MATHEMATICAL PHYSICS

VOLUME
I.

ELECTRICITY & MAGNETISM

ELEMENTARY MATHEMATICAL ASTRONOMY. By

C.

C.

W.

BARLOW, M.A.,

B.Sc.,

and G. H. BRYAN, Sc.D., F.R.S.

PROPERTIES OF MATTER, By
3s. (3d.

C.

J.

L. WAGSTAFF, M.A.

TECHNICAL ELECTRICITY.
B.Sc.,

By

Professor H. T.
os. 6d.

DAVIDOK,

and R. W. HUTCHINSON, B.Sc.

MODERN NAVIGATION.
7s.

By WILLIAM HALL,

B.A.,

R.N.

6d.

MATHEMATICAL PHYSICS
VOLUME
I.

ELECTRICITY & MAGNETISM

BY
C.

W.

C.

BARLOW,

M.A., B.Sc.
1

JOINT AUTHOR OF " ELKMEVTARY MATHEMATICAL ASTRONOMY

LONDON: W.

B.

OLIVE

(Umoemfg
HIGH
ST.,

NEW OXFORD
1913

ST., AV.C.

PREFACE.

A
and

Mathematics.

SATISFACTORY knowledge of Physics must include Wide reading about apparatus, processes,

rendered nearly worthless by the passage of a few years, which introduce new ideas and mechanism. But the mechanical interactions and numeriresults is often
cal relations

between physical quantities remain. The the quadrant electrometer and the tangent theory galvanometer survives, when the construction of the
of

instruments changes. Every good text-book must therefore contain

many

numerical examples. This book, which is intended to supplement the ordinary text-book, is devoted exclusively
to the mathematical aspect of the subject.

essential to the type of instrument

Only such descriptions of instruments are given as are and are involved in its
General facts are considered from a

mathematical theory.

numerical or geometrical point of view. A special point has been made of the elementary mathematics of the electric discharge in vacuum tubes and of
radioactivity. Enough is given to " " popular treatises really intelligible.

make some

of the

VI

PREFACE.

In an elementary text-book the mathematics is necesIt has not been thought adsarily a little restricted. visable to go beyond the rudiments of the Differential

and Integral Calculus

arithmetical.

and most of the work

is

frankly

great advantage of working out calcuis

lations in Electricity

that the student accustoms himself

to deal accurately with quantities ranging over the widest

diversity of magnitude.

Most

of the numerical results used are taken

from Kaye

and Laby's Physical and Chemical Constants (1911), to which I am greatly indebted.
C.

W.

C.

BARLOW.

March 1913.

CONTENTS.
PAGE

CHAPTER CHAPTER
CHAPTER
CHAPTER

I.

POINT CHARGES

II.

CHARGED CONDUCTORS
INSULATING MEDIA

22
41

III.

IV.

MISCELLANEOUS ELECTROSTATIC PHENOMENA

55

CHAPTER

V.
VI.

FLOW

OF ELECTRICITY IN ELECTROLYTES

...

72
87

CHAPTER

ELECTROMOTIVE FORCE

CHAPTER VII.

PROBLEMS ON FLOW OF ELECTRICITY IN ... ... ... ... CONDUCTORS

98
121

CHAPTER CHAPTER CHAPTER

VIII.

THE MAGNETIC FIELD

MAGNETIC FIELD OF CURRENTS
BALLISTIC DISCHARGE AND

IX.

151

X.

MEASUREMENT
177

OF CAPACITY

CHAPTER

XL

INDUCED CURRENTS
PERMEABILITY
... ...

197
...
...

CHAPTER XII.

228

CHAPTER XIII. CHAPTER XIV.

CHAPTER XV.

THERMOELECTRICITY

256
... ...

THEORY OF UNITS
CORPUSCULAR THEORY

269
277

...

ANSWERS
INDEX
..

...

3d I

304

CHAPTER

I.

POINT CHARGES.
The earliest electrical experi1. Order of Treatment. ment was to attract light bodies by rubbed amber. The laws involved in this apparently simple phenomenon

As our object is to apply are very complicated indeed. mathematical principles, we are obliged to disregard both

the historical order of electrical discovery and the most convenient order of experimental demonstration. begin with such ideas as can be precisely defined and

We

immediately subjected to mathematical processes, but which are simpler than the realities encountered in experiment. We assume that certain laws are obeyed. The consequences of these laws will prove to be exactly applicable to the ordinary bodies met with in experiments, such as electrified spheres, Ley den jars, magnets, batteries and coils. The order of thought is therefore outwards, from conceptions formed It is taken in the mind to objects visible in the world.
for granted that these objects are already more or less familiar; so that it is unnecessary to aim at more than transforming vague acquaintance into exact knowledge.

We assume that there exist 2. Point Charges. Charges of Electricity, and that these can be localised
on small portions of matter represented by gilt pith The air does not permit the spheres in experiments. escape of these charges and they can therefore be said
to be insulated.

A charged body so small that its linear dimensions can be disregarded is called a Point Charge. The charge can be of either of two kinds, called Positive and Negative.
M, PH.
I,

POINT CHARGES.
of a charge can be called a

The magnitude
Electricity.

Quantity of

Experimental properties are that a positive and a negative point charge attract one another but two like point charges, both positive or both negative, repel one another.
;

The force exerted by one point 3. Coulomb's Law. charge on another acts along the straight line joining them. It is proportional to the quantity of electricity in each, and to the inverse square of the distance between them. It is a repulsion if the charges are both positive or both negative and an attraction if one is positive and the other negative. If (jj and q z be the charges, measured in any convenient be the force and r the distance apart, units, and if
;

OT

F F=

q l q^r*

q iq ,lkr*,

k being a constant.
This law assumes that Electric Charge is a measurable quantity. itself provides a method of measuring charges, since every charge is proportional to the force it would exert on a given charge at a given distance. Both the laws and the assumption on which it rests are verified roughly by Coulomb's Experiment 5), and with great accuracy by the Cavendish Experiment ( 3). And, generally, the fundamental laws of any science are proved in the most absolute way by the agreement of complicated phenomena with the consequences deduced from these laws.

The law

are small charged bodies. Ex. 1. A, B, C, If A be placed 6 inches from it repels it with a force of 20 (quite arbitrary) units. At the same distance A repels C with a force of 30 and with 35, and Find the forces which and C would repels C with 10. exert respectively on at the same distance apart. Let a, 6, c, d be the small charges. The mutual repulsion between A and B = o/>/fcr2 ; but r is the same in all the experiments, and therefore we can put the force = mab units, a constant. The equations are mab 20, mac = 30, mad = 35, mbc = 10. are asked to find the forces x and y which and C exert on D.

We

So put mbd = x, mod = Obviously m, a, &,

y.
. .

cannot be found

separately.

But

.'.

= mad x mbc = 35 x 10 = 350, and mac = 30, mbd = 350/30 = 112. Si m ii ari v wca = 350/20 = 17|,
m?abcd

POINT CHARGES.
Ex. 2. Two precisely equal small spheres have charges 5 and 19 arbitrary units ; and attract each other, at distance 8 apart, with a force 20. They are allowed to touch. Assuming that the total charge is unaltered, but redistributed so that the spheres are charged equally, find the force exerted subsequently if the distance apart of the spheres be o. There is attraction, so the charges are unlike and may be called The algebraic sum is 14 and .'. the charges will be 7 19 and 5. and 7 after contact. Coulomb's Law gives
20
in

5 x 19

20 x 8 x 8 5 x 19

256
19

terms of the arbitrary units used. After contact, the repulsion =

JL
k

7x7
'

256
19

5-

49 25

_ ~

Torsion Head

POINT CHARGES.

second capable of holding an electric charge insulated. an insulating rod, can be set gilt pith ball, D, mounted on in a fixed position within the glass cylinder so that the rod is vertical and the balls C and just touch in the zero position of the lever. The angular motion of the lever can be read by a scale concentric with it, and etched on a surrounding glass When the position angle cylinder. for the lever is zero, the torsion angle at A should also be zero if the wire be without twist. Fig. 2.

DOG

5.

Formula

for Torsion Balance.

ment, withdraw the ball the charge 2q Replace

To use the instruand give a charge 2q to it.

equally shared between

is

and D, and repulsion takes place. Let the torsion head be now turned through an angle a so as to bring the balls nearer, and let the position angle DOC of the lever be 6. The lever is in equilibrium under
(1) couple proportional to the angle of twist 8 -f a of the wire, and denoted by L(6 -f a), where L is a constant 2 z q /CD acting in the (2) The electrical repulsion
;

straight line

which
wire.
Iq*

is

cos

i B/CD Z

CD, and an equal and contrary force at the horizontal component of the tension in the OD If OC forces form a couple I, these

(3) The weight of the bar and the equal and contrary vertical component of the tension these balance. Hence
;

the final equation of equilibrium

L(6

is

a)

lq* cos J 6 /CD*

q- cos

2 0/4Z sin

0.

as usual, is small, we can put cos ^0 If, 1, 2 and the equation becomes L(0 sin \ a) -J 6, q^/lB If the experimenter always turns the torsion head so far as to bring to a constant value, (f is proportional to 6 -f a,

and therefore he
If the instrument

is is

enabled to measure charges directly. to be used to prove Coulomb's Law,

POINT CHARGES.

the charges are left unaltered and the head turned to give a series of readings a for different readings 0. Then, if be not large, &z (0 + a) should be constant. different and much more accurate verification of the law is given in

31.

A charge is given to the instrument, and 6 is observed 1. 90 when the torsion head is not turned. How much must it be turned to make 6 = 60 ? Note that these values of 6 are not small, and therefore the exact formula must be used.
Ex.

Ex.

2.

10, and o.

15 when a = 0. Find what values of a make 6 = Here the approximate formula may be assumed.

Ex. 3. fixed ball

and shares

D
<x

Let 6
is

15

when
is is

0.

now removed, and

and
.

The charge

therefore

G returns

carried by the to touch 7),

will be.
2/3
.

its

charge,

again repelled.
halved, 6
is

Find what

Here

q~

e3

Since q

multiplied by 2~

It

becomes 9 '4.

The units used inter6. Absolute Units in Physics. nationally are based on the centimetre, gram and second. It is stated (Chanev Our Weights and Measures} that 1 inch 25-39998 centimetres, and therefore 2&1 to one part in a million. When 453'6 gm. One Ib. dealing with engineering problems one can use the rough 5 furlongs 5/8 mile approximations 1 kilometre 1 mile 1*6 kilometres 1 ton 1 tonne 1,000 kilo:

=
;

= =

grams.
of force is a dyne this is defined as the which would give unit acceleration to a particle whose mass is a gram. If g be the acceleration of a body The falling freely, the weight of one gram is g dynes. value of g is 981 in London, Paris, and Berlin at the sealevel, and has very nearly the same value at all attainable force
localities.

The unit

The absolute unit of work is the erg, the work done by one dyne in moving its point of application one centimetre in its direction. The practical unit of work is the 10 7 ergs. The absolute unit of power is the power Joule, of an agent which performs one erg per second. The one joule per practical unit of power is the Watt,

second.

l>

POINT CHARGES.

The Unit of Charge 7. Electrostatic Unit Charge. or of Quantity of electricity is such a quantity that if it were collected at a point it would exert a repulsion of one dyne on an equal and similar quantity similarly collected, at a distance of one centimetre, provided that the surrounding medium is air at normal temperature and
pressure. If preferred,

the definition,

we can substitute vacuum for normal air in The practical difference is quite negligible.
is

The formula which expresses Coulomb's law

But
q
{

F = *i^.
1

in air, using the above unit of charge, 1 and r 1. qt Hence It 1 for air, and F

F=

when

Ex. 1. Two equal pith balls have masses '10 gm. They hang from the same point by fine insulating cords 8 cm. long. charge 2q is shared between them and they repel each other till equilibrium is reached at a distance 6 cm. apart. Find the absolute value of q. The horizontal force on each = q*-/G* = g 8 /36 dynes. If 6 be the slope of either cord to the vertical, the resolved repulsion perpendicular to the cord = q 2 cos 0/36. The weight of ball = 98*1 dynes and its resolved part = 98*1 sin 0. These must be equal, .-. q~ = 36 x 98 "1 x tan 0.

But 6 = 2 x 8 x sin 8, : Hence q- = 36 x 98 '1 x

.

sin

3/8,

tan

= 3/

55.

3/ v'55~;

whence q = 37 '8.

Ex. 2. If w weight in grams of each pith ball, q = the charge = angle which each cord makes on each, I = length of cord, and with the vertical, prove that
q

21

Vwg

sin 3 6 sec

0.

Ex.
balls,

3.

For small

deflections, if
q /O

show that approximately

q

= x

Vwg/21.

x be the distance between the

deduce that if x be the divergence (length or angle) between the leaves of a gold leaf electroscope, the charge is roughly proportioned to a/2.

We

An Electric Field is a region of space 8. Field. within which the influence of charged bodies extends. We may speak of the field of one only of the bodies

POINT CHARGES.

considered, or of all of them, or of any number. Obviously the field of a point charge extends to infinity; but no influence is large enough to be detected at a considerable distance from a point charge. Field Strength, Intensity, Field or Force at a given point of the electric field, is the force which a unit positive point charge would experience if placed at the point considered, if the electric distribution in its neighbourhood be supposed unaltered. If air be the medium, the force which a charge q would exert on unit charge at distance r is q X 1/r2 Hence the field of a point charge has magnitude q/r~. q/r*, and its direction is along the radius r.

9. Composition of Fields. By definition, the fields at the same point, but due to two different distributions, are the forces which these distributions would exert on a

unit charge at that point. They can therefore be compounded by the law of the Parallelogram or the Triangle of Forces. It follows that Field Strength is a vector
quantity, representable in magnitude, direction and sense by a straight line, and obeying the ordinary vector laws. The following definitions are

obvious

Fig.
is

3.

the field at a point at which a unit charge would experience a force of one dyne. Resolute of Field, in any direction, is the resolute in that direction of the force which would be exerted on unit charge at the point considered.

Unit Field

Ex. 1. are the six angles of a regular hexagon. The Find the field at are 1, - 3, 0, - 3, 5. charges at J, 5, O, D, F ; the side of the hexagon being 1 cm. (Fig. 3). = V3~; FG = 2. The distance Ffi = and EF produced, The component fields are 1 and o in lines

ABCDEF

FD
in

AF

and

3/(

V3)

and

FB and

FD.

Hence,

POINT CHARGES.

Sum

of resolutes along

=
The sum

(1

5) cos

60

of resolutes
1) sin

EA =
6

(5

if

CF produced - (1 + 1) cos 30 = 3 - v'3. perpendicular to CF in the direction

2 VS.

of

Hence,

60 be the
/.

field,

F =
2

(3

V3)*

(2

V3)

24

V3 =
Its

13-608. direction

F=
=

3'70.
1

makes an angle

tan

2 V3/(3

V'3)

A/3

6 with CF produced where = 70 nearly. 2 '732. Hence

Ex.
Ex.

2.

field at

With the same data as in the above exercise, find the the centre of the hexagon.
If

is a square of 10 cm. side, and has charges 1, A at the corners in succession, find the field at the centre of the square and at the middle point of each side.

3.

BCD

1,

1,

1O. Potential. The Potential Difference (P.D.), or excess of potential at one point over that at another point, is the work which the electric forces due to charges in the field would do on a unit positive point charge travelling This (in air) from the first point to the second point. unit charge is supposed not to alter the distribution of the actual charges in the field. The Potential at a point is the P.D. at that point over a point of zero potential. can arbitrarily choose the point of zero potential, but it is usual to take the potential as zero at any point infinitely distant from all the charges in the field. In other media than air the same definitions hold if we imagine the unit -f ve charge to travel from point to point along an infinitely narrow tunnel bored through the medium and occupied by air or vacuum. The implied assumption that the work from point to point is independent of the path of the unit -f-ve charge is proved in the next paragraph. This work may be estimated for any one of the charges present, or for any selection of them, or for all. can therefore speak of the potential at a point due to one, or some, or all of the charges in the field. And since the works done by different forces are additive, the potential at a point due to a group of charges is the algebraic sum of the potentials due to the charges separately.

We

We

POINT CHARGES.

air.

11. Potential Difference due to a Point Charge in ARSB any path from A Let q be the charge at
;

to

and S two points very near together. Drop perpendicular RT on OS (Fig. 4). The force on unit charge at S

B\

q/OS*.
Its

component along arc

RS

is,

in limit, equal to
Fig.
4.

Rio S

The work done by

=

this force as the charge

moves from

*8

ST
'

But
.-.

in the limit

'RS'o& ST 08 OR

=:

q.ST
-OS^'
;

and OS*

OS. OR.

The work from

StoS=q.

Q~
B=

Adding such
ultimately,

quantities for every small arc

RS we
A
to

get,

Potential difference between

and

work from

= q

\OA

OB)

It

is

evident that this depends only on positions of

and B, and not on the form of the path

ARSB.

If

chosen as a position of zero potential, the potential

A B be at A

infinite

In the mathematical theory we choose B to be at an distance from every point charge in the field.

Hence

OB =

oo

l/OB

0,

Potential at

and A = qjOA.

We

shall generally denote the potential

r be the distance, than air is given in

V=

q/r.

The formula
III.

for

by V\ hence, if media other

Chapter

10

POINT CHARGES.
12. Composition of Potentials.
If there be several
.
.

point charges q lt (/.,, potential at A (in air)

=

at

0,, 0.,,

the whole

work done by

all of

them on a unit charge travelling from

to oc,
4-

=q /O l A
l

"We can write this

V = 2q/OA =
for

2q/r

any finite number (however great) of point charges. And, taking the limit,
"dq
r

for a continuous distribution, dq being element of charge, considered. and r its distance from point

13. Eqnipotential Surfaces are loci of points in space Each surface can be which have the same potential. specified by the common potential of all its points. An Equipotential Line is the line in which an equipotential surface is cut by any
surface considered, The usually a plane. equipotential lines in a diagram are the lines in which the equipotential surfaces are cut by the plane of the diagram (see Figs. 6, 7). If and Q (Fig. 5) be indefinitely near points on an equipotential surface, the P.D.

Fig.

">.

P and Q is zero, and consequently no work would be done on a unit -f ve charge travelling from P to Q. Hence the force acting on this charge is perpendicular to PQ. That is, the field at P (shown by arrow) is perpendicular
of
to

011 the equipotential every indefinitely small arc surface, therefore the field at any point in space is normal o the equipotential through that point. Evidently the equipotential surfaces of a point charge are a set of concentric spheres as in Fig. 6, and the field is
I

PQ

everywhere

radial.

POINT CHARGES.

11

Fig.

0.

Fig.

7.

12

POINT CHARGES.
lines due to a charge = 2, r = 4 cm. when 12/2 = 6 cm. when [The figure is printed to a scale of f.]

V =
-

Fig. 6

shows the equipotential

r

q/r,

12.

Since

7=3,

and

so on.

Ex.

1.

Draw

10 placed at points

a set of equipotential lines for the charges 10 and at 10 cm. apart. S and (Fig. 7 is drawn

to a scale of ^. ) In the figure the lines are

10/SP = 10/iVP constructed as follows

Describe about

2,

3.

If

drawn for the potential 7=0, 1, be a point at which the potential is + V, The figure was 7, or 10/JVP = V + 10/SP.
:

Sa

series of circles of radii

SP =
If If If

7J,
4/3,

8,

10,
1,

12,

15 2/3

7 = 1, 7 + 7 =2, 7 + V =3, 7 +

Then'10/SP = 10/SP = W/NP = IQ/SP = 10/NPz = 10/SP = 10/iVP 3 l

5/4,

5/6,

7/3,

9/4,

2,
3,

11/6,
17/6,

&&
8/3

^ ^

10/3,

13/4,

/.

NP = NP, = NPl =
l

13/3, 17/4,

4,
5,

23/6,

11/3

30/7, 40/9,
3,

60/11,

40/13, 10/3, 60/17,

5/2,

'/*

30/13, 40/17,

60/23, 30/11

The curves for 7 negative are bisecting perpendicularly, described like those for 7 positive, interchanging 8 and N. Ex. 2. With the data of the worked example, and centre of hexagon. potentials at

For V 1 on each of the five circles of radius SP touch two points whose distances from are the corresponding values of JVPj. Of course 7=0 gives the straight line Similarly for 7=2, 7=3.
,

SN

9,

find the

An*.

(1

5) /I

3) /

^3"+

0/2

6-2 V3~= 2'54,andO.

the data of Ex. 2, 9, find the potentials at the centre of the square and at the middle points of its sides.
3.

Ex.

With

14. Lines of Force. A continuous line drawn in space whose direction at every point is that of the field at that
point is called a Line of Force.' Since the resultant field at any point is perpendicular to the equipotential surface at that point (13), therefore lines of force cut equipotentials orthogonally. Two lines of force cannot cut one another except at a For wherever the field point of zero or of infinite field. is finite its direction is determinate. Similarly two different equipotential surfaces cannot

POINT CHARGES.

