSB by generating a DSB-SC
signal and then using a bandpass filter to
select the desired sideband, this is called the
Frequency Discrimination Method, or the
Filter Method of SSB generation:
SSB Generation: Frequency Discrimination
Method
SSB Generation: Frequency Discrimination
Method
For example, for USB we require a band pass filter with
following frequency response:
Problem with getting a very sharp filter response
SSB Generation:Phasing Method
V
1
V
2
mcose
s
t.cose
c
t
mcose
s
t
msine
s
t.sine
c
t
-msine
s
t
Idea is to generate 2xDSBSC signals with phase
shift between them so that 1 SB adds constructively
while other SB is cancelled
V
1
= 0.5mV
c
[cos(e
c
e
s
)t - cos(e
c
+ e
s
)t ]
V
2
= 0.5mV
c
[cos(e
c
e
s
)t + cos(e
c
+ e
s
)t ]
Output V
0
= V
1
+ V
2
= mV
c
cos(e
c
e
s
)t - LSB
No sharp filter needed
B A B A B A sin sin cos cos ) cos( =
End 4
Demodulation of SSB signals synchronous
detector as per DSBSC demodulator
v
o
= 0.5kmV
c
cos(e
c
- e
s
)t . sine
c
t = SSB
lsb
= 0.25kV
m
[sin(2e
c
- e
s
)t + sine
s
t ]
After LPF o/p = 0.25kV
m
sine
s
t
which is the modulating signal
Again phase errors in carrier will cause reduced or zero
o/p
In frequency spectrum sense, multiplication of the SSB
signals by sin
c
t translates half of each spectral density
up in the frequency by
c
rad/s and half down by the
same amount as shown next
Demodulation of SSB signals
The portion shifted up to a
frequency 2
c
can be
filtered out with a low-pass
filter.
Hence, the demodulated
signal after passing through
the low-pass filter
AM SSB Full carrier (SSBFC)
Carrier is transmitted at full power with only one of the sidebands.
In this only half as much bandwidth will be required
The power relations will be as follows:
Power in carrier =
Power in lower sideband = 0
Power in upper sideband =
Total power
What is the ratio of sideband power to carrier power at 100%
modulation?
c c
P
m
V
m
4 4
2
2
2
=
2
c
V
|
.
|

\
|
+ =
|
.
|

\
|
+ = + =
4
1
4
1
4
2 2
2 2
2
2
m
P
m
V V
m
V P
c c c c T
AM Single sideband suppressed carrier
(SSBSC)
In this the carrier is totally removed together with one of the
sidebands. Only half the bandwidth is required.
Power Relations
The sideband power will constitute 100% of the total transmitted
power.
Power in carrier,
Power in lower sideband = 0
Power in upper sideband =
0 =
c
P
c T
P
m
P
4
2
=
AM SSB Reduced carrier (SSBRC)
In this one sideband is removed and the carrier reduced to about
10% of the unmodulated amplitude.
The carrier will have to be reinserted at reduced amplitude for the
purpose of demodulation
Power relations
Power in carrier,
Power in lower sideband = 0
Power in upper sideband =
Total power =
( )
2
2
01 . 0 1 . 0 V V P
c
= =
c
P
m
4
2
c c T
P
m
P P
4
01 . 0
2
+ =
Advantages of SSB
Bandwidth conservation: Only half the bandwidth is required
Power conservation: Only one sideband with carrier removed
or suppressed. Hence total transmitted power will be less.
This allows smaller transmitters to be used.
Selective fading: In double sideband, the two sidebands may
experience different impairments as the propagate along
different paths in the medium. This could result in carrier
phase shift. This cannot happen if only one sideband is
transmitted.
Noise Reduction: Thermal noise is reduced to half, because
the bandwidth is also half.
Comparison of SSB to DSB AM
Complex receivers
Tuning Difficulties: More difficult to tune than conventional AM
receivers. More expensive tuning circuits can be used.
A pilot carrier can be transmitted to aid demodulation at receiver.
Examples: A double sideband AM radio transmitter gives a power
output of 5 kW when the carrier is modulated to a depth of 95%. A
speech signal is then used to modulate the carrier with a depth of
20% and the carrier and one sideband are suppressed. Find the
output power in the other sideband.
Disadvantages
Comparison of SSB to DSB AM
Solution
|
.
|

\
|
+ =
2
1
2
m
P P
c T
Power in DSB signal
P
T
= 5000 W, m = 0.95 hence P
C
= 3445.3 W
For a SSB signal power in sideband
c T
P
m
P
4
2
=
Now P
C
= 3445.3 W, m = 0.2 hence P
T
= 34.45 W
Vestigial Sideband (VSB) Modulation
To keep system cheap use filter method of SSB extraction.
The generation of SSB signals may be quite difficult due to
the requirement of the sharp filtering. The video
bandwidth for TV is 6MHz and AM bw is 12MHz quite
large.
Cannot use AM-SSB as we need to transmit information at
frequencies including dc for average picture brightness.
A compromise can be made between SSB and DSB in
what is known as Vestigial Sideband (VSB) Modulation.
Transmit one side band and a portion or VESTIGE of the
other side band.
Vestigial Sideband(VSB) :
Modulation
DSB
e
SSB
e
e
c
e
c
e
c
e
c
VSB
e
e
c
e
c
Vestigial Sideband(VSB):
De-modulation

After modulation
e
e
c
e
c
After de-modulation
e
e
c
e
c
Message
e
Vestigial Sideband (VSB) Modulation
- In VSB modulation, only a portion of one
sideband reduces the required bandwidth
from that required for DSB but does not match
the spectrum efficiency of SSB. Therefore
- VSB is a compromise between DSB and SSB.
- VSB does not need very sharp filtering.
Vestigial Sideband(VSB) Modulation
VSB is used to advantage in the video portion
of public television systems. Since the
spectrum of video signal is heavily weighted
towards the low frequencies (to balance the
signal), SSB is also not feasible as parts of
LSB or USB are lost in SSB due to filtering.
However, a typical video signal requires 8
MHz bandwidth, it is not economical to use
DSB modulation. Hence using VSB can
reduce the bandwidth to about 5MHz which is
more acceptable.
Summary
DSB-SC is power efficient but sensitive to
phase error
DSB-LC can be demodulated by simple
envelop detector but is power inefficient.
SSB is bandwidth efficient but need
complicated receiver.
VSB is a good compromise between
complexity and bandwidth efficiency.
AM Advantages
Low bandwidth
Easy to modulate, demodulate signal
AM Disadvantages
Fading
Interfering signals received additively and must be
discriminated during demodulation
Noise greatly affects amplitude of received signal
Hard to lock frequency of receiver local oscillator to
carrier frequency (esp. in S.C. systems)
Summary
What have you learnt?
Amplitude Modulation basic
mathematics
Spectra
DSB, DSB-SC, SSB, VSB principles
AM Modulation circuits
AM Demodulation circuits