13

meet one another, for the potential cannot have two

different values at one point.

Of course we are at liberty to consider the lines of force due to one only of the charged bodies, or to any selection. The lines of force or equipotentials due to different charge distributions can lie within the same region, and cut one another.

be 15. Lines of Force of a Point Charge. Let is the point and q the charge. The field at any point in the straight line OP, and therefore the lines of force Their number is are straight lines radiating from 0.

but we shall classify them as unitary lines, is an arbitrary number. The lines should be regarded as distributed equably or symmetrically in all directions around 0. To speak more precisely, the number of lines which pass through any area A of a sphere, whose centre is 0, must be proportional to A. The whole surface of a sphere of radius r is 471-r2 hence each of our unitary lines should pass through an area AinP/N. Of course a " uni" is a group of lines, tary line comprising an infinite
infinite,

where

number

of

individuals,

which all pass through the same area 4nrr2 /N described on the sphere.

The number
lines

per

of unitary unit area is

N/4m-i*.

It is immaterial whether this be large or

small, tional
line,

integral or fracfor each unitary

can

as above described, be divided into as

many as we

equal submultiples
like.

Fig.

8.

define the Flux of Force, or 16. Plnx of Force. of Field or Intensity, through any small area as equal to the number of unitary lines which cut through that area. of a point charge q at Consider the lines at (Fig. 8).

We

14

POINT CHARGES.

be very small, and perpendicular to First let the area can regard A as part of a sphere of the lines of force. r hence the flux through A is AN/^Trr2 radius OP 2 therefore 1/r 3 But the field is q/r F/q, and the flux is equal to FAN/4nrq. Next, let the area S be oblique, making an angle <f> with is the angle the area A on spherical surface, so that and the normal to S. Then if A between the field at =. 8 cos</>, be the projection of S on the spherical surface, and every line which goes through one area goes through both. Hence

We F

-,

<

Flux through

flux

The " flux per and is equal to the product of F cos <, the normal component of the field at P, by the constant quantity N/4<Trq.
<f>

= FAN/^irq = F cos <. SN/4rq. " unit area for 8 = F cos X N/4<7rq,

through

17.

Maxwell Tubes of a Point Charge.

In
15, 16 the

Tubes.

number

N was quite

Faraday
arbitrary.

different conventions have been adopted to dene it. Considering, for the present, the field of a single point charge, we have seen that the flux per unit area through the small area S

Two

If

= Normal component of the field x we choose N = 4arq, our unitary lines

lines or tubes.

Maxwell

N/4wq. may be called

Hence
drawn

Resolute of Field in

any direction

= Number
But

of lines of force, per unit area, perpendicular to that direction.

from q But

is ( 15) the whole number of lines originating hence 4arq lines pass outward from charge q. if we choose q, then our lines are called Faraday Unit Tubes and we have the statements that and that the q Faraday tubes originate from charge ?
;

N=
;

field

number of Faraday perpendicular to any small area tubes per unit area x 47r. The vector quantity
Field
-=-

4?r

POINT CHARGES.
is

15

often called the Electric Displacement. Consequently number of Faraday the Electric Displacement (normal) Tubes per unit area.

18. Surface Integrals. The Surface Integral of a vector quantity over a given surface is the sum of the products of every indefinitely small element of the area by the resolved part of the vector along the normal to the
surface.

the be the vector, dS the element of surface, and If and the normal, then the surface integral augle between is the result of integrating or summing all the products
<

F cos
If the vector

<f>.

dS.

F be the resultant of F
< <

lt

F.z

which
re-

makes angles

<J> lf

2,

with the normal; then,

cos

solving normally,

F cos
.-.

=F

cos
.

</>!

+F
F.,

<f>.,

Fcos

dS =

cos 0!

dS +

cos

+ F3 cos 3 dS + ^3 cos

.d8.

Therefore, summing,

The Surface Integral

algebraic
vectors.

sum of

of the resuljbant vector is the surface integrals of the component

19. Gauss's Theorems. (I.) The surface integral of the electric field taken over any closed surface which does not contain any charge is zero.
(II.) The Surface Integral of the electric field taken over any closed surface whatsoever 4rr algebraic sum of the charges within the surface. To prove these theorems, we first consider the surface integral of a point charge q situated at any point O cos the number of dS Every product (Pig. 9). lines of force from that proceed through dS ( 16, 17). Hence the sum of products for all elements dS is the sum which pass outward (algebraic) of all the lines from through the whole surface S.

+ F

<

16

POINT CHARGES.
Lines passing inward must be taken with the contrary

sign.

If

be outside, every line from

at least twice, to enter

must cut

which cuts the surface and pass out, and may cut any even number of
times, entering as often Conseas it leaves. quently the number of
lines entering is exactly

balanced by the number leaving, and the algebraic If

Fig.
9.

sum

is zero.

be inside, every must cut line from the surface once to pass

subsequent cuts are as Hence the often inward as outward, and exactly balance. algebraic sum is the number of lines of force which originate at 0, 4>Trq. due to Next consider the surface integral of the field any number of positive or negative charges, q v q v q 3 etc. be the fields due to q lt q v q^ Let 2 v y sepaThen the surface integral of Algebraic sum rately. of the surface integrals of 2 v 3 But if any of these be due to a point charge outside the And surface, the corresponding surface integral is zero. if any be due to a charge inside, the surface integral 4<Tr x that charge. Hence, if all the charges be outside, the surface integral is zero 4nr x and, if otherwise, the surface integral algebraic sum of the charges inside.

out, and, if it cuts oftener, the

F
.

F F F
,

F=
.

F F F
,

2O. Lines of Force due to any distribution. have more than one point charge, the lines of force are generally curved. Consider a bundle of lines of force starting from every point of an area 8 and terminating on an area 8.2 (Fig. 10). Consider the closed surface

When we

8 formed by
it

$, and $2 and the sides of the bundle, and let contain no charge. The surface integral of field is zero over 8 ( 19) and it is evidently zero over the sides of
;

POINT CHARGER.

17

the bundle, for these are formed by lines of force and consequently the normal component of the force is zero. Hence the surface integral, or flux, is equal, but of contrary sign, over 8 and $,. If we divide the lines entering at S l into n unitary tubes in such a way that n the flux inward over $ p the same
l

produced to $2 will determine n tubes leavlines

ing at Sy and the number n of lines will equal the outward flux over
a,.

Consequently, in any Fig. 10. which contains no charges, we can suppose the lines of force drawn in such a manner that the number passing through any portion of any surface will equal the flux over that surface. And these lines, thus drawn, will be continuous in unThat is, none will originate, or .termicharged space. nate, within any region of air space in which there is no
air space

charge.

21. Lines of Force originating from each Pointcharge in an Electric Field. Let ^contain only one point charge q, and let $2 be a sphere of small radius described

Fig. 11.

Fig. 12.

about
field

q.

If the radius r of S.z be taken small enough, the

on $2 can be neglected except in so far as it is due to q, for q/r* is ultimately infinite compared to any other
M. PH.
I.

18
term.
4nrq
;

POINT CHARGES.

Hence the number of unitary lines through S2 is and none originate or terminate between 8 and $2 hence the number through 8^ is also 4<7rq. If 8 contained more than one point charge such as q and q', 8Z could be regarded as a set of spheres of indefinitely small radius described about these charges, and we should have, by similar reasoning, that the total number of lines passing outward through $, = 4?r x total charge inside. These lines are the general Maxwell lines for any distribution. We could have used Faraday lines instead of Maxwell lines. In that case, the number of lines passing outward total charge inside. through S
l
; l

lines

22. Cross Section of Tube of Force. If Maxwell be taken, let S and S2 be portions of surfaces (equil

20), potentials) orthogonal to the lines of force (Fig. 10, and take S 19 and therefore $2 , so small that the fields may be considered uniform over them of values l and Then the equality of the surface integrals is exz

S Hence 8 is constant pressed by n 2 $2 for every orthogonal cross section of the same narrow bundle of lines. And n/8, that is
.

=F F F= The field at any point = the number of Maxwell lines

=F
l {

per unit area drawn at that point perpendicular to the

field.

This

is

equal to

4rr

x the number

of

Faraday tubes per

unit area.

These theorems (from 19 onward) are consequences of Coulomb's Law and would not hold in the case of any different law of radial force.
23. Properties of Equipotential Surfaces. Let # be two equipotentials for which the potentials V^ T2 differ very little. Let P, P2 be an arc of an orthogonal line (line of force). Let be the average field between ve charge P, and P2 so that the work done on unit
2

POINT CHARGES.
travelling

19
t

=V l

F,.

from P, to Hence

is

F.Pf.

But

this

work

F=
or,

(V,- V,)IP,PZ

the Field at any point the Potential Gradient at that point, reckoned in the direction of the field.

The Potential Gradient is the limit of the fraction It can be described as the Change of P.D./Distance. Potential per unit distance, or as the number of successive equipotentials (whose P.D. 1) per unit length of line of force, or as the reciprocal of the distance between successive equipotentials. Observe in Figs. 6, 7 how the

successive equipotentials approach one another in regions where the field is intense. If next Pfi be not orthogonal, and F' represent the

and 2 ', average field component along PjP,' between t F' X 1 '. the work 2 Consequently the resolved the potential gradient in field F' in any direction that direction. Note that these properties do not depend on the Law of Force (Coulomb's Law), but follow directly from the

P P

definition of potential.

24. The Potential cannot be a maximum, or a minimum, at any point in empty space unoccupied by
a charge. For if it were a maximum, it would be possible to draw a closed surface around the point and so near it that the potential diminished along every outward normal. Hence the outward flux is everywhere positive, and the surface integral could not vanish. But this is
impossible
(

19).

Similarly the potential could not be a

minimum.
This property is deduced from Gauss's Theorem, which depends on Coulomb's Law. It would not be true under

any other
(in

Law of Force. It is advisable to discriminate 19-24) between theorems generally true and those which rest on the assumption of a special law of force.

20

POINT CHARGES.
25. Regions of Constant Potential.
(1)

Within a

closed equipotential surface, containing potential is constant.

no charges, the

For otherwise the potential would be greater, or less, at some points than at others, and it would be possible to find a region of maximum or minimum potential which
;

is

impossible

19).

(2) If an equipotential surface, A, completely encloses another, B, at the same potential as A, the whole space is also at the same potential provided between A and it contains no charge. The proof is the same as for (1).

(3) If the potential be constant throughout any finite region of space, it is also constant throughout all space continuous with this region, provided it contains no

charges.

For let be the region of constant potential. Let the within potential be diminishing as we travel from Consider a closed surface enclosing part of region P. and a narrow slice of lying along a short length of the boundary of A. The field is zero at every part of the surface within A, and is outwards within P, consequently the surface integral outwards is positive, and there must be a charge within the surface, which is contrary to hypothesis. In the same way the potential cannot increase as we travel from in any region containing no charges. It therefore is constant.

CHAPTER

IL

CHARGED CONDUCTORS.
Conductor is any portion of a 26. Conductors. substance through whose interior an electric charge can assume that any charge tends to move in the flow. same direction as that in which a charged body would be urged if situated at the same point. It follows that Positive Charges in conductors flow from regions of higher to regions of lower potential ; and negative charges flow the other way. In a region of space within which electrical equilibrium is attained there can be no flow. Hence the potential must have a constant value throughout the substance of every conductor. What is the same thing, the Field within the substance of every conductor is zero when equilibrium is

We

attained.

Also the boundary of each conductor must be an equipotential surface.

27. The Electric Distribution on a Conductor is entirely superficial. We first show that the field cannot be zero, and therefore the potential cannot be constant, within any portion of space containing charges. For in a
region containing charges, it is always possible to describe a closed surface containing more positive, or negative, The surface integral of the field outelectricity within it. ward over such a surface will have a finite value, positive or negative (19). Hence the field is not everywhere zero, nor the potential constant. But within the substance of a conductor in equilibrium the potential must be constant ( 26). Hence there is no electrical distribution other than superficial.
21

22

CHARGED CONDUCTORS.

This only applies, of course, to electricity at rest. When electricity is in motion, the flow is usually through the interior of the conductor.

28. The potential is constant within a hollow conductor, i.e. in a space completely enclosed, and containing no charges. For the boundary is an equiConsequently potential surface, containing no charges.
25, 1) the potential is constant inside. this chapter we shall ignore any difference ( 68) that may exist between the constant potential within a hollow and the constant potential in
(

For the purposes of

Both will be called the Potential of the Conductor. If the conductor is charged, the charge must distribute itself over the outside surface in such a manner as to produce a constant potential within the substance of the conductor and within any hollow completely enclosed. If the conductor has zero charge, but there are charges outside, then charges must appear on the outer surface of the conductor whose algebraic sum is zero and which are so distributed as to make the total potential, due jointly to this distribution and the external charges, uniform within the conductor. This distribution is said to be Induced. If a
the conducting substance.

conductor be charged and have charges outside, the distribution on the surface is everywhere the algebraic sum of the Induced charge and that distribution of the original charge which would, by itself, produce constant potential
inside.

Since the potential

is

constant, the field

is zero.

29. Lines of Force

(1)

and Conductors.

line of force penetrates within the substance of a conductor. For the field is zero.

No

(2) No lines exist in a cavity completely surrounded by conducting matter, which contains no charges. for they (3) Lines of force meet a conductor normally are always orthogonal to equipotentials. (4) If we have a charge -f q within a hollow conductor,

CHARGED CONDUCTORS.
4nrq lines

23

These (or q Faraday tubes) originate from it. must terminate on the conductor, and consequently there must be a charge q on the inner conducting surface bounding the hollow. " Thus a charge + q, within a hollow "
conductor,

induces If the q on its inner surface. conductor be uncharged, + q must appear on its outer surface. Hence a charge q inside a hollow conductor " " induces -f q on its inner surface and q on its outer In these cases, the two induced charges are each surface. numerically equal to the inducing charge.
(5) If a charge 4- q be outside an insulated uncharged conductor, 4nrq lines originate from it of which some terminate on it and some do not. If 4-n-p' terminate, a charge and q' is induced q' appears on another part of the outside surface. Here q' always < q, and the induced charges are numerically smaller than the inducing ones.
;

(6) If a- be the actual surface density, or charge per unit area, on a conductor and be the field just outside then is normal and is equal to the number of lines of force per unit area. lines originate from charge Hence <r, therefore
;

F=

47T(T.

30. Uniformly Charged Sphere. Assuming Coulomb's law, to show that the field within a uniformly
charged sphere is zero. Let A be any point within the sphere. BAG, B'AC' indicate a double cone

The chords

whose vertex
Sw
is

is

and whose

solid angle

indefinitely small (Fig. 14).

,

Let 88 19 SS2 be the areas BB', CC' which the cone intercepts on the sphere. Let be the centre, and a the radius. Then OB OC, therefore the angles

OBC = OCB =
But
since < to BB'
<

<, say.

the angle between the

normal

8$! cos

and AB, therefore

the projection of

BB' on

to a plane at

perpendicular to

AB.

24

CHARGED CONDUCTORS.

BB'

SS2 /AC*. So>, hence SSJAB* surface density a- is given uniform, hence the charges on 8S and S$2 are o-.8/8' 1 and <r.S$ 2 would be Therefore their repulsions on unit -f charge at z o-.&SJAB* and <r.SS.JAC by Coulomb's law. SS2 /AC Z hence But we have just shown that 8SJAB 2 these are equal and contrary. This is true for every double cone with vertex at A. Therefore the total field at.J. is zero.

= the = Similarly 8S, cos <^IAG

Hence 8S
at A,

=
1

cos <f>/AB 2

solid angle

subtended by

80;.

=
A

But the

31. The Cavendish

Experiment on Coulomb's Law.

If Coulomb's law be not precisely true, suppose that the nearer points exerted a larger repulsion in comparison with remoter points than Coulomb's law would give. Then, in

more than CC', is urged from BB' repels the nearer to the remoter parts of sphere. By symmetry is along towards 0. Hence the resultant field at is at a lower potential than A, and therefore we have minimum potential at the centre of a positively charged
figure,
.

AO

sphere.
less repulsion

The contrary supposition that nearer points exerted a would make the potential a maximum at the

centre.

Experiments show that the potential is uniform and therefore there is neither a maximum nor a minimum and the accuracy with which the experiment can be carried out measures the accuracy within which Coulomb's law is established with certainty.
;

It

differ

was shown by Maxwell that the force from 2 by so much as 1/36000.

oc

l/r, where k does not

This method of proving Coulomb's law was due to Cavendish, who proved the law in 1771-1781, but with less accuracy than Maxwell attained. The great advances made by Cavendish were ignored and forgotten for nearly a century, when Clark Maxwell called attention to his researches after several of his results had been rediscovered

CHARGED CONDUCTORS.

25

by others. Coulomb's own demonstration ( 5) of the law of the inverse square is not susceptible of anything approaching the same accuracy.
32. Uniformly Charged Sphere External Field. To show that the field of a uniformly charged sphere at an
:

external point is Q/?-2 where r is the distance from the centre and Q is the whole charge. Let be the external point (Fig. 15), and A be its inverse point {defined by the two relations that OA is a straight line 2 and that OA (radius) }. Make the same construction as
,

OD =
and

in

Then

OA OD = OB hence therefore OA/OB = OB/OD

2
.

Fig.

14,

join
,

DB.

triangles

OAB,
<.

hence

OBA =

AB/BD

OBD

are similar,

OB/OD

a/r,

and angle

BDO =

Then the element of surfaces &S at B has charge <r8S. The field at D is <r.SS/BD 2 acting along BD produced. The resolute along OD =
a.

6S

cos <f>IBD*
2

dS cos

<f>/A

B\
resolute

8w= 88. cos ^/AB along OD is - 8o>.

But
IT

(30), hence the

resultant force due to. the whole sphere acts, by symmetry, in direction OD. Hence its magnitude is

The

^ -&
field

8w, the
4f7ro2

sum
2
.

of resolutes.

But 2 8o>
-f-

4-rr

hence the

o-/r

Now

<r

= Q

surface area

Q/4ira

Hence the

field is

33. Potential

of Uniformly

Charged

Sphere.

The

the same as that due to a point charge Q Hence if a unit +ve charge located at the centre 0. travel outside the sphere from infinity to any point D, the
field
is

26

CHARGED CONDUCTORS.

work done on it is the same as if the charge of the sphere were concentrated at the centre. Hence the potential is
the same.
Its value

can infer the potential within the sphere. If D r a, and approach the surface, then ultimately OD the potential 'But the potential does not alter Q/a. Q/a on the surface of the abruptly, hence it also conductor and within its substance and throughout any cavities completely enclosed which contain no

We

(11)

is

Q/r.

charges.

34. Field of an Infinite Plane Disc Uniformly Charged. In Fig. 16 let DB meet the sphere again in E, and let DBE, DB'E' indicate a cone of small solid angle whose vertex is D. As in 30, the charges on BB' and

EE'

DB

are proportional to 2 hence the forces exerted at by these elements are equal.
2
,

DE

Fig. 16.

Hence if FAF' be the plane which contains the point of contact of every to the tangent from sphere, this plane cuts the sphere into two por-

tions

Hence the

which exert equal forces on D. field due to the nearer portion FGF'

If the radius a be indefinitely increased and the distance of from the surface remains finite, the ratio a2 /?*2 will ultimately reduce to 1, a,ndFG-F' becomes a flat disc. Hence the field due to a flat disc, uniformly charged, is

GD

27TO-.

Ex. 1. Two small spheres have radii a and b. Their centres are at a distance c apart. Their charges are x and y. Find the potential of each, assuming c to be large compared with a and b. Let us call the spheres A and tt. The potential of A due to its own charge is x/a. can suppose the electrical distributions uniform, i.e. we consider c so large that we may neglect induced

We

electrification.

CHARGED CONDUCTORS.
Then the potential of is potential of

27
is

due to B's charge

x/a
x/e

y/c.

Hence the

and similarly that

of

B is

+
+

y/c

yjb.

and B be now connected by a fine insulated wire, find the charges and potentials of each. As they are connected by a conductor, their potentials are equal say V. If the charges be x' and y' we have

Ex.

2.

If

V=
and

x'/a

y'/c

x'/c

y'/b,

total charge is unaltered,

Ex. 3.

B and
at C.

radii

small uncharged spheres whose centres are A and & are in the neighbourhood of a point charge Q Find their potentials. If the two spheres be connected by

Two

a and

a fine wire, find their subsequent potential and charges. Let CA, CB, be p, q and c. The potentials of A and

AB

B when

uncharged are Q/p, Q/q.

When
x.

Then

connected, let their charges become x and if the common potential be V we have

V = Q/p whence x and

+ x/a - x/c = V are found.

Q/q

x/c

x/b,

Ex. 4. Two small sphere?, connected as above, are in a uniform field of magnitude H, whose direcFind the charges tion makes an angle 6 with c.
on each

A B, is cos 6 hence the potential difference (or P.D.) due to the field is c cos 0. If the charges induced be x and x, then the total P.D. due to all causes
The field H, resolved along
;

(Fig. 17).

= He
This has to be zero
;

cos 6

(x/a
is

x/c)

(x/c

x/b).
>

hence x

found.

Neglecting

"A

He cos 8

28
Ez.
5.

CHARGED CONDUCTORS.
Find approximately the couple exerted by the
;

field

on

the system.

The forces exerted on the spheres are Hx, - Hx and the distance between their line of action is c sin 0. Hx c sin 0, which approximately Hence the couple =

c- sin

cos d

f(

Ez. 6. If / be the moment of inertia of the system about the centre of the wire, find the period of small oscillation (angular).

The couple
be small.

is

ultimately

LS, where

L =

c~

if

-j-\

This

la

if

But we know from mechanical principles

constant the motion
is

a be the angular acceleration. ( 181, 184) that if a/0 be angular simple harmonic motion of period

where

T=
__

Hence

2?r

//

a +

&)

Note that this experiment gives a means of measuring horizontal The apparatus consists of gilt pith balls connected electric fields. by a fine wire and suspended by a silk thread as in Figure 18. The field is proportional to the first power of the frequency ; and obviously the direction of the field is indicated by the direction of the line joining the balls when in equilibrium. Any elongated

conductor, such as a thick wire with rounded ends, will indicate the field in a similar manner but the mathematical theory is
;

more

difficult.

Fig. 18.

Ez. 7. Three small equal spheres of radius r have their centres at the corners of a triangle whose sides are a, b, c. Find the ratio of their charges that all may be at the
same
potential.

spheres of 1 cm. diameter are connected by a fine wire (of negligible capacity) so as to be 3 cm. apart. If they be originally uncharged and then put in a uniform electric field of unit strength, calculate the charge on each when the line joining their centres is in the direction of the field.
8.

Ez.

Two

35. Electric

C and

C'

Images. If two systems of charges would give the same potential at every point of

CHARGED CONDUCTORS.

29

G' together reversing every charge in C', then G and produce zero potential at every point of 8 and therefore Hence, within 8, G and ( 25) at every point within 8.
;

a finite closed surface 8, which contains no charge belonging to either of them, they also give the same potential at every point within S (Fig. 19). For let C' denote the distribution produced by

same potential. Similarly, if G and G' give the same potential at every point of a closed surface 8, outside of which no charge belonging to C and C' lies (Fig. 20), they give the same
G' give the

Fig. 19.

Fig. 20.

C' produce potential everywhere outside 8. For C and zero potential both over 8 and at infinity, and therefore at all points between ( 25). If two such distributions produce the same potential throughout an extended region of space, they also produce the same force or field ( 25). They can be called equivalent distributions for the region considered, and either is called the Image of the other. In the second case, the potential due to G and C' is zero everywhere outside 8. Hence the field outside 8 is also zero, and therefore the Surface Integral ( 19) is zero. is zero, thereConsequently the total charge of G fore the total charges of the equivalent systems C and G' are the same. This need not be true in the first case.

30

CHARGED CONDUCTORS.

36. Use of Electric Images. If a point charge Q be outside a hollow conductor, kept at zero potential, there will be induced an electric distribution on the conductor X. Let 8 be the surface of the conwhich we may call ductor (Fig. 21). Then its potential must be zero, therefore Q and produce the same potential everywhere on 8 and everywhere in its interior. By previous paragraph Q is the image of with respect to all inside points. If a point charge q be inside a hollow conductor kept at zero potential, let the charge induced on the inner surface

+Q

--r

Fig. 21.

Fig. 22.

be called

Y. Then q and are equivalent both for the inner surface and all points outside hence q is the image of Y for external points (Fig. 22). The total amount of
;

Y is

(35).

In both these cases a possibly complicated distribution X or Y has a simple image, namely a point charge Q or q.
37. Earthed Plane Conductor. A point charge Q put at A, in front of infinite plane CE at distance c. Drop AC perpendicular to the plane, and produce to B, so

is

that

AC = CB =
as in

If,
is

c (Fig. 23). 36, the induced distribution be called

equivalent to

at

X,

for all points behind the plane

" Earthed " means kept at zero potential. Although the potenthe earth is not precisely zero in the mathematical sense, nor even precisely constant, it is small enough to be taken as zero for most practical purposes. A good earth connection is a metallic connection to a moist stratum ; e.g. a water pipe.
*

tial of

CHARGED CONDUCTORS.
is also equivalent to Q at CE. By symmetry, points in front of the plane. At any point D, the potential is due to Q at A - X. If is in front, as drawn, this is equivalent to

31

for all

and

to

at

A and

Q at B.

Hence

the potential

= Q {I/AD l/BD}. In the same way, replacing Q at B, by the image

the field at
of
2

D is

the resultant
B(-Q)
Fig. 23.

Q/AD along AD produced and Q/BD 2 along DB. At E,

forces
,

AffQ)

quite close to the surface, the 2 2 Q/AE Q/BE are equal and equally inclined to CE. Their resultant is perpendicular to CE, as it should be ( 29). Its magnitude, got by resolving in the direction BA,

Q -AE

AC _

If o- be the surface density induced on the plane conductor at E, the outward field 47ro- ( Hence 19).

a-

= -

cQ/2ir

A E*.

Thus the induced

distribution has a density proportional to the inverse cube of the distance from A.

38.

Earthed Sphere.
Let a be

Charge Outside.

Fig. 24.

Then

and

the radius of the sphere, cenLet Q be a tre (Fig. 24). point charge at A at a distance A r,r > a. On A so that OA. take a point s az/r. a2 OB OB are inverse points with respect to the

=
;

sphere. If

be the induced distribution on the sphere,

at

32

CHARGED CONDUCTORS.

PA/PB =

A and X produce zero potential on and within the sphere, and Q is the image of X for all inside points. Take any point P on the sphere then by geometry

a constant r/a charge q at J5, a/s. together with Q a,t A, would produce at P the potential

QIAP - qBjP
In this case, q at zero if q is equivaQn/r. at everywhere on the surface of the sphere. And Q at for such points. is equivalent to Hence also q at is equivalent to for such points. is the image of Hence q at for all external points. And (35) the total amount of is equal to q therefore
winch
is

lent to

X X

the charge induced by- Qa/r.

+ Q

on the earthed sphere

is

The

X, which

potential at any outside point is the same as Q and q.

field at

is

due to

Its value is

Q and Q/DA

-q/DB.
The

be the resultant of Q/DA* along is along DB. The field at A due to qfAB~, hence the force exerted on Q is

D would

AD, and q/DB2

Qq/AB* =

Qql(r

But q

= aQ/r, hence the force

a*. = Q arl(r- 2

a2 ) 2

39. Induced Surface Density. The field at P is the Q/AP* along AP, qjPB* along PB. If be the normal, Tangential component of field
resultant of

OPN

= Q sin APN/AP* - q sin BPO/BP* Q ( sin APN mn_BPOl

.

~AP[
L

AP

~BP~

fc

'

J'

Q .. q ~AP-TJP'

But
OB-.OP = OP: OA,
.
.

APN=
.

180

AS O7?P, 07M are similar, - ,4P0 = 180 - 0#P = ,4 BP

.

and
r

\ sin

/ #P0 = PAB, J PN/A P = sin BPO/BP.

CHARGED CONDUCTORS.
Hence the tangential component
(

33
should be

is

zero, as it

29).

The normal component of field = Q cos APN/AP- + q cos BPO/BP* cos BPN Q (cosAPN ]

BP ) AP\ AP BP cos PBA + AP cos PAB Q AP PB AP .AB Q

.

AP* .PB'

~ButAB
field at

=r

=r

P is

a?/r,

PB = AP.

a/r.
is

Hence the

normal inwards, and its value Q (r - a*)/a. (AP)*.

If

o-

be the surface density, the

.-.
ff

field is 47r<r,

= - Q

(r

- a3
from

Hence

it

varies as the inverse cube of the distance

the inducing point.

4O. Insulated Sphere.

the point charge at A, and insulated sphere. If we construct as in at B, this
q

Charge Outside.

Let Q be be original charge on the

and imagine a charge q would be the image, for described space outside the sphere, of the distribution in Also Q is the image, for the space inside the 38. would produce sphere, of X. Consequently Q and zero potential throughout the interior of the sphere. is The total quantity of q so if the distribution were formed on the sphere there would be an extra charge This must produce constant potenq. tial (17 4- <?)/& within the sphere, and therefore is uniformly distributed, and acts outside the sphere like a -f q concentrated at 0. charge Now the actual charge distribution has to satisfy the two conditions that it maintains constant potential within the sphere and that its total Quantity is U. These condi-

38,

Qa/r

U+

M. PH.

i.

34
tions are satisfied

CHARGED CONDUCTORS.

distributed according to the law by previously found ( 39) and Z7-f- q distributed uniformly. Hence these form the image of the induced charge. Hence the resulting charge is made up of two parts,
(1) The original Z7, distributed uniformly, and equivaat the centre. lent (for external points) to a point charge distribution of zero quantity and equivalent (2) (for external points) to two equal and contrary charges q

and B. q located at such charges, equal, contrary, and separated by a Its Moment is finite distance, are called a Doublet. the product of either charge by the distance between. Hence the image of the distribution Z is the doublet and

Two

OB =

qa-/r

Qa^jr^.

41. Density on uncharged Insulated Sphere. Let us put U The normal field is as found in o. 39, with the addition of q/a? outwards, due to the image

charge q at 0.
a-

Hence the density is = - Q (r2 -a 2 )/47r. AP* +

_$
47T

q/^ira

(*-*

The
charge

force exerted

by an uncharged sphere on a point an attraction, = Qq/AB~ - Qq/OA= Q 2 ar/(r2 - a 2 2 - Q*a/i* = Q 2 a 3 (2r2 -a 2 2

is
)

a*)/r*(r*

This

is infinite

when

= a.
U
.

The force exerted by a sphere with charge is the re2 sultant of this attraction and the repulsion Q If r is U/r a, the resultant is an attraction even if Q and nearly have the same sign.

42.
Field.
infinite
is finite

Uncharged Insulated
Let the
charge
field

be F.

We can

Sphere

in
it

Uniform
due to an

suppose

and

= F.

at

an

infinite distance r,

so that Q/r 2

CHARGED CONDUCTORS.

35

moment

Then the induced distribution 3 Qa?/r* = Fa

.

is

due to the doublet of

Its length

OB = s = arjr

is,

of course, infinitely small,

and its charges q are infinitely great. The normal force at P due to the doublet is the limit of q/PO* inwards. If < BOP = 0, thus ultimately q/PB*
(a

2
s cos 0)-

4
a~

= ^cosfl, aa

neglecting

Put for q s its value, the above 2 cos 6. Hence the resultant normal force due both to the doublet and is 3 the inducing field cos 0, and the density is <T 3.Fcos0/4jr.

= F

43. Earthed Hollow Sphere.

the charge inside be -fthe induced distribution be called Y, the other letters being Then Q as in 38. and produce zero potential over the inner surface, therefore Q is the image of for all outside points,

at

Charge Inside.

at distance s (s

<

a),

Let and

and the
of

(Fig. 25). Fig. 25. q at P, Then q and Q produce the same r/a =. a/s. Therefore so do q potential at every point of the surface. and Y. Hence for all internal q is the image of points. Hence the field at anywhere within the hollow is the 2 2 resultant of Q ! along produced, and qtEB along EB. And the potential at is Q/EA q/EB,

Y is Q

total charge

Imagine where q/Q

EA

AE E

= Q{\/EA -

<!/*

Kll}.

The

field at

39, to

P just on the surface can be shown, as in a 2 ) a.AP3 be normal and to have the value q (>~

36
This

CHARGED CONDUCTORS.

=Q

afs, a?/s,

(a BP.a/s.

s?)/a.

BP

S
,

if

we

replace

q,

r,

AP

by

Hence the surface density - Q (a 2 - s 2 )/47ra.

is

The

resultant force on q at

B is,

as in

38,
.

= QqlAB- = Q 2

asKa*

2 2
)

44. Uniformly Electrified

Fig. 26
is
it

Bod

or Cylinder.

In

represents the axis. The field at any point, P, (by symmetry) radial and a function of OP only. Let a. Take be F. Let OP r, and radius of cylinder the surface integral over a cylinder coaxial with the given cylinder, of radius r and length h. Its curved surface is 2irrh, and the surface integral is 2-jrrhF since evidently there is no surface integral over the flat ends.

Consequently 2-TrrhF = 4?r x charge inside. If r > a, as in figure, let a = the surface density on the cylinder.

Then

2-irrhF

4?r

F =

2irah<r,

4ira<r/r.

More
is

shortly, 2Q/r, where the charge per unit length.

F=

If r were less than a, a cylin-

der of radius r would enclose no charge,

F=

0.

potential difference between two points outside at distances r and r can be shown, by calculus,

The

_f2Q

"V

The formula does not involve the radius a, and therefore holds for a thin rod as well as for a cylinder. figure (Fig. 26) is drawn to show equipotential lines for a set of potentials in arithmetical progression (cf. Fig. 6).

CHARGED CONDUCTORS.
45.

37

and 0' represent Parallel Cylinders. Let c. Let their radii be a and b, and let 00' The cylinders are not supposed to cut one another. If each be outside the other, c > a -J- b, as in Fig. 27. If one be inside the other, c < a ^ b (Fig. 28). The working is the same in both cases we confine ourselves to the first. Two points, A and B, on 00' can always be found, which are inverse with respect to both cylinders. That is,
their axes.

Two

OA OB = OB = a?/x,
.

a2 and O'A O'B - P. O'A =: c x, O'B = c

,
.

Put

OA

x,

then

a?/x,

and * can be

found from the quadratic equation,

V =

(c

x) (c

tf/x).

and

can be regarded as rods perpendicular to plane

of figure.

Imagine a charge of uniform line-density, Q, arranged Q along B. If P be any point on the along A, and first cylinder, the potential at

= 2Q{logP - logAP} = 2Q log (OB/0 A) = 2Q log

(a?/x*)

= 4#

log d/x.

In the same way the potential at Q on second cylinder - \ogAQ} = 2Qlog(0'B/0'A) = 4 Iog6/(c - x).

The

potentials over each cylinder are therefore constant,

is

and the potential difference

4^

log {(ac

a.r)//>.r}.

38

CHARGED CONDUCTORS.

Consequently, if two cylinders be kept at this difference and Y, on of potential, the induced electrifications, at all outside them will be such that the image of and for all is the distribution Q along the bar

points

Fig. 28.

Also the image of is inside points is Q along B. Q for outside points, Q along for inside points. along For this set of images will satisfy the conditions, namely, that the potential is constant over each cylinder, and that the P.D. is as required between the two cylinders.

46. Particular Cases. If one cylinder be of zero radius (i.e. a rod), 6=0, and we can take c o, a?/x x a2 /c. The potential difference is infinite. b. The If the cylinders be of the same radius, a 2 ex a2 o, giving the smaller quadratic reduces to a;

root x

=
+

(c

^c 2
(c

4a2 )/2.
x)/x

The
c

potential difference

is

4# log

= 4Q

log

4a2

If b be infinite, one cylinder

also
c
is infinite

= the

let c

= d where d

becomes a plane.
is finite.

Then

perpendicular distance from

is
(c

Evidently to the plane.

The quadratic
-

rf)2

2dc

d-

= (c - x) (c - a*/x) = - c (j + a-jx) -f a-.

CHARGED CONDUCTORS.
Divide by
c

and then put l/c = o x + (i'/x = 2d,

The

potential difference

log

a,

For

(c

#)/&

(d

x}jb

in limit.

47. Equipotentials and Lines of Force. If R be any point in the field of the two cylinders, or of their equivalent rods A and B, then the potential at R is Hence the equipotentials are such 2Q log {BR/AR}. surfaces as have BR/AR constant, that is, they are cylinders of the system coaxial with the original cylinders. The circles, RR', on which such cylinders stand all have a common radical axis and have a common pair of inverse and B. The lines of force are orthogonal to points and B, these coaxials, and therefore are circles through such as PRQ.

Ex. 1. Calculate the force with which a unit ve point charge at is attracted to an infinite earthed conducting plane at a distance of 2 cm. from the charge. Sh^w that the surface density induced at the point of the plane nearest to the charge is nearly '04.

ve point Ex. 2. Taking the case of Ex. 1, suppose a unit charge be placed at B, 2 cm. from the plane and 4 cm. from A. Show that the resultant force on A will make an angle of 45 with AB, and is smaller than before in ratio 1 *91.
:

Ex.

3.

If

both the charges at

positive charges, find in on each of them.

and B in Ex. 2 were unit magnitude and direction the force exerted

any number of point charges be before an earthed show that the surface density everywhere is the algebraic sum of the densities due to the point charges separately.

Ex. 4.

If

infinite plane,

Ex. 5. With the distributions of Ex. 2 and Ex. 3, calculate the density perpendicularly under A and B, and the middle point of
1

>

40
Ex.

CHARGED CONDUCTORS.

6. A is the centre of an earthed sphere of radius 5 em. If a unit 4- point charge be a point at distance 7 cm. from A put at B, calculate the surface densities at the two points where the straight line .4 B cuts the sphere. Calculate also the attraction between the sphere and the point charge.
is
.

Ex.
force

7.

AC = BA
Ex. 8. -f 1 and
if

If, in

Ex.

6,

a second unit

-f

and

is

in the

same straight
7,

line, calculate

charge be put at C where the resultant

on each point charge.

If,
1,

with figure as in Ex.

the charges at
is
:

show that the force exerted on either the sphere had been absent in the ratio 15 '9 1.
If the

and (7 are greater than

Ex. 6-8 had been insulated instead of earthed, but initially uncharged, calculate the difference in the results. Show that Ex. 8 is unaffected.

Ex. 9.

sphere whose centre

is

^4 in

of a unit 4- charge is at B, 3 cm. from the centre Ex. 1O. Show that spherical cavity in conducting material of radius 5 cm. it is repelled from the centre of the sphere with a force of 058 dyne. Find the surface densities at the ends of diameter AB.

Ex. 11. Calculate the Mutual Energy in the various cases of Ex. 1-10. It may be assumed that the mutual energy is minus one half the sum of the products QV formed by multiplying the actual charge Q This at each point of the tield by the potential* V at that point. Each potential is to be taken as due only to the agrees with 54. other charges in the tield, without counting that at the point considered.

be the image of ^4, the potential at .4 is that 1 &t A', and is 1/.4.4' = Hence the product %Q V far .4 is 1 8. The induced charge 1 is not actually on the image .4', but is spread over the earthed conductor whose potential is zero. Hence is zero for the induced charge, and the energy is 1/8. In Ex. 2 the potentials at .4 and B are - (4 - s *>) 8 and -f (4 - % A and the charges are 2)/8 hence 1(^1' = (4 - x '2)/8. Similarly in other cases. 4- 1 and - 1

Thus, in Ex.

1. if .4'

due to the image charge

%QV
;

CHAPTER

III.

INSULATING MEDIA.
48. Coulomb's

Law

in Insulating Media.
7) that

use absolute units, we have seen ( between two charges in air is given by

the

If we force

F=
If the

qi q,Jr\

same charges be surrounded by turpentine, or any other insulating medium, the law becomes

The constant k

is

called

the

Specific

Inductive

Capacity, the Dielectric Power, the Dielectric Constant, etc. It is greater than 1 in solids and liquids and many gases. For a vacuum, and gases at ordinary pressures, it is so nearly 1 that we can neglect the difference.

For turpentine, fc 2 nearly for pure water, k = 80. For many solids & is not constant, but depends on the time for which the solid has been in the electric field. Using the amended form of Coulomb's law we get, for
;

point charges,

when space

is filled

with a dielectric other

q/kr.

than

air,

F=
Internally,

q[kr\

V=
V= V=

For a uniformly charged sphere,

Externally,

F= F= F=

0,

Q/ka.
Q/kr.

Qjh'-

For a

disc uniformly charged

2ir<r/k.

And

similarly for other cases.

41

42

INSULATING MEDIA.

49. Lines of Force (Maxwell). Let a sphere of radius r be described about a point charge q in an insuIf r be small enough, we can neglect lating medium. other charges and take the field q/kr* anywhere on the sphere. Choose the Let lines of force be drawn as in 14, 15. number of unitary lines in such a way as to fulfil the connumber of lines per unit dition that the Resolved Field area then the number of lines issuing through the sphere

N = Area
The
lines are

x Field

3 =. 47rr

x q/kr-

4arq/k.

Maxwell Lines of Force ( 17) they indicate the field strength in the most helpful way, but have the disadvantage that the number proceeding from the charge q alters if q be moved from one medium to another.
;

50. Lines of Induction and Faraday Lines. Next, us choose our lines in such a way that the number issuing is 4*irq. The lines are then called Lines of Induction. They are related to a certain vector called the Induction in precisely the same way as the Maxwell Lines That is, the resolved induction are related to the Force. the number of lines of induction per in any direction unit area drawn perpendicular to that direction. The Induction due to a point charge q at distance r is q/r2 whatHence ever be the dielectric (supposed homogeneous). k x Field. the Induction Third, let the number issuing be q. The lines are now Faraday Lines. They are related to a vector called the Electric Displacement in the same way as lines of induclet

tion are to the Induction. Every Faraday line contains 4-ir lines of induction, and at every point the Displacement

Induction

-^- 4?r

Field x

kj4fir.

It is inconvenient having two vectors, Induction and Displacement, related to each other so closely and differing

only by a constant multiplier. Faraday Lines are most used in Electrostatics but in the corresponding work in Magnetism one employs lines of Induction exclusively. Also the constant k is often defined as the ratio
;

Induction

-r

Field.

INSULATING MEDIA.

43

Hence we have to know both definitions. We must even be prepared for confusion in text-books between
these quantities.

51. Boundary Conditions. Imagine a point charge surrounded by a concentric sphere of (say) turpentine of radius a, then by air. It must be taken for granted that the field in air at great distances C is independent of the turpentine, and therefore is q/R* hence there are qjR' lines of force per unit area of a large sphere of surface 4nrR2 that is 4<7rq lines in all. In air k =. 1, so there is no difference between force and induction. Hence the number of lines of induction in air is 4?r^, independent of
q,
;
-

the turpentine sphere

Now

4<Trq

lines of induction

and they radiate symmetrically originate from q in the

and these also radiate symmetrically. Hence we can infer that the lines of induction, reaching the turpentine-air surface, pass without altering their number from one medium to the other. At an uncharged boundary no lines of Induction stop or start. The same
turpentine,
is

true of Faraday Tubes.

l

52. Refraction of Lines. Let F and B be the field and induction in one medium then they are in the same direction* and B fc^. Let them make Z.<$> with the normal to a boundary. Let Fz B 2 k,, 2 refer to the medium. F on the other side of the boundary. Since the
v
l

<

lines of induction are continuous

the

= the number leaving it in the

B
l

number reaching
cos 0!

unit area in the

first

medium
cos
$.,.

second, hence
l

.5 2

cos

<f>.>

or k

cos 0,

k.,F.,

Another relation between the media is derived from the fact that no abrupt change takes place in the potential, f Hence the P.D. alters by the same amount for a small travel PQ, where P and Q are consecutive joints on the boundary, whether P and Q are regarded as points in the
*

are considering only isotropic dielectrics, t Compare, however, 69 and its footnote.

We

44
first

INSULATING MEDIA.

direction

Hence the field component in It follows that the the same for both. tangential components are equal, or
or second.

medium

PQ

is

F\ sin 0j
:

F.^

sin

<f>.^.

In words In crossing any uncharged boundary the normal component of the induction and the tangential component of the field are both unaltered. By division " tan r/tan z law of refraction." kjk,,, which is the
</> <j>

53. Condensers. Mathematically a condenser is an uncharged region occupied by a definite bundle of Faraday Tubes originating from one conducting surface and termiThese conductors are called the nating on another. Armatures. By the definition, the conductors must have
contrary charges each equal to the number of Faraday Tubes. Let these charges be Q, and let V be the potential difference (or P. D.) of the armatures, then the Capacity of the condenser is defined as equal to Q/V. Let an ordinary Ley den Jar be charged positively in the usual way, its outer tinfoil being earthed. Nearly all the lines originating from the charged inner tinfoil terminate on the outer tinfoil, and constitute a mathematical condenser according to the above condition. But a few lines usually stray to (say) the walls of the room, which may also be supposed at zero potential. These form, matheThe two ve coatings are matically, a second condenser. ve metallically connected, and the two coatings are at the same potential (zero), so these condensers are said to

be " in parallel."
54.

Energy of a Condenser.
two charges,

Let

K be
Let

its

Q
that

its

energy.
difference
its

Then

K = Q/V-, Q = KV.
KV,

V its

capacity,

potential difference,
its

and

its

undergo a very small increase 8V and its charges potential difference becomes become and its energy becomes W. The -f Q' increase of energy W; and the charges are

=V

potential V, so

8W =

numerically increased by

8Q

Q'

Q.

INSULATING MEDIA.

45

The
ve

alteration

-f charge 8Q other. But the

from one plate of the condenser

equivalent to transferring the small to the P.D. is F and, therefore, ultimately the
is

workdone
=

SW=

V.dQ

= KV8V.
F)

Now

- F 2 = (V - V)(V +

dV.

(V +

V),

which ultimately
for

= 2F5F;

we can take the change Hence ultimately

V
2

as small as
2
)

we

please.

5W=

%K(V' - F
increases

F=

gradually W increases at the same rate as J-K"F

;

Hence

as

from
.

zero

And

W =upward, when
Hence

for the condenser is then uncharged.

finally

Also

Q = KV,
therefore

we have

additional equations

55. Simplest Case. The simplest case is also the most important. The condenser consists of parallel plates of area opposed to one another, the distance apart is d and the specific inductive capacity is Tc. suppose d so small that all the lines from one plate reach the other the

We

lines of force

being parallel and uniformly distributed over the area. The charges are aQ and Q the surface densities

where

<r = Q/A (Fig. 29). The number of lines of induction

= 4vrQ,
Fig. 29.

.-.

B-

If the field be F, then

F = work
:.

done when force

acts

over distance d-=.Fd'

F=

V/d.

46

INSULATING MEDIA.

But

B = kF
.:4wQ/A = kV/d
.

'.

K=

Ql V (by def. )

= A k/4ird.

The capacity Note. depends on the medium and Jc x /. it varies as k capacity of a similar condenser in which the dielectric was air. This is why Jc is called can therefore define the Specific Inductive Capacity. Specific Inductive Capacity as the ratio of the capacity of a condenser in which the plates are separated by the given dielectric to the capacity of a condenser (otherwise identi;

We

cal) in

which the plates are separated by

of this simple condenser

air.

The Energy
But

QV.

B=
But Ad
is

4irQ/A,

andF =

V/d,

the volume of the condenser

. .

Energy per unit volume = BF/Sir.

56. Field

Energy in General Case.

;

electric field whatsoever.

surfaces can be drawn ting them at right angles. on an equipotential so small that it can Take an area be regarded as ultimately plane the lines of force through A determine a corresponding area A' on a consecutive The potential difference is supposed so equipotential. and at small tha.t A' is ultimately equal and parallel to a small distance from it. The field between these areas is the same as if the two equipotential surfaces were conductors suitably charged, so as to give rise to the same number of lines of force. Hence the energy per unit volume at any point of the electric field is the same as it would be in such a condenser. It therefore

Consider any In it a series of equipotential and a series of lines of force cut-

Ex. 1. On a very large plane conductor rest successively three layers of dielectric of small thicknesses d lt d 2 , d 3 and specific

INSULATING MEDIA.
inductive capacities k lt fa, k 3 and then another plane conductor. If A be area of the opposed conductors and V the difference of potential of the plates, find the charges (Fig. 30).
;

Let
area

4-jrQ

opposing charges.

= 4irQjA.

be the number of lines of induction, so that Q are the The induction number of lines per unit

B=

Hence the fields in the three media are successively 4wQ/Ak lt Then V= work done by unit charge travelling 4irQ/Ak*, 4:TrQ/Ak 3 distances a,, a2 a3 under these three fields,
. ,

v_
whence

'

Q
2.

is

found.

metal sphere of radius a is in air, and enclosed in a concentric spherical shell of specific inductive capacity k and radii b internal and c external. Outside all is an earthed metal sphere

Ex.

Fig. 30.
of radius d (internal). sphere, find the field
If

Fig. 31.

be the charge given to the inner metal

and potential at every distance r from the

centre (Fig. 31).

be potentials at distances a, b, c, d. The number Let A, J?, C, hence of lines of induction radiating from inner sphere = 4irQ the induction at distance r = the number of lines per unit area
;

47r#/47rr = Q/r*. Where k = 1, i.e. from r = a to r = b and r = c to r = d = force or field. Hence the work done on unit charge travelQ/r' l from r = a to r = b is Q ( -~] .\ A - B = Q/a - Q/b. ling U / \ - D = Qfc - Q,d, Similarly C = b to r = c, the field = Q/kr~. Hence Where k *f 1, from r
J

(t

B-C= Q/kb -

Q/kc.
is

The outer sphere

Hence, adding,

earthed,

.*.

1)

0.

48
If

INSULATING MEDIA.

V be

the potential at any distance

r,

V= Q

i.

-I

if

lies

between

and d
and

a and

If there

putting d

were no external metal sphere,

x>,
.*.

this is equivalent to

^ =
If there

fl_i (.a 6

kb

kc

+!}. c
)

were no

dielectric shell, this is equivalent to putting b

= c,

tinfoil

3. Find the capacity of a condenser formed of two sheets of each of area 25 sq. cm., the dielectric being mica of thickness 1/10 mm. and specific inductive capacity 7.

Ex.

Ex. 4. Find the capacity of a Faraday condenser formed of concentric spheres of radius 10 and 10'5, the dielectric being vaseline
(k

2-2).

Ex. 5. Assuming the result of 44, show that the capacity, per unit length, of a condenser formed of two long coaxial cylindrical surfaces, separated by a dielectric, is k/2 log (b/a) ; where b and a are the radii. Calculate the capacity if k = 2, length = 20, ?> = I'l,
a

1.

Ex.
be

6.

radii,

kS/^Trx,

If I be the length of a cylindrical condenser, a and a + x show that if (x/a)- can be neglected the capacity is where S is the mean of the areas of the bounding cylinders.

Ex.

7.

parallel cylinders.

Find the capacity, per unit length, of two very long (Use 45.)

Ex. 8. Show the capacity per mile of a telegraph wire of radius 1/8 inch, carried at a uniform height of 20 feet above the earth's surface, is nearly 15,800.
[From 46 we can deduce the approximate formula, capacity per unit length = 1/2 log (2hjr), where h and r are the height and radius, and the logarithm is to base e.~\

INSULATING MEDIA.

49

57. Joining np of Condensers. A set of condensers is if their positive plates be connected and also their negative plates (Fig. 32). Thus all have the same potential
in parallel

difference V,

and
I

if

their capacities are

K v K^
3

their

changes are

Q = K,V,
If

Q,

r,

Q,

A
A,

r,

be the total charge,

Q =
/.

Qi

+ Qz +
V=

(Ki

)!'.

The capacity K=

of the combination is

K +

K,

K +

...

set of condensers is in series when the negative plate of each is connected to the positive plate of the next (Fig. If they be initially uncharged, and Q be given to 33).

Earth
Fig. 32.

*fr

"SfSSfSfWMSffffsmsMMih
Fig. 33.

-f v plate of first condenser, then tive plate, and goes to the

Q appears on
-f Te

its

nega-

+ Q

plate of the second

condenser.

Thus Q is numerically the charge of every condenser of the series, and the successive potential differences are Q/K lt
If

be the total potential difference between the

first

and
then

last plate,

and

K the resultant capacity,

0(1.''*!

V=

$A

+ % + A + ...= K2 3
=
-l

I/A',

...),

4 A
Ex.
and
(b)

+ - - + 4- + A3 Ao
1

1. Three Leyclen Jars of unit capacity are put (a) in series In case (a), total in parallel, and charged to potential ]'. = 1 1 1 1 = 3 ; .'. in (6) 1 1, .'. A' capacity is AC = 1 2 is 3T-/2 and V I6 in the two cases. The . 2, 1/3.

energy
I.

+ AH,

A= + +

M. PH.

60
If,

INSULATING MEDIA.

instead of being charged to same potential, the same charge been given to each system, the K's would be as beforehand the energies = Q-/2V &nd .'. = F"2 /6 and 3F2 /2 in the two cases.

Q had

Ex. 2. Two equal condensers are charged in parallel. They are then disconnected and placed in series. Show that the energy is unaltered, the potential difference doubled, and the available
charge halved.

Ex. 3. Two condensers of unequal capacity a and b are charged in parallel to potential F. They are then placed in series. The energy is unaltered and potential difference doubled. If the extreme plates are connected, show that the system retains charges + ( a _ b)V, and has energy F2 (a - b)~l(a + 6).

Capacities of Simple Bodies. A positively charged conductor in empty space can be regarded as the origin of a set of lines of induction which proceed to zero In practice, the lines proceed to the potential at infinity. walls of the room, which can be treated as an earthed
58.

conductor of zero potential.

The case

of a

negatively

charged conductor is similar. Thus a conductor can usually be treated as one of two plates of a condenser the other plate being at infinity or
;

earthed.

The P.D. of this condenser is the potential of the conductor. The opposed charges are equal to the charge Q on the conductor. Hence the capacity Charge i Potential Q/F; and the energy Q?/2K

K=

QV

may add

its radius ( 33). e.g., has capacity the information that the capacity of a flat circular disc of radius c, charged both sides, is 2c/7r.

sphere,

We

59. JEphms Condenser. Two flat circular plates of radius c are separated by a narrow air space of width d. One is charged, the other earthed. Find the capacity.
2 not too large. Since A c /4<i TTC\ .'. K, The back of the charged plate forms with the walls of room a condenser of capacity z nearly C/TT. The condensers are in parallel, hence the total capacity c z/4<d -f C/TT

The space between has capacity

55)
if

nearly

is

=A =

'4<n-d

nearly.

INSULATING MEDIA,

51

60. Forces acting on an element of Conducting Surface. A rectangle of sides a and 6 is separated by a small distance d from an infinite conducting plate, to which it is parallel. Its charge
is

Q.

To

find the force exerted

on the rectangle perpendicular to the plate, and the force exerted on each edge of the
rectangle parallel to the plate (Fig. 34). The capacity is Ak/4nrd 55) ( abk/4f>rd. The energy is If d increases by Sd, increases

7
^

&/

K=

_ __ _
a
d{

b"/

/~7

*-*

Fig. 34.

E = Q /2K = 2ird Q jabk.

2
2

by 8E where

5E =
If

ZwQ-ddlabk.

be the force needed to pull the plate outwards, the work done in the displacement is X8d.
Hence
Since

X=
Q = A' =

dE/Sd = 2irQ~/abk. KjJT ^tibk/lirdf, we also have

kV*ab/8ird
z
.

The
V/d

force per unit area = X/ab = = F, this = kF*/&7r = BFiSTr, and

if

kV 2 /8vd
is

2
.

Since

a tension.

Next,

b alters to b

Sb,

=
ak

\b +

___
db
b j

= _
db-k

ultimately. If be the force acting

on the edge

a,

8E= T8b,

"abW

This force can be regarded as acting on the area ad. Hence the force per unit area

= YJad = as before, and therefore is a pressure. The forces are therefore the same as if the tension along the lines of force is BF/S^ per unit area, and the

52

INSULATING MEDIA.

pressure in every direction perpendicular to the lines of force is also SF/S-n- per unit area.

Example.
and

The connected metallically, whose distance apart is d. difference of potential between the plate and the connected plates
V. Show that there is a force F'z / 2ird acting on every centimetre length of the edge of the plate (Fig. 35). The field between the free plate and either connected plate is Vfed hence u B = = 2V'jd. The force per unit Fig- 35. area over each space A or C is therefore F/8ir = V*/2-7rd~. But the area of A and C together, per cm. length of the edge, is d ; hence the force per unit length is V~/'2ird.
is
(

FD

A plate

is

midway between two

parallel plates

EB

61. Absolute Electrometer. The absolute electrometer measures V by finding the attractive force exerted on an area A by a larger plate charged to a potential difference V. This force (by AV2/87rd?, the 60) dielectric being air. The force is measured by weights, and d can be adjusted by a screw. Other electrometers

of

same type estimate the The actual construction

read from

force by springs. of the instruments should be descriptive text-books.

Example. The movable plate is a circle of 3 cm. radius. The distance between the plates is always 2 mm., exactly, when a reading is taken. Find the P.D. in absolute units when theattraction is 1 gm. wt. The force in dynes = A V2 /8ird 2 and 1 gm. wt. =981 dynes. Hence QTT. V*/8ir x ('2) 2 = 98 -1, V~ = 3 '488, V = 1'87.
,

62. Quadrant Electrometer. The fixed parts form a conducting (brass) cylindrical box ABAB cut into four Two opposite quadrants AA are quadrants (Fig. 36). electrically connected and therefore at the same potential The F, the other two are connected, and at potential F2 moving part is a lamina of form shown dotted in figure, suspended at by a torsion fibre so as to hang and turn Let its potential be F; and its distance horizontally. from top or bottom surface be d, supposed uniform.
.

INSULATING MEDIA.

53

The

force per unit length

is

quadrants A,

(F
2

on the edges OC, within the 60. The V^/Zird as in Ex. to

sum sum
The

of

moments

of these forces
fibre is a certain

about the torsion

multiple of
of

(F-

moments

and the F,) for the edges

;
.

OD, within the quadrants B, is F2 ) 2 the same multiple of ( F

total

moment

is

C\(V- Vtf = C{(V{(Vwhere

be

-(F- F
f-

2 )}

(F- F2 )}
F!

(2F-

- F2

is

constant.

LO, where L is 0, this couple constant for the suspension, or nearly so. is not large, Hence, at least where

nearly, but not quite, If the angle of torsion

Fig. 36.

ue

where

Z7 is

a constant for the instrument.

63. Idiostatic

meter.
if

and Heterostatic use of ElectroThe quadrant electrometer is used heterostatically

F is

the three potentials F, F,, F,, are all different. large and constant, and v F2 small.

Usually

ar

F,

- F2

nearly

or 9

F - F2
t

),

and one compares potential

deflection produced.

giving a
A.

known
l

0/(V

stant for a of experiments, until it is thought necessary to test its value again by the standard cell. The electrometer is used idiostatically if the moving part or "needle" be connected to a pair of quadrants B.

F,). series

differences by the angular standard cell or battery is used, then the observed 6 gives us 2 The quantity A. is then regarded as con-

A F

Then

F= F

2,

hence
oc

(F-

Fj)

2
,

so that the angle varies as the square of the P. I).

54
Ex.
1.

INSULATING MEDIA.
It is

found that a quadrant electrometer turned 20

divisions

When

idiostatically connected to a P.D. of 50 volts.* used heterostatically its quadrants were connected to 1*5 volts and the turn was 15 divisions. What was the potential of the

when

needle

Evidently

it

V be

the potential required

,

20*7= |50 2 15U =

whence

V. 1'5,

V=

625.

Ex. 2. Show that if the space between the plates of an absolute electrometer, or within the quadrants of a quadrant electrometer, were occupied by turpentine (k = 2), the force would be double for the same potential difference. Ex. 3. It is observed that a quadrant electrometer deflects 20 divisions for 1 '44 volts (or 1 '44/300 absolute units of potential). If the quadrants be connected to the plates of a standard condenser of capacity 1,000cm., find what charge given to the condenser is The instrument is used indicated by a deflection of one division.
heterostatically.

Ex. 4. The deflection is 14 when the quadrants are connected to the charged standard condenser of capacity 1,000. It falls to 11 5 when a Leyden jar is connected in parallel with the condenser. Find the capacity of the jar.
-

* For the definition of the volt see later. 1/300 absolute units of Potential.

It can be regarded as

CHAPTER

IV.

MISCELLANEOUS ELECTROSTATIC PHENOMENA.

64. Electroscopes. If two gilt pith balls are suspended side by side by equal parallel cords and then charged, they will repel each other to a distance roughly proportional to the (charge) 2 / 3 (see If the'balls are charged 7, Ex. 2). by contact with a conductor they are charged to the of the conductor, and if is the capacity of potential

the balls, the charge imparted is KV. Since ximately equal to the sum of the radii of the balls,
stant
;

K is approit is

con-

Thus

. deflection of the balls oc the pith ball electroscope really measures Potential.

and therefore the

F2/3

In the Gold Leaf Electroscope there are two equal gold leaves hanging close together from a metal support which connects them to a brass ball or disc. The support is well insulated, and the leaves are protected by a glass bottle

from draughts, etc. Here again the deflection oc F 2/3 , where F is the common potential of the leaves, i.e. the Common instruments potential to which the disc is raised.
volts, see

should make a potential of one electrostatic unit (i.e. 300 103) quite obvious, and detect one tenth of this.

65. Condensing Electroscope. Let a thin plate of mica be laid on the disc of the electroscope and a brass plate (provided with an insulating handle) laid on this. The combination forms a Condensing Electroscope. The plates and the mica constitute a condenser of large capacity K'. If its plates be connected to the two terminals of an accumulator, they will be charged to its very small P.D.
;

55

56
call

MISCELLANEOUS ELECTROSTATIC PHENOMENA.

The charge on each plate is K'v. When the it v. terminals and then the top plate are removed, the disc and leaves retain the charge K'v, but their capacity is now the Hence the of the instrument. ordinarv capacity
K'v/K, and it should be quite large potential is are led to infer that accumuenough to be detected. lators and galvanic batteries generally have their terminals These differences are commercially at different potentials. 1 electrostatic unit. measured in Volts, where 300 volts

V=

We

An electroscope situated in infinite space would measure P.D. above or below the absolute zero of potential, i.e. the potential An electroscope at an infinite distance from all attracting bodies. situated within a hollow conductor measures the P.D. above or below the potential of the conductor. A room in a laboratory can be regarded as an earthed conductor, so electroscopes measure But the room is not an ideal potential referred to the earth as zero. earthed conductor if electrical experiments are proceeding therein hence when real accuracy is wanted one should use an electroscope with a metal case, or a surrounding wire cage, connected to a good earth contact such as a water pipe.
;

A hollow conductor* stands on the disc of an electroscope. 1. proof ball (i.e. a metal ball insulated by being carried on the end of a vulcanite rod) is charged to potential V, and then held within Describe what happens. the conductor, and ultimately touches it. Assume the ball charged + vel y. As it approaches it raises the potential of the system consisting of the hollow conductor, and the gold leaves. When it is completely within the conductor, the Thus the gold leaves diverge potential of the latter ceases to alter. Their gradually, reaching a maximum when the ball is inside. divergence measures the repelled induced charge, which is equal to on the ball, and of the same sign. The contact completely the charge discharges the ball and neutralises the attracted induced charge ; it The total effect is therefore does not alter the deflection at all. that the original charge on the ball is transferred entirely to the
Ex.

conductor and electroscope.

Ex. 2. The experiment commences as before, Ex. 1. But when the ball is well inside, the pail is earthed for an instant, then the
ball is

withdrawn.

leaves diverge to a maximum as before. The earthing reduces the }K)tential of the pail and leaves to zero, and the leaves collapse. The repelled induced charge is removed, and the attracted induced

What happens?

The

For shortness we

call it a Pail.

Ice pails were used

by Faraday.

MISCELLANEOUS ELECTROSTATIC PHENOMENA.

57

charge completely masks the effect of the ball at all external When the ball is withdrawn, this attracted charge goes to points. the outside of the pail and spreads to the leaves. The charge on the pail and electroscope is equal and contrary to the original charge on the ball and the divergence now ought to be equal to the orginal
;

divergence.

Ex. 3. The ball is charged to potential F, and its charge is given completely to the instrument, as in Ex. 1, producing a divergence of 10 scale divisions. It is again charged to the same potential V and is again inserted and made to touch the inside of the pail. What divergence would one expect ? How many such contacts would produce a divergence of 40 divisions ? However great a charge the pail may have, this resides wholly on its outer surface ; and does not affect the process of giving an additional charge equal to that of the ball. Consequently two contacts give double the charge. Now the deflection (if not too large) a (charge) ~ 3 If therefore be the deflection when the charge is doubled,
.

0/10
If

2 2 /3

15-9.

n contacts give a deflection

4.

40, 40/10

?r /3 n
,

3 ~

8.

48 units. It is left Ex. for an hour and then, owing to leakage across the insulation, its deflection is found to be 36. What will the deflection be in another
deflection of a

The

Galvanometer

is

hour

portional to the P.D. and 189 given in

;

a conductor leaks to earth, the rate of leakage is proThe mathematical theory of such leakage is it is there shown that the logarithm of V 3 2 hence log V = condiminishes at a constant rate. Now V ot So if log V diminishes uniformly, log 6 does so stant + | log 6. If the final deflection be 0, also.
,

W hen
T

log 48

||

log 36

log 36

log

0,

36/0 ;.-.*

27.

Ex. 5. --An ^pinus Condenser ( 55, the dielectric being air) has one plate earthed and the other connected to an electroscope. It the plates are moved, find the theoretical connection between d and when d is small. The charge is constant and the capacity * But V <x 3/2 hence c^/03 is constant.
,

1/rf,

hence

I*

d.

Ex.
filled

6.

The space between the

condenser plates of the above

is

is

with a liquid whose

alter?
oc
fr,

specific inductive capacity

does

Capacity
case
is

/.

l/k.
"

But V
or
'63.

03-2

.-.

tfx

' 3
/; .

In this

multiplied by 2

2 3

'

58

MISCELLANEOUS ELECTROSTATIC PHENOMENA.

Ex. 7. The deflection is 40 when the gold leaves are connected to a charged Leyden Jar. The jar is made to share its charge with an identical jar which is afterwards discharged. The operation is of the deflections repeated as often as desired. Give an estimate
;

after successive operations.

Each operation halves the potential and multiplies the deflection 2/3 The deflections are roughly 40, 25, 16, 10, or '63 nearly. by 2~
6-3, 4, 2-5,
. . . .

66. Surface Films. Eesearches on Capillarity have established the fact that when two different media are in contact there is no absolutely abrupt transition, across a bounding surface of no appreciable thickness, from the properties of one to those of the
A

Vapour
Water
Fig. 37.

A'

other.

There

is

always an interme-

Intermediate Stales

diate region, called a Surface Film, within whi(jh the properties alter by
degrees.

The simplest case

is

where

water at 15 (say) is in contact with its saturated vapour, no other sub-

stance being present. Assuming the boundary horizontal, we have a plane AA' (Fig. 37) below which there is ordi1. nary water, all in the same state, of density nearly have also a plane BB' above which there is only water vapour, whose density (for saturation at 15) is nearly 000013. Between these we have water matter of densities taking all values from 1 to '000013 as we pass from AA' to BB'. The thickness of the film, from to BB', has been investigated. No great precision is possible, but the

We

AA

distance

is

of the order of 10

~6

cm.
;

where two liquids meet say water rests on mercury. Here again we have a surface film. Taking the same figure as before, we could say there is pure mercury below A A, pure water above BB', and the mercury density alters between and BB' from its full value to zero the water density altering at the same time from zero to 1.
is

more complicated case

AA

67. Intrinsic
sidered, of water

Pressure. In the case, above conand vapour, the pressure above BB in

1

MISCELLANEOUS ELECTROSTATIC PHENOMENA.

59
;

the vapour is quite small. In the liquid it is enormous the largest estimate (Dupre) being 25000 atmospheres! The difference is called the Intrinsic It is instructive to conpressure. sider why this large quantity is not readily detected by experiment. Let A, B, C be three liquids in a re-entrant glass tube (Fig. 38) whose axis is horizontal, so that we may
neglect pressure effects due to gravity. When equilibrium, is attained, the pressure throughout each liquid is constant call them Also, A B C
;

P P P
, ,

Fig. 38.

and meet, the difference of pressure at opposite sides of the surface film is the contact pressure difference of and call it I Hence ;
where

Similarly
'.

7BC =
/AB

PB
/BC

Pc

/CA
0.

Pc

PA

+ A* =

is a relation which holds between the intrinsic pressures for any three substances capable of resting toIf C be vacuum, we can put gether in equilibrium. / I J 0, so that (e.g.} The intrinsic pressure

This

AB

the differdifference of water and mercury in contact ence of intrinsic pressures of water and of mercury. This relation makes it impossible to detect intrinsic pressure by a mercury pressure gauge.

68. Contact Electrification. The above seems to have no direct bearing on Electricity. It is inserted because it is closely analogous to another phenomenon quite
different.

When

two
is

substances
(Fig. 37),

A A'

potential

different at the

are in contact, the electrical two sides of the surface film

and BB'

and has continuously varying

values for intermediate points.

60

MISCELLANEOUS ELECTROSTATIC PHENOMENA.

We cannot now discuss the cause of the difference.

A,B,C
And
,

Let

(Fig. 38) be three conductors, e.g. metallic wires, joined in a re-entrant series. If there be equilibrium, the potential in each one is constant; call them A B C

P P P
,

the potential difference across the surface films

,

may

be denoted by IAB
^AB
7

etc.,

where

~~

P A _ PB
-*

7 'BC

P ~ JP B _ F C>
7BC

7 *CK
0.

"Mfl

p _ PA*

Hence

7AB

7CA =

Note that this equation is not proved for three bodies in equilibrium if one of them, say C, is an insulator. For an insulator can be in equilibrium when the potential within The equation holds for three metallic it is not constant. conductors at the same temperature. For many nonmetallic conducting circuits, or metals, if the temperature be not uniform, electric equilibrium does not exist, and the equation fails.
69. Apparent and Heal Contact Potential Difference. Let JA be the intrinsic potential difference between a metal A and the air just in contact with it, but separated from it by the surface film. If PA be the potential of the metal, and FA of the air, then PA = FA + 7A FB -f IB Similarly for another metal B, PB 28 we provisionally regarded the potential of a In conductor as that of air in contact with it.* So, with this convention, the potentials of A and B would be FA and FB and the potential difference is FAB FA FB The
.

true potential difference

is,

of course,
)

PAB
)

PA

BB

Hence

FAB = P AB + <FA - P A - (FB - PB = PAB - 7A + 7B

Similarly for other substances

^BC

and

C,
.

Pc

Adding,

7C + 7A FBC + FCA + FAB = P BC + PCA + PAB

'B
/c
,

FCA = PCA -

For metals both

*

sides of the equation are zero.

way.

the potential of an insulator in the same result there deduced would be unaffected by a constant intrinsic potential difference.

In

52

we regarded

The

MISCELLANEOUS ELECTROSTATIC PHENOMENA.

Cl

The distinction between A and A has been overlooked until quite recently. Volta supposed the potential difference of zinc and copper to be fairly large, nearly a volt and Ayrton and Perry by careful experiments established it as '73 volt. Their researches were really on the apparent
;

Potential Differences, It is generally supposed that AB ~ for copper and zinc is about 10 6 volts. This is calculated from thermal effects (as in If the 241). validity of the method be not admitted, it becomes impossible to fix any one contact P.D. with certainty. few of Ayrton and Perry's results are given below.
.

PAB

The contact P.D.'s are given for carbon and certain metals. The contact P.D. of two metals is the difference of their P.D.'s with carbon. Thus the P.D. of Zn and Cu is 1 096 - "370 = '72(5.
Carbon
is

electropositive to the metals named.

Copper

. . .

62

MISCELLANEOUS ELECTROSTATIC PHENOMENA.

is usually so bad a conductor that both sides of it retain their charges. But these charges are no longer on the plates of a condenser of high capacity, hence the separated insulators

a very large P.D. This explains what is miscalled by Friction; for the rubbing is only to ensure close contact over all parts of the surface successively. Conductors are not capable of being raised to so high a P.D. on separation. As the bodies are drawn apart, the separated charges flow to the parts still in contact, and when separation is completed the charges are only as great as if the contact had been over a minute area. The capacity of the opposed surfaces is very small as separation ends.

now have

Electrification

air

71. Electrification by Splashing. Pure water and have a contact P.D., the water being positive. If a water drop falls and splashes, the film is first extended and then torn apart. The water spray is positively electrified, the air around is negative. Negative potential is observable* around waterfalls, but -f Te in the actual spray. Curiously, salt water has opposite properties the air near ve the sea is -f ve and the spray
:

72.

Electrophorus.

Typically
parts.

this

consists

of

two

One is an ebonite disc mounted on a brass plate 8

;

called the sole the other is a circular brass plate P, furnished

with a knob, and mounted on an insulating handle of varnished glass. The sole is to be always kept

Fig. 39.

friction with catskiu.

is

The

at zero potential by being metallically connected to earth. The disc is electrified negatively to a high potential by
plate' is
;

true contact at very few points space lies between T) and P.

*

then laid on it. There effectively a narrow air

81.

Ky method

explained later,

MISCELLANEOUS ELECTROSTATIC PHENOMENA.

63

Let A be the area, and a the radius, of P. Let d and t be thicknesses of air space and vulcanite. Let Q (negative) be the charge on the disc. A positive and negative charge, -j- q and q, will be induced on lower and upper forces of the disc. The plate is now earthed for an instant enough positive electricity will flow from earth to neutralise q and raise the positive charge on P to the larger value q'. P is now lifted by the handle H, used in experiments which require a positively
:

charged conductor.

We have

73. Charges on Electrophorns before Earthing.

to consider three electric fields (or condensers), traversed by different sets of Faraday tubes. Neglecting which is not covered by P, there is that part of First, the condenser formed between the rubbed surface of the vulcanite and the sole. Its capacity Ak/4?7rt, But if k be the specific inductive capacity of ebonite. 2 2 ?ra therefore A fc& /4. l Its Second, between the rubbed surface and the plate.

K =
l

K =
=

A/4ard a~/4d. capacity K^ and the walls of the room. Third, between the top of Its capacity can be taken as half that of a disc in 3 empty space, and therefore as a/ir. It is evident that K^

is

is much larger than 2 very small, and usually Q be the charge on "the area A of disc, there are altogether Q Faraday tubes in condensers K^ and 1T2 say q has a from the plate and Q q from the table. Hence
.
}

If

(Q - g)/Kr The sole is earthed, potential difference V. therefore the top of the vulcanite is at potential Since q is the -f- ve charge on the under side of the plate, is is the on the side, and -f
q negative charge upper q the charge induced thereby on the walls of the room. Hence the condensers J5"2 and 3 each has q Faraday tubes and their potential differences are qlK^ q/Ky But the walls of the room can be assumed at zero potential, therefore q/Kt ) is (q/K3 q/K3 is the potential of P, and that of the rubbed surface.

V=

Hence

= Q

q -'-.

Q _ -

l
.

64

MISCELLANEOUS ELECTROSTATIC PHENOMENA.

Plate.
field

74. Earthing the Faraday tubes in the

This

destroys

all

the

I/KS

= o.
q'.

and

The fields in The potential

K
-

K^
and

K
1\

and
2

practically can be called

makes

q'

differences

are

equal,

say

V,

therefore

V=
q'

(Q

q')/K,

q'/K,,

-tfjUi
q'
-K"3

//I

AV'

which proves, of course, that

>

q-

As approximations,
paragraph)
Hence
is

in the expression for q (last very small indeed, so l/K and \IK are
l

negligible in comparison with

q/Q

Ex. 1. If the plate has a radius of 10 cm. and thickness 1 cm., and the air him be '05 cm., find A",, K^ The specific 2 inductive capacity of ebonite may be taken as 3. Find also q and in terms of Q. q'

Here and

K = kaz /4t =
l

75

z KZ = a /4d = 500

ajir

S nearly.

And
Ex. 2. The plate ebonite, but held above
disc.

?'

_ "

500

Q
of
it

_ 575"

20
23'

an electrophorus is not laid on the at a distance equal to the thickness of the

Find

Here
A',//T 8

q'/Q.

and

are condensers of the

k/l.

Hence q'/Q

= KJ(K, +

same dimensions, hence

2)

l/(l

k).

If

3,

75. Sparks. Two large parallel metal plates,* just convex enough to localise the electric discharge, are kept at a constant P.D. and gradually approached. At a
certain
*

distance,

centimetres,
is less

a spark passes.

The

The sparking distance

for spherical

knobs of small radius.

MISCELLANEOUS ELECTEOSTATIC PHENOMENA.

relation

65

of and a; (in electrostatic units, implied in 10) deduced by Chrystal from Leibig's experiments is 4-9997 99'593a; in dry air, which gives, in round 100*. numbers,

F=

F=5 + The field F = V/x = 100 +

The surface density
(

S/x.
is

one spark has passed a second passes much more readily, and sparking continues if the plates are drawn further apart. Each spark makes a trackin the air of much diminished resistance. An Arc is a region rendered so conducting by the previous passage of electricity that it continues to allow the electric current to pass. The arc is formed by bringing its terminals so near that sparking begins, then, when the interspace becomes a conductor, drawing them apart Here the conductivity is mainly due to high gradually. temperature, for the atoms of a gas which has been dissociated by intense heat can carry electric charges. But the conductivity caused by small intermittent sparks is due to carriers whose nature is not well known but which are more complex than the normal gaseous molecule.
is

not very small.

When

29)

F/4ar

= nearly

8,

when x

76. Electric Wind. If the density on a conductor be greater than about 8 units, then, even if no conductor be near enough, it seems possible that a minute spark would travel to any minute carrier that was suitably near. The spark would manufacture other carriers. Thus carriers

would be continuously produced, and then charged like the conductor and repelled. They would not attain a great velocity, being hampered by frequent collisions with gaseous molecules but they would eventually set the air in motion and produce a perceptible current. This is the most likely explanation of the electric wind originating from projecting points on a conductor, and of the luminous brush discharge. We regard the mathe;

matical theory of discharges as quite outside the scope of this book, but those who desire information should study J. J. Thomson, Conduction of Electricity through Gat?*. content ourselves with the approximate statements (which in exceptional circumstances are very

We

M, PH.

j.

66

MISCELLANEOUS ELECTROSTATIC PHENOMENA.

iiideed) that the sparking distance is about 1 cm. per 100 electrostatic units of PJ). (or 30,000 volts, 65) and

that a brush discharge takes place about 8 units per square cm.

if

the density exceeds

Ex. 1. A small Ley den Jar of capacity 10 is being charged gradually by any kind of electric machine. Its knob is J cm. from the knob of a large jar. Show that the charge given to the large jar is nearly proportional to the number of sparks that pass. Let k be capacities of small and large jars, and V = P.D. needed for a spark. When Fis reached, the spark formed is (for the instant) so good a 'conductor that both jars are brought to same potential. If charge q passes, the potential of the large jar rises by q/K and that of the small one falls by qjk, hence
q/k

q/K =

V.
is

Hence the charge q given by each spark

very much larger than
k,

constant.

If

K
=

is

we have
q

nearly

kV.
10,

As an approximation we have
therefore q

550.

This
is

is

5 + 100 x '5 55, and k the principle of Lane's Unit Jar.

V=

Ex.
1

2.

What =

the P.D. of the terminals of a Ruhmkorff

?

coil giving

= 260 2-54 c.m. By formula, But since a much nearly. Changing to volts we get 78,000. smaller P.D. will maintain a series of sparks than will create a new spark, and since the sparking terminals are not flat plates, the actual P.D. is less. The usual estimate is about 40,000 volts per
inch

an inch spark

7=5+100x2*54

inch.

small jar, gradually charged by a machine, sparks at Ex. 3. intervals to a large jar whose knob is at a distance \ cm. Assum=5 100 x, find the capacity of the small jar so that every ing spark may carry 1,000 units of charge.

77. Properties of Sparks. A spark is an exceedingly narrow column of incandescent gas. Although only a small proportion of the energy of discharge of a Leyden Jar appears in the spark, the local heating is enormous. The air traversed is largely ionised (see Chap. V.), and becomes temporarily a good conductor. Its volume increases with such rapidity as to produce an explosive increase of
pressure this produces the shattering effect when lightning strikes a tree or building, and further damage may
;

MISCELLANEOUS ELECTROSTATIC PHENOMENA.

67

ensue from the heating effects which fuse metals and set wood, etc., on fire. Because the air becomes a conductor, another spark is able to follow the same track with great ease. Ordinarily, what we call a spark is a series of sparks, of an oscillatory nature, leaping back and forward until equilibrium is
effected.

If sparks be passed through water, they often produce decomposition into hydrogen and oxygen. This is mainly due to the enormous rise of temperature. Sparks passed through the oxides of metal can reduce them, restoring the

pure metal.

On the other hand, a spark passed through the mixed gases hydrogen and oxygen causes them to combine exploThis is the principle of the Eudiometer. sively into water. Other reactions are produced by sparks, e.g. the conversion of oxygen O, into ozone O
.

?/

Example. What is the total energy released when a 1 cm. spark passes between terminals of a jar of capacity 50? The charge If the spark is 1 cm. long, the P.D. is about 105. = 50 x 105, hence the energy is i.oO x (105) 2 = 280,000 ergs.
78. Projecting Points. If two distant spheres be connected by a fine wire and gradually charged, their potentials F will always be the same, and therefore their charges will be in the ratio of +~" + +7+ + -T++-H-+ their capacities, i.e. their radii If a and b be radii, ( 58). the charges are Va and Vb, and the surface areas are and 4nrb2 hence the surface

4-

densities

are F/4?ra, F;'4?rft. is the Fig. density greater on the smaller sphere, and a convection discharge takes place from

Obviously

40.

it

first.

to a sphere of projecting sharp point is comparable is enorvery small radius. The density on such a point than on the rest of the conductor, ami mously greater therefore the electrification on the part of the conductor off. immediately round the point is rapidly converted

68

MISCELLANEOUS ELECTROSTATIC PHENOMENA.

Insulating plates cannot easily be charged by contact with a conductor, but are readily charged by the stream of electricity from a projecting point on the conductor. Points on conductors appear also to collect electricity. Imagine a -f vely charged surface, conducting or insulating, near a point projecting from an insulated conductor. ve The ve charge induces electricity round and on the The density on the point is so great that a conpoint.

vective negative discharge pours from it, and gradually ve on the neutralises the -|- ve on the surface, leaving

This continues till the conductor and the conductor. surface are very nearly at the same potential. These properties are possessed only by points projecting outwards, as at a. Such points as b and c are useless.

79. Electrical Machines Inductive. The student should compare the simplified explanation below with a Wimshurst machine. The twelve lines, a, 6, c, .... Z, represent any large
:

Fig. 41.

number

of tinfoil conductors

following each other con-

These in practice are pasted on a circular secutively. rotating disc of varnished glass, vulcanite, or celluloid, so that / in figure is next to A% and there is no break in the
sequence.

In the same way

a', b'

/',

are tinfoils on

MISCELLANEOUS ELECTROSTATIC PHENOMENA.

a second
rate
in

(59

disc, close to the first, and rotating at the same the opposite direction. is a conductor on insulating supports which has sharp points directed inis a similar one wards, as in Fig. 41 and diametrically Each of these is connected to a Leyden opposite to it. Jar to give it larger capacity, and to an adjustable metal bar with a knob at the end. PQ is an insulated metal wire with metal brushes at its ends similarly for P'Q'. and Y Supposing the machine actually at work

XX

YY

having positive and negative charges respectively as indicated. The region around P is nearer than Y, and is therefore at a higher potential than the average, while that around Q is lower. PQ itself, which is in momentary and + contact with c and i, will therefore have induced is and charges around P and Q so that c is charged ve Similarly d and e, which have just passed P, are and j and Tc are -\- ve Now e lowers the potential around This effect of the Q', while i is raising that around P'. carriers is of the same nature as that due to X and Y for

and Q' to Y. Hence a positive charge is nearer to induced on the conductor passing Q', and a negative on ve ve and i' is and that at P'. It follows that c' is ve and in the same way d', e' have recently been made
P'
is

/,

V + ve

Thus the machine has a tendency to continue going ve] y when once started. The stream of charged tinfoils P and P' and acting inductively when they get leaving opposite Q' and Q ultimately reaches Y; where the procomjecting points discharge them with almost the same as if there had been actual metallic contact. pleteness They are practically within a hollow conductor and touching
it. Q charged tinfoils Similarly the Q' are increasing the charge on X. When and are charged to a high enough P.D.,
ve] y

+ +

from

and

But even if their a spark passes between the knobs. clos> discharge is complete (e.g. if the knobs are placed the inductive together), electricity is still generated by action of the carriers themselves. The machine will therefore work if once started so much Usually one of the metal brushes Q is made

70

MISCELLANEOUS ELECTROSTATIC PHENOMENA.

" friction" produces longer than the other three that its ve electrification on the disc around Q as to enough induce a little -- and -f at P and Q, and so charge c and i slightly at start. These original small charges are increased by the cumulative inductive action.

Limit of Potential Difference Attainable. If be P.D. of and Y, V is, approximately, the P.D. of

to either or P'Q'. The nearest distance from of these wires is considerably less than half the radius r of either disc. Say that it is r/4. Then |F cannot exceed the sparking potential for r/4 cm. therefore the greatest

and

PQ

value of

about 50r electrostatic units. The longest spark between the knobs is not likely to exceed a quarter
is

of the diameter.

electrical

8O. Electrical Machines FrictionaL In frictioual machines a disc of glass is rotated against a rubber of leather smeared with amalgam of mercury and tin.
:

The

from

+ vel y electrified, and the electricity is collected by a prime conductor, similar to X above, armed ve elecwith points and connected to a Leyden Jar. The to escape to earth. tricity on the rubber is usually allowed A limit exists to the possible P.D. of the prime conductor and rubber. When this is approached sparks begin to pass along the surface of the glass disc, which seems to afford an easier channel than the air. Quite generally, the P.D. of any machine is limited ultimately by the size of the machine, but often a machine can have its P.D. increased by care bestowed on effective insulation.
glass is
it

When

electrification is
is

developed

f rictionally,

the work

The energy largely dissipated in heat. of the charged surfaces is almost wholly given by overcoming the electrical attraction between glass and rubber, charged by contact. Hence it is equivalent, nearly, to the mechanical work done in drawing the charged surfaces
done in friction
apart.

When electrification is developed inductively, as in the Electrophorus and the Wimshurst, the source of the electrical energy is again the mechanical work done in drawing opposite charges apart; i.e. the plate from the

MISCELLANEOUS ELECTROSTATIC PHENOMENA.

71

disc, in the Electrophorus, and the carriers from those conductors which induced these charges. If all waste of energy, through mechanical friction, could be eliminated, and if a shower of sparks is produced so that C units of electricity (electrostatic) pass per second with a mean potential difference, F, the mechanical work supplied per second will be OF ergs.

81. The Water Dropper. A small metal water vessel a projecting tube from which the water falls in drops. It is connected to an electrometer, and is placed at a point around which the prevailing potential of the air is to be found. Let F be the potential of the apparatus, U the prevailing air potential, the air potential just round the tube, as modified by the presence of the apparatus. Then P must If we suppose lie between U and F, and nearly F. U-V positive, then P-Fis small and positive. drop of potential F growing in a region of higher When potential P must have a negative induced charge.
lias

it falls off, it carries away negative electricity, and thereIn this of the apparatus. fore increases the potential would It can be seen that is made nearer to U. way if U-V were negative. also be made nearer rapid succession of drops, each of which brings F

nearer U, finally makes U-V negligible. Then the electrometer registers U, the potential of the undisturbed air.

CHAPTER
FLOW OF ELECTRICITY

V.

IN ELECTROLYTES.

For 82. Electromagnetic Fundamental Units. reasons that will appear later other units of charge and If v be 5-7. potential are used than those denned in the velocity of light in empty space, reckoned in absolute units (cm. per sec.), the electromagnetic unit charge is v
electrostatic units.

The unit of work is the Erg, as before. The unit of Potential Difference is such that the new unit charge, moving through unit potential difference, does unit work (one erg). As the new unit charge is v times the electrostatic unit charge, the new unit potential difference must be l/v electrostatic units. The value of v can be taken, without sensible error, as 3 x 10 10 cm. per second. Using E.S. and E.M. as contractions for Electrostatic and Electromagnetic, we therefore have

E.M. wait charge E.M. unit P.D.

= =

3 X 10 10 E.S. unit charge.

1/3

x 10 10 E.M. unit P.D.

83. Derived Units. The unit capacity is that of a condenser whose plates are at unit P.D. when its charge
is

unity.

Hence the E.M. unit condenser has charge 3 x 10 10 E.S. units when its P.D. is 1/3 x 10 10 E.S. units. For unit P.D. (E.S.) its charge would be 9 x 10 20 (E.S.). It therefore has capacity 9 X 10 20 Hence
.

E.M. unit capacity

=
72

9 x 10 20 E.S. units.

PLOW OF ELECTRICITY
its radius.

IN ELECTROLYTES.

73

The E.S. capacity of a sphere in empty space is equal to Hence the E.M. unit of capacity is equal to the capacity of a sphere whose radius is 9 x 1020 cm.
;

which
orbit.

is

nearly 60,000,000 times the radius of the earth's

of current, in both systems, conveyed per second. Hence
is

The unit
charge
is

such that unit

E.M. unit current = 3 x 10

l<)

E.S. units.

machine gun sends 10 pellets per second, of diameter Ex. 1. Find the electric cm., charged to a potential of 20 E.S. units. current and express it in electromagnetic units. The charge carried per pellet
1

=
Hence the current

Capacity x Potential

f x 20

10 E.S. units.

= 10 x 10 = 100 E.S. units - 100/3 x 10 10 = x lO- 8 E.M

units.

Ex. 2. Regarding the earth as a conducting sphere isolated in Its radius space, express its capacity in electromagnetic units. can be taken as 6370 kilometres.
Capacity This

= =

6370 x 1000 x 100 6-37 x 10^/9 x 10-

= 6'37 = 7'1

x 10' E.S. units (cm.). x 10~ 13 E.M. units.

84. lonisatiou.

Many

chemical

compounds,

when

dissolved in a suitable solvent, partially disintegrate into Such disintegration is constituents oppositely charged. called lonisation. Let HC1 denote a molecule of hydrochloric acid. Many of these molecules dissociate in aqueous solution into the atom carries a and Cl. But the constituent atoms

definite positive charge, charge we signify this

;

and the Cl atom an equal minus by writing HC1 = H + + Cl_.

dissociation of nitric acid
is

In the same sented by

way the

repre-

the second constituent being not an atom but a equivalent to an atom.

74

FLOW OF ELECTRICITY

IN ELECTROLYTES.

Such charged atoms or groups are called Ions. They if chemically replaceable by a recognised or 01. monovalent atom, such as Every monovalent ve ion carries numerically the same charge (+ ve or ). we can therefore Divalent ones carry double the charge
are monovalent

write

H,S04 = 2H + + (S0)*__ Cu S0 4 = Cu ++ + (S0 _

4)

signify double the monovalent atomic charge. Similarly ions of higher valency carry proportional This ionisation is apparently due to the fact charges. that the solvent (here taken as water, but similar phenomena occur with other solvents) has a large specific inductive capacity and therefore greatly weakens the electric attraction which helped to bind together the -p e ve and ion into one molecule.

where

++

>

If there be 110 elecexcept that which is due to the ions, these ions travel equally in all directions. But if a P.D. is maintained in the solution, the -p e ions are impelled towards ve ions the region of lower potential, and the to the higher potential. There is thus a positive current one way and a negative current the other way, and the net effect is a flow of electricity from higher to lower
tric field

85. Conduction in Solutions.

potentials.

In an electrolytic cell, the field in the liquid is usually due to two conductors of the same metal (e.g. platinum) kept at a constant P.D. by methods discussed later. The current in the liquid flows from the one at higher potential, which is called the Anode. This name is given to any conductor from which an electric current enters any body
or space considered. can, for instance, speak of the anode or of an electric spark or discharge. The second conductor is the Kathode.

We

The electronegative
Anious
;

ions, which seek the anode, the electropositive ones are Rations.

are

FLOW OF ELECTRICITY

IN ELECTROLYTES.

75

86. Electrolytic Reactions. Electrolysis is chemical What happens separation due to the action of a current. when an ion reaches its electrode is dependent on chemical
relationships.

Sometimes the ion is simply given off sometimes it reacts with the electrode, sometimes reacts with the liquid. The following are particular cases.
;

Platinum or Carbon electrodes

I.

dilute solutions

HC1 =

H+ +

Cl_

At anode 01 + 01 = Cl at kathode H + H Thus chlorine and hydrogen are given off.

;

= H..

II.

At anode SO 4

H S0 - 2H + + (S0 ++ + H,O = H,S0 H = H,." kathode H

3
4

4)

-f

0.,

-|-

Oxygen and hydrogen given

III.

off.

NaOH = Na + OH_
4
2

At anode OH + OH = H + O O + O = O, kathode Na + H O = NaOH + H H + H = H,.

2
; ; ;

Thus oxygen and water appears hydrogen and NaOH at kathode.

at

anode, and

Fused
IV.

salts act somewhat like solutions,

(fused)
:

v.y.

= Na + + OH_ At anode OH + OH = O + H,0 as before

NaOH
act differently to
4

kathode Na is deposited, because there water present with which it can react.

is

no

Strong solutions may

V.

weak

om>s.

H S0
3

= 2H + +
4

(S0

)__

At anode S0
kathode

H -h H =
:

H,SO, = H ,S ,O

+ O O + O =<
:

>,

H,

Copper electrodes
VI.

HC1 =

H+

4-

01

01

+ 01 + On = CuCl, H -h
:

76

FLOW OF ELECTRICITY
VII.

IN ELECTROLYTES.
:

CuSO

= Cu ++ +
-f

(SO 4 )__

at kathode Cu is 4 Thus copper is dissolved from one deposited. electrode and deposited on the other, the solution remaining of the same average strength.

At anode SO 4

Cu

= CuS0

VIII.

H S0 = 2H + + S0 + Cu = CuSO as above at kathode H + H = H.r Hydrogen liberated at kathode,

2
4

At anode SO

copper dissolved at anode. Of course if the current SO 4 gets weaker lasts a long time, the solution of 2 and of CuS0 4 gets stronger, till a stage is reached at which Cu begins to be deposited on anode as well

as hydrogen.

87. Gram Molecule, or Mol. A Gram Molecule (or Mol) of any element or compound is that number of grams of the substance which is numerically equal to its molecular weight. Thus a molecule of hydrogen has and therefore a mol of hydrogen gas is two formula 2 grams. If ions of hydrogen appear in a solution ( 86, L, II., etc.), their formula is H simply, therefore a mol of In the same way the hydrogen ion is one gram only.

molecular weight of sulphuric acid

2

H S0
2

is

32

4 x 16

98,

so a mol of sulphuric acid is 98 gm. Equation II. of 86 shows that a mol of this acid, if completely ionised, gives 2 mols of hydrogen and a mol of sulphion S0 4 Mols must not be confused with equivalents. The equivalent weight, in simple cases, is the quotient of the atomic weight of the ion by the valency. Thus the mol of chlorine ion, Cl, 35 gm., and Cl is monovalent, therefore the equivalent weight of chlorine is also 35 the
.

mol

of sulphion,

S0 4 =
,

32 + 4 x 16

96 gm.,

but
96/2

it is

divalent, and therefore the equivalent weight is 48. The mol of chlorine gas, Cl,, is 70 gm.

FLOW OF ELECTRICITY

IN ELECTROLYTES.

77

thereby produced. Consequently a measurable electrolytic eft'ect can be used to measure charge and therefore current. The commercial Coulomb is that charge which passes from anode to kathode of cell containing dilute silver nitrate, AgN0 3 when '0011 18 gin. of silver is deposited. The Ampere is a current of one coulomb per second. Silver is monovalent, of atomic weight 107'88 taking oxygen as 16), consequently a mol is 107'88 gin. and carries 107'88 -^ '001118 96500 coulombs. mol of every other monovalent ion carries the same charge. A mol of a divalent ion carries twice this charge a mol of a trivalent ion carries thrice as much, etc. Conversely, one coulomb deposits 1/96500 -00001035 mol of a monovalent ion, half as much of a divalent, one third of a
,

of conductivity of solutions involves the property that the charge of electricity conveyed through any one solution is proportional to the quantity of chemical change

88. Commercial Measure of Electric Ampere, Coulomb. The above explanation

Current.

and so on. The student should remember the numbers 96500, 00001035. The reason for the definition of the coulomb and ampere will be explained later, when absolute electromagnetic (or E.M.) units are defined ( 161). For the present it must be understood that the ampere is 1/10 of the absolute E.M. unit of current, and the coulomb is 1/10
trivalent,

of the absolute E.M.. unit of charge, very approximately. Hence, using 82, the coulomb is 3 x 10 E.S. units of mol of a monovalent ion carries 9650 absolute charge. E.M. units, or nearly 2'9 X 10 13 E.S. units.

89. Belated Commercial Units. Farad, Volt, Joule. The Volt is 10 8 E.M. units of Potential, it is thereThe Farad is the capacity of fore nearly 1/300 E.S. units. a condenser whose potential rises 1 volt for a charge of ~ It would l>e 1 coulomb; it is therefore 10 9 E.M. units. the common standifficult to construct such a condenser dards are microfarads [M.F.] or millionth a of a farad 10 - 15 absolute units. A spherical conductor of 1 M.F. radius capacity has radius 9 x 10' cm. Taking the earth's
;
;

78

PLOW OF ELECTRICITY

IN ELECTROLYTES.

A 710 M.F. as 6-37 X 108 cm., we find its capacity Joule is the work done when one coulomb alters its potential 8 10 7 ergs. by 1 volt. It is 1(T X 10
J

Ex. 1. An accumulator has 20 ampere hours much copper will it deposit from copper sulphate ?
Note that Capacity
:

capacity.

How

is not used in the sense of the definition in simply denotes the quantity of electricity that can be stored in the accumulator. An ampere (one tenth unit current) in a second deposits "00001035 gram molecule in 20 hours it deposits In copper sul00001035 x 20 x 60 x 60 = '7452 gm. molecule. phate, CuS0 4 Cu is divalent its atomic weight is 63, hence 63 gm Cu is equivalent to 2 gm. hydrogen. Hence the Cu deposited is 63 x -7452 -=- 2 = 23-5 gm.

53

but

it

Ex.
up?

2.

The same accumulator when run down

is

a battery of 4 bichromate cells in series.

How much

recharged by zinc is used

In each cell 20 amp. hr. passes ; and 65 of Zinc is equivalent to 63 Hence a similar calculation to the above shows 24'2gm. of copper. is used in each cell ; 97 in the four cells.
sphere of 1 cm. radius contains a 1 % solution of were possible to withdraw one-hundredth of the Cl atoms with their associated charges, find the E.S. charge and potenFind tial of the sphere, and their values in Practical E.M. units.
3.

Ex.

HC1.

If it

also the field (in volts per cm.

at the surface of the sphere.

of

Volume =
3

TT,

mass

HC1
as

present

= ^- gm. 300
=
35i,

Atomic weights are taken

.'.

1,

Cl

mass of H - 4?r/300 x 36 = Sir/21900. The charge required is that which is associated with l/lOO of this hydrogen it = 8?r x 965/21900 coulombs = M33 coulombs = -1133 E.M. abso= 3-40 x 10 9 E.S. units. The Potential (in E.S. This lute units. 2 units) = Charge/ Radius and Field = Charge/(radius) is 3 '4 x 10 E.S. units. Reducing to E.M. units, the potential is
;
!)

3-4 x 10

x 3 x 10 10

= 1-02 x = 1-02 x

1020 E.M. absolute, 10 IS volts.

The

Field, measured by the change of potential per unit distance, happens to be numerically equal to the potential, and therefore is 1-02 x 10" volts per cm.

in 2 hours.

certain current deposits 1 gm. of copper from CuS0 4 Find how much hydrogen, by volume, it releases per minute from dilute acid, the temperature and pressure being normal (0C. and 760 mm. of mercury). Assume 1 c.cm. is '0000900 gm.

Ex. 4.

PLOW OF ELECTRICITY

IN ELECTROLYTES.

70
of

Ex. 5. Show that 1 ampere in 1 second liberates '115 c.cm. hydrogen or chlorine at normal temperature and pressure.

Find the current which liberates 32 c.cm. of hydrogen The gas is collected over water, and may be assumed saturated with water vapour. The temperature is 20 C. saturation pressure of water vapour for this temperature is 17 mm., and the pressure in the vessel in which the gas is collected is 75'5 cm.
6.
in 10 minutes.
,

Ex.

Ex.

7.

Show

potential of

300 volts

that enough electricity to charge the earth to a is carried by less than 1/4000 c.cm. of

hydrogen.

num9O. The Conductivity of a Solution. Let m ber of mols (gram molecules) of solute in 1 litre of that fraction which is ionised. If solution and let k we consider the simplest case, a solute like HC1 or HNO.,, consisting of two monovalent ions, there are Jem mols of the k)m of the positive ion and km of the negative and (1 solute not decomposed, and electrically inert. Consider a tubular portion, LMM'L', of the solution along which the current is

flowing

be its cross section let u be velocity of the + ve ion, and v of ve ion then in one second as the

Let

ion molecules of the will flow across a section (PP') of area A as are found in a volume

many gram

Fig.

l--

Au

this number is Aukm. c.cm. the charge, in absolute E.M. units carried If q 10~ 3 mol of monovalent ion, the current carried by the per 3 ions carry ions across the barrier is Aukmq. 1CT and the 3 10~ the other way. Hence the total current
;
.

Avkmq.

=C=A

(11+ v)kmq. 10~

;!

field strength Let change of potential per unit distance in direction of current. It is found by experiment shall call C FA the specific that ordinarily C oc F.

F=

=
it

We

conductivity, and denote Specific Resistance.

by
.

'#,

tinInking c-ulh'd

Hence

}JK

1(r 3 mqk

((l

,.

)iFf

80

FLOW OF ELECTRICITY IN ELECTROLYTES.

if only 91. Velocities of Ions. For a given solution, the quantities m, q and Jc are constant. F, R is also constant. Hence

C and F vary, And since C oo

+va

F,

and since this is true for all solutions we can infer that But u is the velocity of an u and v separately vary as F. ion carrying a constant charge, and F is the force per unit
at a rate proportional directly charge, hence the ions travel to the force exerted on them by the electric field. Now if a body be impelled by a constant force, but have its motion opposed by a resisting medium, the resistance due to the medium always increases as the velocity increases,

but vanishes when the velocity is zero. As the value for which the resistance is velocity approaches the the acceleration becomes equal "to the impelling force, and therefore the ultimate motion is with infinitesimal The limiting velocity is reached in this limiting velocity. an exceedingly short time when a very minute body moves in an ordinary resisting medium. The ions will travel, sensibly, with this limiting velocity. the impelling force. But u oc F, Hence the resistance
;

therefore we are justified in inferring that the resistance due to the fluid is proportional to the velocity.

92.

Nature of the Resistance to the Ionic Motion.

.

resistance to such swift bodies as meteorites is pro3 The resistance to certain much portional to (velocity) slower projectiles, e.g. cricket balls, is more or less pro2 The principal physical cause of portional to (velocity) the resistance here is that the ball has to give momentum to the air it encounters in order to clear it away. But the resistance to the slowest bodies, minute water drops in air, sand grains in water, or small shot falling in glycerine,
.

The

is

due to

We

proportional to the velocity itself. This resistance is fluid friction, or viscosity. infer, the force resisting ionic velocities is also due
liquids) gets less viscous as the temThis implies that the resisting force is

to viscosity.

Water (and most

perature rises.

PLOW OF ELECTRICITY

IN ELECTROLYTES.

81

less at higher temperatures for the same velocity. Consequently (u 4- v)/F is greater, hence the Specific Conductivity of aqueous solutions should increase as the temperature rises. Indeed, if we use solutions so dilute that practically all of the solute is ionised (so that k 1 nearly, and can be treated as a constant) the Specific

Conductivity

is

found to remain inversely proportional to

all

the viscosity at

ordinary temperatures.

93. Temperature Coefficient of Resistance. DefiniThe temperature coefficient of any physical quantity is the amount by which it increases per 1 C. rise of temperature, divided by its value at some standard temperature which usually is taken C., the freezing point of water.
tion.

Thus the temperature The temperature

solution
is

coefficient

of

Resistance

is

the

increase of resistance per 1 C. by the resistance at

C. rise of temperature, divided

coefficient of the resistance of a dilute equal to the temperature coefficient of the

viscosity of solvent (usually water). Since, however, the resistance is proportional not only to F/(u between the temi>) but also to h, the equality

perature coefficients of resistance and of viscosity only holds when k is constant. It holds approximately in very dilute 1 It breaks down in dense ones. solutions, for k
.

conductivity
velocities

94. Molecular Conductivity of Salts. The specific Now u and v a F, 10~ 3 mqk (u v~)/F. v these being the hence we can put u/F u u/F

t) ,

{t

under unit potential gradient.

- 10-3 mqk(u n

Hence the

specific

conductivity
If k

/')

were constant, this would x m.

10- 3 kq

Its quotient

by

///,

K+

),

It is the called the Specific Molecular Conductivity. solution in conductivity divided by the strength of the gram molecules per litre. It is nearly constant for dilute whon the solutions solutions, but alters considerably with
is
/,

M. PH.

i.

'

82

FLOW OP ELECTRICITY

IN ELECTROLYTES.

The only varying letter is k, and therefore the are dense. the amount of changes of molecular conductivity exhibit In fact the dissociation factor k of a salt dissociation.

=
The

Molecular conductivity -i- The limit approached by the molecular conductivity when the concentration
is

indefinitely small.

dissociation factor can be investigated

by other

methods, for instance by the change of boiling point produced by the dissolved substance. These methods agree with the electrical methods, both with respect to the behaviour of salts and the peculiar property of acids, noted in next paragraph.
Ex. 1. very dilute solution of hydrochloric acid has comIts specific conductivity at position '001 gm. molecule per litre. Find the sum of 18 is 3453 x 10-16 absolute C.G.S. units. velocities of the hydrogen and chlorine ions for a potential gradient of 1 volt per cm.
Here
3453 X 10-16

10 -3

mqk
.

(u

v)/F.

But
1

volt

m=

, q 108 absolute units,

'001

= 10-

=
.'.

9650, k can be taken

F=

1,

and since

108

Hence u

VQ

'00358.

Ex. 2. Consider similarly a solution of potassium chloride, 00001 gm. molecule per litre,* conductivity 1293 x 10-18, potential gradient 1 volt per cm. MO + v = -00134.
Consider solution of '224 gm. potassium chloride in conductivety 353 x 10-15. The atomic weight of KC1 is 39 + 35 '5 = 74 '5, therefore the number of gram molecules per litre is '224 ~- 74 -5 = '03. get
1

Ex. 3.
;

litre

We

'0012.

5 per cent, solution of CaCl 2 (i.e. 5 gm. of calcium Ex. 4. chloride to 100 gm. solution) has specific conductivity '0643. Show that the molecular conductivity is '143. Note that calcium is divalent, and has atomic weight 40. Assuming k = 1, find the value of
MO

+ tV

Ex. 5. The velocities (per unit potential gradient) of Na and Cl in water at 18 are -00045, '00068. Calculate the molecular conductivity at infinite dilution, and estimate the specific conductivity of a solution of 1 gm. per litre.

FLOW OP ELECTRICITY

IN ELECTROLYTES.
1

8:3

95. Solutions which behave anomalously. The .... haviour of dilute salts, such as NaCl, etc., agrees 3 with the above theory so well that it has been found possible to draw up a table of ionic velocities (per unit

KNO

Gram
Fig.
4.S.

molecules pep

litre

Abscissae are

the logarithms of the dilutions ; proportional U ordinates represent the Specific Molecular Conductivity X IO The Specific Conductivity of the Solution is deduced by the number multiplying the Specific Molecular Conductivity by A further multiplication by 111 of gram molecules per litre. reduces to Practical Units.
to
.
1J

which conductivities of dilute potential gradient) from solutions can be calculated with fair accuracy. show curious divergences But acids, like HOI, n which are not yet explained. As the solutions are mode more dilute, the molecular conductivity first approaches the value demanded by theory, but afterwards diverges from it widely. See Fii?. 4S.

HNO

84

FLOW OF ELECTRICITY

IN ELECTROLYTES.

Some solutions (e.g. sugar or alcohol in water) do not appear to ionise, and do not show electrical conductivity.

96. Ratio of Ionic Velocities.

If

we

consider an

imaginary barrier across the liquid, the number of gram molecules of -f ve ion that cross Avith the current per second ve ions that cross is 10~ Amu, and of against the 3 current is 10~ Amv; the ratio of these is u:v. Hence if all quantities be measured in gram molecules the depletions of the solution on the two sides of the barrier are as u v Take if this be not modified by other chemical charge. for instance a solution of copper sulphate CuSo 4 in a cell with platinum electrodes. For every u inols of Cu that cross the barrier towards the anode, v inols of S0 4 cross towards anode each of the ions being divalent. The solution on the anode side is weakened by u mols of CuSO 4 and destroyed to furnish the Cu that has migrated the solution on the kathode side is weakened by v mols of CuS0 4 Of course the v liberated mols of SO 4 011 the anode side form sulphuric acid, liberating oxygen 86, II.), and the u mols of Cu on the kathode side are (
:>>

deposited.

97. Ionic Velocities in Copper Electrolytic Cell. Here we have copper electrodes. Consider the anode side of the barrier. For every u mols of Cu which cross the barrier, u mols of S0 4 are left behind, and v mols of S0 4 enter the solution through the barrier. Hence there is an excess of u -\- v mols of SO 4 which attacks the anode. The anode loses u -f v of Cu, and the solution on the anode side is stronger by v mols of CuS0 4 in virtue of the v of S0 4 which has entered and attacked the anode. Consider next the kathode side. The u mols of Cu which enter are deposited on the kathode. The v mols of S0 4 which go away weaken the solution by v mols of CuS0 Hence u -f v mols leaving v mols of Cu to be deposited. of Cu is taken from the anode and deposited on kathode while the solution is strengthened near the anode, and weakened near the kathode, by u mols.
,

FLOW OF ELECTRICITY

IN ELECTROLYTES.

85

98. First Method of Observing Ratios of Ionic Velocities. To observe u v. vessel is constructed as in Fig. 44. A silver anode A is at bottom of a burette B is a silver kathode. The
:

solution the ions

lent.
is first

is

Ag and N03

The

found and plate B weighed. Then a current is allowed to flow for some time, and the solution
becomes
running
denser around A. By out half the contents of burette and analysing one can find the strengthening of solutions which
oc

nitrate 3 are monovacomposition of solution

silver
;

AgNO

Fig. 44.

u,

ber

a u +

and by

finding, increase of weight of v hence u/v is found.

we

get a

num-

99. Second Method of Observing Ratios of Ionic Velocities. The anode and kathode are in vessels connected by a tube which contains a jelly solution. Such salts are chosen that the progress of the ions can be watched by colour changes produced. For instance,* Oliver Lodge used sodium chloride in agar jelly in the tube rendered slightly alkaline to bring out the red colour of a little phenolphthalein added as an indicator.

The anode

vessel

Fig.

4.>.

contained an acid, so that ve ion was the hydrogen. As this travelled along the tube it decolorised the phe-

of

nolphthalein.
for a potential gradient of 1 volt

The

velocity

was found to be

about '0026 cm. per sec. Masson used a colourless salt, KC1, in the jelly and solutions of potassium chromate around kathode, and copper sulphate around anode. The copper travelling with the current entered the jelly and
*

These particulars are from Whethain. Th'-ory

<>/'

86

FLOW OF ELECTRICITY

IN ELECTROLYTES.

formed blue copper chloride, the advance of the colour showing the rate at which the potassium ions left the chrome ion available to combine with copper. Since Cu travels less rapidly than K under the same potential difference, there was no tendency to blurring the colour boundary by the Cu getting ahead. In the same way the chrome ion advancing against the current followed the swifter Cl ion and formed yellow potassium chromate in
the

One might imagine that the swifter K and Cl would In practice get away from the pursuing Cu and Cr0 4 The current is physically bound to be this is not so. The K would travel faster than Cu under continuous. the same potential gradient, and it is physically necessary
.

jelly.

that
tial

consequently the potenin the steady state is reached in which region of the Cu ion. Hence the potential gradient is least steep in the KC1. and Cl under the experiment compares the velocity of the same potential gradient, and is not complicated by the
it

should travel equally

alter

fast,

must

more rapidly with the distance

velocities

of Cu and Cr0 4 which are travelling under different potential gradients. Whetham used a similar method, with a vertical liquid column instead of a jelly solution. porous diaphragm

prevented convective motion of the

column due

to its

change of density.

CHAPTER

VI.

ELECTKOMOTIVE FORCE.
100. Continuous Currents. When a Wimshurst is used to produce a shower of sparks between its terminals, we can consider an electric current to flow across the spark gap and around a circuit completed by the machine. A
is quite analogous. Its current is usually much larger than that of a Wimshurst when it is working and the free charges, which are conspicuous in the Wimshurst, But the differences are are exceedingly small in the cell. only of degree, and consist in the fact that there is hardly Practically all any local accumulation of electricity.

voltaic cell

makes a complete

circuit,

wires, the positive going other.

through the cell and connecting one way and the negative the

have seen ( 80) that in the production of a series of sparks from a Wimshurst machine there is a conversion of electrical energy into heat, and that this electrical energy is produced by another form of energy (mechanical) supplied by the person who turns the handle. He also
supplies other energy, which is dissipated, i.e. is uselessly converted into heat, in overcoming the friction of the moving parts. Similarly a voltaic cell will only deliver a continuous current if sufficient energy be supplied. Some
of this energy is dissipated, some is directly used in producing the current, and some can be used in other ways, e.g. to produce chemical reactions.

We

101, Reversible and Irreversible Operations. Chemical operations depending on the flow of a current are usually reversible. In the copper electrolytic cell, 86, VII.), the current removes copper from one plate e.g. (
87

88

ELECTROMOTIVE FORCE.

and deposits it on the other. would produce the contrary

A current sent the effect. We shall

other

way

find later

that certain other effects of a current are also reversible. That is to say, what is done by a current is undone by an

equal but contrary current. The flow of a current in any conductor produces a heating effect which is irreversible. That is to say, the current heats the conductor, and an equal but contrary current would also heat the conductor equally.* Chemical operations can be irreversible in their nature. Take as an example the simple Volta cell. Hydrogen is given off from the copper plate and most of it escapes. It is therefore impossible that this hydrogen should be recombined on reversing the current.

102. Electromotive Force [E.M.F.]. The electromotive force of a battery, or other source of electric current, is the work which it provides (in reversible processes) per unit current per second. If a unit current flows for a second, it is evident that a unit charge flows round the current circuit. Hence the E.M.F. can also be defined as
the work provided (reversibly) per unit charge. Back Electromotive Force. This is the work done, reversibly, per unit charge, at the expense of the energy of the current. Resultant Electromotive Force is the work done, irreversibly, per unit charge, at the expense of the energy of the current. Almost the whole of this work is dissipated in the irreversible production of heat. Since all energy given to the current must be eventually given back either reversibly or irreversibly, it follows that the E.M.F. in any circuit is equal to the sum of the back E.M.F. and resultant E.M.F.

103. Units of Energy, Power, and E.M.F. The absolute unit of energy is the Erg. The practical or 10" ergs. engineering unit is the Joule, which

* There also may exist heating effects which are reversible. These are considered later (Chap. XIII.),

ELECTROMOTIVE FORCE.

80

Power is rate of working. The absolute unit is oiie erg per second. The practical unit, which is called a Watt, is one Joule per second, and is 10 7 absolute units. Engineers frequently use a larger unit, called the Kilowatt, which is 1,000 Watts. Founded on the Kilowatt is the Board of Trade [B.O.T.] Unit of Energy. It is the Kilowatt Hour, the work done in 3,600 seconds at the rate of 1 i.e. kilowatt; and evidently its value is 3,600,000 joules 3-6 X 10 13 ergs. Electromotive Force is work per unit charge. The electro-magnetic Absolute unit is the E.M.F of a source which expends one erg in producing the flow of electromagnetic unit charge i.e. unit current per second. The It is the E.M.F. of a Practical unit is called a Volt. source which expends 1 joule in producing one coulomb, 7 i.e. 1 ampere for 1 second. Thus a volt expends 10 ergs it therefore in producing 1/10 unit current for 1 second 8 is 10 absolute units.

104. The Thomson Rule. This merely expresses that the E.M.F. of a cell can be calculated from the energy of its chemical reactions. It appears a mere consequence of the definitions of 102, but historically E.M.F.'s were measured before first Helmholtz and afterwards Sir William Thomson (Lord Kelvin) explained their connection with energy. The chemical processes in a battery are either electrolytic or secondary reactions due to the electrolysis; " consequently all are proportional to the current and to the time. That is, the quantity of every reaction is proportional to the charge that has gone round the circuit. If the energy of every reaction is calculable, and these reactions are reversible, we know the work supplied per unit; i.e. the E.M.F. of the cell. The energy of chemical processes depend only on the final result. Consequently the total energy can be found from the apparent reactions in a cell, even when these differ considerably from the real ones. And the energy of a reaction can be measured, with more or less certainty, by the heat it produces.

90

ELECTROMOTIVE FORCE.
of formation
reactions.

have been calculated for a large would seem therefore quite simple to substitute and find E.M.F.'s accurately. The difficulties of the method are, first, that we do not always know which reactions provide energy for the current, and which simply produce heat or secondary processes and, secondly, that we do not fully understand all the reIn a Volta cell, besides the actions that take place.
It
;

The heats number of

production of zinc sulphate and destruction of sulphuric acid, there are differences produced in concentration and in and the work done or provided in ionisation of solutions these processes is not accurately known.
;

105. Heats of Reactions.

Let

H
;

be the heat of a

i.e. for reaction, in calories per gram equivalent quantities of the chemicals employed equivalent to 1 gm. of hydrogen. Of course a gram equivalent of a monovalent ion, or of a

compound from which a monovalent ion

mol.

is

liberated, is

one

half a mol. give a list of heats of reaction of a few common substances, taken from the Annuaire du Bureau des Longitudes, 1910. To use the table proceed as follows One coulomb (or 1 ampere in one second) would release '00001035 gm. of hydrogen, or involve '00001035 gm. equivalent of any other substance. Consequently, the reaction of 1 gm. equivalent occurs when 96500 coulombs flow round the
is

That of a divalent ion

We

circuit.

joules.

The energy provided is 4' 18 calories Consequently the E.M.F., in so far as it depends -=- 96500 on the reaction, is 4'18 ff/23,000 nearly. The questions remain how far the E.M.F. does actually depend on the reaction considered, and how much other reactions contribute; and if these questions are not answered correctly the calculated E.M.F. will be wrong. The tabulated reactions are per gm. molecule^ not per gm. equivalent. This is because the same substance can

enter into reactions involving different valences.

H O + K = KHO +
2

ZnO + 2H. H, and + Zn 2 In the first case 18 gm. of water (1 mol) give 1 gm. of hydrogen, so the gram equivalent is the gram molecule.

Compare

ELECTROMOTIVE FORCE.

91

In the second, 18 gm. of water give 2 gm. hydrogen, so the gin. equivalent is half the gm. molecule. In order to divide by the valency proper to the reaction consiget Divide again by 23 for the energy in joules per dered. coulomb, i.e. the E.M.F.

Heats
H.,0

of formation in thousands of calories.

ELECTROMOTIVE FORCE.
5. Find E.M.F. of a silver chloride cell. Heat of silver reaction is 2AgCl + Zn = ZnCl 2 2Ag. that of ZnCL>, divide by the valency 2, is 56 "o. chloride is 29 Difference is 27-o /. E.M.F. = 27 "5/23 = 1'2.

Ex. The

Ex. Ex.

6.
7.

Find the E.M.F. needed

Find the E.M.F. of a

to

decompose zinc chloride.

cell

composed

of

Zn,

ZnCl.,,

CuClo, Cu.

Table of E.M.F. 's of common Cells at 16

Name.
Constituents.
cells.

Standard
Clark

Daniell

Cadmium

Zn Zn Cd

Common

cells.

Leclanche

Bun sen
Grove

ELECTROMOTIVE FORCE.
Hence
Jf/6

9:}

(//

J{')/(0

0')

(/;

E')/(8

0')

=
if

dE/d8,

the charges be taken indefinitely small. By this equation we can calculate H, the heat reversiblv

absorbed per coulomb.

Example (from Arrhenius). Small electrolysed dilute acid between electrodes of palladium, which absorb most of the separated The operation is therefore reversible. The E.M.F. given gases. But the observed by Thomson's Rule is 105, Ex. 3) 1'5 volts. E.M.F. was only T08; and the change of E.M.F. per 1 rise was - 1/700 at 20. - 1/700, and d = 273 -f 20 = 293, we get // = Using H/e -=
(

293/700

-42.

1 'o joules are provided by the chemical reactions per coulomb, '42 appear as heat, and the E.M.F. should l>e 1'OS as observed.

Hence although

107. Irreversible Processes. The most universal and If a typical irreversible process is the production of heat. Daniell cell and a coil of wire forming a circuit be enclosed in an ice calorimeter which keeps it at constant temperature, the melting of the ice will show a liberation of heat. After such a time that one coulomb has passed, there will be definite chemical changes and definite heat liberated, and no other process in which work is done. Consequently the heat is exactly as great as if it had been produced

by the chemical processes without an electric If some outside agency be used to send an equal current an equal time through the cell in a reverse direction, the chemical changes will be undone again, but pracdirectly current.
tically as

much

heat

is

The simplest experiment

produced again. is on a metal wire, for no

clu

mical change occurs. If a current be sent through a metal wire at uniform temperature, the heat produced per second is proportional Hence if It lx> tho heat in to the square of the current. th> Insit energy units produced per unit current p>r svon<l. current c in time / produced by

94

ELECTROMOTIVE FORCE.

108. Resistance. The resistance of a wire (whose temperature is uniform) is the heat energy produced per second when unit current passes through it. The absolute unit of resistance is the resistance of a wire in which unit current [ 82, 161] produces 1 erg of heat
in 1 second.

of a wire in second.

The Ohm or Practical unit of resistance is the resistance which 1 ampere produces 1 joule of heat in 1

Hence an ohm is, the resistance of a wire in which a current 1/10 absolute units produces 10 7 ergs. If it be absolute units,
.

10 7

= R

(1/10)

R=

10 9 .

That

is,
1

ohm =

10 9 E.M. absolute units.

The resistance of any conductor is the heat energy produced per second by irreversible processes when unit current passes through it.
109. Resistances in Series. If the resistances be in the same current c goes through all. If R be joint resistance, and R v R.it R3 the separate resistances, then the
series,

heat

H produced in time

107, 108)
Re*

=
and

Hence

resistance in series are additive.

If

110. Ohm's Law.

E be the total

E.M.F. of a circuit

(the algebraic sum of E.M.F.'s and back E.M.F.'s) and t be current, then Ect, is the total energy provided in time t by all the reversible processes. The energy provided in the irreversible production of

heat
.

Ect

.'.

- Rc't = Rc-t E = Re

or, hi

words,

ELECTROMOTIVE FORCE.

95

The E.M.F.
the resistance.

(resultant)

is

the product of the current and

The equation holds whether E, R, c are measured in absolute units or in the practical system, volts, ohms, and
amperes.

Ex. 1. A wire carrying a current of '5 ampere is immersed in an ice calorimeter and melts 1 gm. per minute. Find its resistance in ohms. To melt 1 gm. of ice requires 80 calories = 80 x 4 -18 = 334 '4 The time t = 60 sec. and C = '5 amp. joules.
.\

334-4

tf(-o)

60

R = 22-3

ohms.

Ex. 2. An incandescent light takes a current of *1 amp. and Find its resistance. uses energy at rate 1 '6 watts. In one second it uses 1'6 joules, this therefore is heat produced.
1-6

= Rx

(-1)

R=

160 ohms.

Ex. 3. If we reckon metal filament lamps to use 1 '2 watts per candle power, find the resistance of a 60 candle power lamp which uses 1/3 ampere. In a second it produces 72 joules.
. .

72

R(l/3)~

R=

648 ohms.

equivalent

calorimeter contains 80 gm. of water, and its water 3 gm. What rise of temperature should we expect if 1 '2 amperes flow for 2 minutes through an immersed coil of wire whose resistance is 1 ohm ?

Ex.

4.

is

//= BcH =

1 (1-2) 2 120

172-8 joules.

Thermal capacity = 83, i.e. to 83 calories, or 83 x 4'18 joules.

.-.

raise its

temperature

it

needs

Rise of temperature
5.

172*8/83

x 4'18

-5.

current c is divided between two wires of resistance Find what the current in each wire must be if the heat produced per second be a minimum. Let x flow along /?,, and c x along R.>. = R aZ + R.,(c - a-) 3 Then
RI and
R.,.

Ex.

(R,

R,){x

96

ELECTROMOTIVE FORCE.
negative, hence
it

is

The tirst term is an exact square and cannot be a minimum when it is zero. Hence
c

- x = R.cKR, +

/?,)

and

Rz

>C"X
Fig- ^ 6
-

H = R^C-^RI + R
^^../(^j

2)

therefore the current divides in inverse ratio of the resistances, and

is

the joint resistance

jK 2 ).

See

112.

Ex. 6. In a single Daniel cell (E = 1'08) find the ratio of the calories of heat produced to the grams of zinc consumed. If //be in calories, 4'18 His in joules,

=
But

RcH.
1-08
l-OSct.
is

#=

Re =

.-.

4-18 //

But

1 gram equivalent of zinc, or 32'5 gm., 96500 coulombs. If x gm. be consumed,

.
.

consumed

for ever}1

ct
,',

ff/.v

= =

96500
1-08

a;

/32-o

x 96500/4-18 x 32-5

-770.

Ex. y. If n Daniell cells in duced to zinc consumed.

Here

series

be used, find ratio of heat pro-

E=

l-Q8w.,

.'.

4*18

#=

l-QBnct.

But every 96500 coulombs traverses n cells in series and consumes 32 '5 gm. of zinc in each, .-. net = 96500 x. 1 '08/32-7 and H/x = 770, the same as before.

Ex. 8. Compare the expense of electric heating by use of Daniell cells with that of heating by burning zinc.
1
1

gm. zinc

in a cell gives

770 calories.
-~

gm. zinc burned

to

ZnOa gives 84800

65 -4

1300.

Hence

it is 1 '7

times cheaper to burn zinc as

fuel.

Ex.

9.

current of

*5

Find in calories the heat developed per minute by a ampere in a resistance of 8 ohms.

ELECTROMOTIVE FORCE.

97

Ex. 10. An electric flatiron has to develop heat at the rate of 20 calories per second. The E.M.F. is 120 volts find the resistance (supposed all to be within the iron).
;

Ex. 11. A lamp, supplied with current at 200 energy at the rate of 60 watts. Find the current.

volts, gives heat

Ex. 12. An unknown current, passed through a standard ohm Find the curresistance, supplies energy 50 calories per minute. rent.

M. PH.

I.

CHAPTER

VII.

PROBLEMS ON FLOW OF ELECTRICITY IN

CONDUCTORS.
111. Extension of Ohm's Law, I. Consider a homogeneous conductor at uniform temperature. Imagine it contained in a calorimeter, current being led to it from without. The heat produced is EcH. No change is supposed to occur in the conductor, consequently there is no E.M.F. nor back E.M.F., hence the above energy can only be drawn from that of the current. But if the terminals by which the current enters and
leaves have a potential difference V, we know (11) that every unit charge does V units of work in passing from one to the other. A total charge, ct, has passed, and therefore the energy available is Vet. Assuming this is converted into the above heat,
Vet
/.

= V =

Re-f,

Kc.

That In a homogeneous conductor (all at same Current x Resistemperature) Potential Difference

is
:

tance.

Ohm regarded potential difference as External E.M.F., taking what we have denned as E.M.F. to be Internal E.M.F. The common experimental proof of Ohm's law is a verification that V a c for the same conductor V being measured by an electrometer and c by a galvanometer.
;

Ex. 1. A battery has resistance :~y ohm. Its terminals are joined to a quadrant electrometer and produce deflection 30 on What deflection is produced when they are connected also scale. by a win; of resistance o, 4, 3, '2, 1 ohms?
98

FLOW OF ELECTRICITY
If

IN CONDUCTORS.
connecting wire, then

B + R is total resistance
If
,

be battery resistance,
;

R resistance of
c

/.

So when no wire
battery.

Fbe P.D. of ends of wire, When R is or R/(B + R) =

is

= E/(B + V = Re,
1

R).

.'.

- B/(B +

V = ERI(B
fl)

R)
A*.

1,

.-.

r =

inserted the electrometer reads the E.M.F. of

&
;

Since the whole E.M.F. divisions, the deflection in the first case is 30 x in the other cases 267, 257, 24, 20.

In our example B $f l f f' I-

if

/.

R-

5, 4, 3, 2, 1

we have R R
(

-f

li)

is

indicated by 3O

10/11

27 '3, and

Ex. 2. A Voltmeter (see 176) can be taken as simply an instrument to measure P.D. Find the resistance of a battery of that the voltmeter reads 8 volts at its terminals. accumulators, given and this drops to 7 volts when they are connected by a 14 ohm wire.

E=
Hence
Ex.

8,

ERI(B + R) = 7, R = 14. U = B = 2 ohms. |

An Ammeter 176) is supposed simply to read current. 3. an ammeter in series with a lamp show ampere, and a voltmeter connected to its terminals shows 180 volts, find its resistance.
(

If

180

-r

720 ohms.

Ex. 4. Find the current in a uniform wire of o ohms resistance, a voltmeter across its terminals showing 4 volts. Find also the potential difference per cm. length of wire, the wire being 200 cm.
long.

Current is 4/5 amp. Resistance of each cm. Hence P.D. = 1/50 volt.

is

1/40

ohm.

Ex. 5. A current '02 amp. passes along a uniform trough of terminals of an copper sulphate. Two wire gratings connected to electrometer are dropped into the trough 20 cm. apart; and show a P.D. of '6 volt. Find the resistance of the trough per cm. length.
Resistance of

20cm. =
volts.

-6

-:-

-<>2

X*
is

volts; resistance per cm.

\\

112. Conductors in
Fig. 47.

conductors whose
rent enters,

-To find the joint resistances of two or moiv terminals are connected where the curParallel.
it

and where

leaves, the

system

Fii;.

47

).

100

FLOW OF ELECTRICITY
JBj,

IN CONDUCTORS.

Let
c

.R2

....

resistance.

Let

be their resistances, and R the joint V be P.D. between their terminals A and B
.

the total current

c lt c2

currents in JB P
2

2,

Then
/.

V = cR = c = V/K,
c

c^ = c #
2

etc.

c,

= V/X
etc.

lt

c2

= V/R

etc.

But

=d+ =

Co

+ +

/.

dividing out
l/
I/.R!

F
l/tf 2

+ etc.

Mhos

1/.R is called if JR be in

Ohms.

the Conductivity. It is measured in Evidently the total conductivity

of conductors in parallel

= sum

of their separate conductivities.

See 110, Ex. 5, for proof that the above partition of currents is that which produces the least heat in the system.

113. Extension of Ohm's Law, II. Kirchoff's Law. Consider any conductor which forms a portion of a circuit and which includes E.M.F.'s or back E.M.F.'s, either of the types already considered [Batteries and Voltameters] or of other types to be considered in later be the algebraic sum of the E.M.F.'s in Let chapters. the conductor, and let V be the potential difference between the ends of the conductor. heat produced by the current in time t. Then RcH work provided (as in previous paragraph) by Also Vet the charge as it alters its potential, and Ect work provided by chemical (or other) E.M.F.'s.

Hence
Rc-t
.:

Rc =

Vet + Ect, V+E.

114. Currents in a Network of Conductors.

To

avoid considering V for all the points of a complicated system of conductors, one can reduce the system into

PLOW OF ELECTRICITY

IN CONDUCTORS.

101

braic

Let separate meshes. (Fig. 48) be such a mesh, each arm of which may contain E.M.F.'s. Let E AB alge-

ABODE
arm

sum

of

E.M.F.

in

AB

which supply energy to a current going from A to B. Let EAB be resistance of

reckoning those positive

AB,

CAB current in

AB, F A

potential at. A.

Then

= FA VK + = FB - F +

-& AB

EM
#C:D
A'DK

=
#KA*KA

- FD + = FD - FE + = T rE - FA +
Fc

#K A

Adding

for this mesh, all the F's cancel.

Therefore

R K \ C K\ =

-&AB

+ A
is

Kirchoff enunciated therefore two laws, of which this the second. They are

(1) Algebraic sum of currents flowing to (or from) any angle of the network is zero. (2) Algebraic sum of products of current by resistance, taken round any mesh, algebraic sum of E.M.F.'s round that mesh.

115. Maxwell's method of simplifying the Currents in a Network. Imagine a constant mesh current Thus, in Fig. 4X. put round each independent mesh. may be taken as the mesh current for AHCDK, y for BGFC, z for CFHKD, etc. Of course ABGFCDEA is also a mesh, but is not an independent one. for it is the sum of the meshes ABODE and KGFCB. The actual
.*

of the current in any conductor BC is the difference * \j mesh currents in the two meshes it separates. then do not need to consider Kirchoff Law I. for the sum of currents entering each point ( 114)

We

102

FLOW OF ELECTRICITY
Thus
z

IN CONDUCTORS.

vanishes necessarily. are x z, y, y

at

DC

the currents in BC, FC,

Law

II. is

Kirchoff x; whose sum is zero. then applied to each independent mesh.

116.
F, G,

The Wheats tone Net.

H, L, M,

N arranged as in Fig. 49.

Consider six resistances Let there be an electromotive force in branch L.

Insert niesh currents x, y, z so that evidently the current in L is x; in is x y etc. Apply Kirchoff's Law II. to mesh
;

LGH] we
or
(L

have
y)

Lx + H(x -

+ G(x -

z)

E
(1)

+ H+

G)x - Hy - Gz

=E

Similarly the equations for the other meshes are

- Hx + (M + F + H) y - Fz = - Ox - Fy + (N + G + F)z =

(2)
(3)

Before giving the general solution, we consider some very useful results which follow if the resistances be related in a particular manner.

"

Bridge

117. To Find the Resistance of a Wire by the " Method. In 116 eliminate * from (2) and
y =

(3).

{MG + OH + HF + FG}
If such

{NH + OH + HF +
z,

FO}

z.

an adjustment

MG
/.

is made that = NH, then y = y - Z = 0,

and there
principle

is

no current in the conductor F. This is the " '" method of deteremployed in the Bridge

mining the resistance of a wire.

connected as resistance and the values of N, G,

M in figure. F

The wire considered

is

is

H are adjusted

a galvanometer,

until there is

no

FLOW

01?

ELECTRICITY IN CONDUCTORS

103

deflection of the galvanometer. zero, or

Then

the current in

is

y -

0,

.'.

MG

= NH,

or

M/N =

H/G.
/f are known.

This gives the resistance

if 2V, (7,

118. To Find the Resistance of a Galvanometer by Lord Kelvin's Method. If MG = NH as above, ami therefore there is no current in F, it cannot make any
difference to the currents in the other conductors make infinite by opening a key in F.
if

we

We

can prove this analytically.

(2)

Since y

z,

equations

(1)

and

become
(L +

H+
-

and

G)x - (H + G)y = K Hx + (M + H]y =

<>

As these equations do not contain F, the values of 2 and y In fact are independent of F.
x =
y =
z

x~y=x-z=

E(M + H)/(ML + Mil + MG + EH/ (ML + MH + MG + LH) EMI (ML + Mil + MG LH).
i

III]

Let be the required resistance of a galvanometer. until Insert a key inF and adjust the resistances N, 0, the current indicated by the galvanometer does not alter whether the key be open or closed. When this is the case, is found *= or H'G, hence by above, if N, G, be known.

MG

NH

MIN =

Method.

119. To Find the Resistance of a Cell by Mance's Let z be eliminated from (1) and (2). Then AV;. (FL + GH + HF + FG)x - (GM + Gil + IIF f FWy
-

If such

an adjustment is made that FL x - y = EGI(FL + GH 4- HF +

OM,
FG).

then

and the solution does not involve the value of X. is the current in H, therefore the current altered by opening a key in provided FL

Hut
_.*

-.

104

PLOW OF ELECTRICITY IN CONDUCTORS.

Example. Let be the required resistance of a cell. Put a key in and a galvanometer in H, and adjust the other resistances until the galvanometer deflection is unaltered by opening or closing

the key.

Then

L is

given by the equation

LF = MG.

12O. Full

Solution

Wheatstone Net.

of the Equations for Eliminating x from (2) and (3)

the

(MG +

OH + HF +

FG)y =

(NH + GH + HF +

FG)z.

Eliminate y from (2) and (3)

(MG +

GH + HF +FG)x

= {FM +

+
Hence we can write A x = FM + FN + FH + FG + A y = NH + GH + HF + FG, A z = 3/<2 + (?# + JO + FG,
7

MN + MG + NH +

FN + FH + FG

GH)z.

MN + MG

NH +

GH,

where
If

is

to be determined

by the equation

(1).

for the sum of products of the resistances in the sides of triangle, FGH, two a,t a time, we get the forms

we adopt the condensed notation (FGH)

/k =

JK = =

NH +
MG +
MG

MG + NH + (FMN) +

(FGH),

= = =

NH - MG, NH + (FMN),
+ (FMN).
z)

(FGH), (FGH),

Now
*
.'.

^A
This

= L(FM +

= # JJ(a - y) + #(* ^ FN+ FH + FG + MN + MG + NH+#H)

+ #(tfJf + + J/JV + MG), + G(FM + FN + MN + NH).

a symmetrical expression of 16 products, each of All the products of the six resistances, three together, are represented except the four formed by multiplying together the resistances in the three sides of a
is

3 factors.

'

triangle,

LOH + MHF 4- NFG + LMN.

FLOW OP ELECTRICITY
121.

IN CONDUCTORS.

lor,

The Metre Bridge.

pieces A, B,

This consists of three brass

whose

electrical resistance is so small that

they can be regarded as points, and correspond to the in Fig. 50. A and are connected by a points A, B, uniform wire whose length is generally a metre. The whole is mounted on a

non-conducting board, and there are terminals, as indicated, so that the galva-

nometer can be connected from A to D, one pole of

battery connected to B, and resistances R and 8 inserted in gaps AB and
the

BD. The other pole of the Fig. r>u. battery is applied at variuntil the galvanometer ous points G along the wire shows no deflection. Let P, Q be resistances of AC, CD then evidently P, Q, R, S correspond to our previous M, QR or gives PS H,N,G; and the condition 8. Of course P/Q CD, as the wire is Q uniform.

AD

=R

QM = HN
AC

122. The Post Office Box. This is a resistance lx>.\ with three sets of resistances. Its terminals are marked with the conventional letters G, B, L, E, often placed in
the boxes.

To

distinguish the

Q
S

(P)

(Q)

GL

two

6r's

and

7?'s

we

shall

have

to use the double letters GL, EB, etc., as names of single The resistance P Upoints.

Fig. 51.

tween G and B, and also Q Utween B and GL, can usually be 10, 100 or 1000 as desired;
thus the ratio P Q can INcan be any integer from S to be found is connected

1.

10, 100, 1/10 or 1/100. The resistance 10,000.

to

E;

from

to

the galvanometer from EB. Instead of B,

G G

to

GL.

tin-

one often

battery uses the

106
terminals

FLOW OF ELECTRICITY

IN CONDUCTORS.

with

BK, GK on two keys which connect when pressed 8 = R X 1, and K. For a balance, P/Q = E!S
;
. .

10, 100, 1/10 or 1/100.

123. The Carey Poster Bridge. It has four gaps as shown. Its object is
to

find

the

difference

between two resistances

and

and 8 are equal. fixed resistances nearly resistLet r equal. ance of unit length of

very nearly

Fig. 52.

bridge wire. When a balance obtained at C,

is

P+
Q+

r.

AC _ R
'

r.

CD

ti

P+
Q
Interchange

r.

AC

AD
get a balance at
R_

and

some point

Then Q + r. AC' P + Q+r.AD

Comparing these equations
R"+~$

P+
.-.

r.

AC = Q +
r

r.

AC'
r.

/>

- Q =

(AC - AC) =

CC'

Q is found if r (taking due note of sign). Hence P be known. One can determine r by use of two resistances whose difference is accurately known or as in Ex. 9
;

below.

sistance

124. Extension of the Carey Foster Method. T be placed between A and D in Fig. ;">2.
.

Let a
. .

re-

balance

and

if

is obtained, there is no current in the the other mesh currents be x in mesh formed by P,

When a galvanometer G
I?,

FLOW OF ELECTRICITY
and AC-, y
in
,

IN CONDUCTORS.
in

107
/;

S,

Q and CD

ACD

and T; we have,

being the battery resistance, Q

= Rx + fy
x)

(1)

E=B(x-y) + (R +

-E=B(y-

AC (x - z) + (S+Q)y + r. CD (y - z)
P)x +
r.

(2) (3)

+ rCD(z - y) + T-.. Equation (4) gives (T + r. AD)z = r. AC.x + r. Cl>.y. Add (2) and (3), O^R + P) x + (S + V) y - r. A D. +
x)
-.

= r.AC(z -

(4)

r.AC.x +

r.

CD.y.
Eliminate
2,

+ Tr.AC/(T+rAD)}+y[8+Q +
But by (\)x/y = - S/R.

Tr.CD/(T+r.A/>)}.

R + p + r.T.AC/(T + rAD) = S + Q
If
.'.

+ r.T.CD/(T + r.A D) 8

Itr'

= r.Tj(T+r.AJ))
r'.AC

P+
which
r' is

R
'&'

Q + r'.CD

the same as in 123, with >' substituted for t: Evidently I3o the effect of inserting ^is that the apparent resistance per unit length of the bridge wire is altered quite arbitrarily, if only

<

r.

less

so that

than the actual resistance per unit length. One usually adjusts r' = a convenient submultiple of an ohm.
1.

Ex.
at R,
8.

In a

and a

fine

AC =

When S is

42 cm. When S is at boiling point, the balance is at 34 '4 em. Find the resistances at these temperatures, and the temperature eefficient of the resistance.

bridge wire a standard ohm is placed copper wire, whose temperature can be varied, at at freezing point, a balance is obtained at C where

common meter

and 100 Let S 100 be the resistances at - 42)/42 = 1 3SO. Evidently S /l = (100 = (100 - 34-4)/34'4 - 1-JH17. Also S 100 The change of resistance = '527, Hence the change per 1 = '00527. The temperature coefficient = change per
1

-:-

resistance

at

freezing point

'00527/1 '380

'00382.
!

Ex. 2. In a Carey Foster bridge / is a standard nluii and V " '" *' approximate ohm. The balances when /' and V at<e fts and reversed are respectively at 50'7 and 4! 2. Another expori ment is made in which Pis used in parallel with a -'<> 'hm e
-

108

PLOW OF ELECTRICITY

IN CONDUCTORS.

43 '3.

that the joint resistance is 20/21. The balances are now at 62 '7 and Find the resistance r per cm. of bridge wire, and the exact resistance of Q. 1 + 56'7r = Q + 49'2r, Q = 1 + 7'5r. By theory

Also

20/21

+ 62-7r = Q

43'3r,
/.

Hence

And
Ex.
is

= 1/21 Q =

11 '9r, 1-030.

Q= r =

20/21
'0040.

19'4r

3. Suppose the above experiment (Ex. 2) carried on when When Q is at 100, we get balances, with at temperature 15. the 1 ohm coil as above, at 58 '8 and 43 '3. Find the temperature

coefficient of Q.

At

100
<2 100

Q loo =
/.

+ 43'3r= 1 + 58'8r 1 + 15-5 x -004 =

"032.

1-062.

But by previous example Q 15 - 1-030

change for 85

Hence by proportion the change

006.

We infer the

for 1 is '032/85 and for 15 resistance at freezing point = 1 '024.

coefficient is

is

Hence the temperature

032-

{85

x 1-024}=

'00037.

Ex. 4r. A column of mercury in a tube of diameter '5 mm. and length 100 cm. is placed in one arm of a metre bridge and a 1 ohm standard coil in the other. balance is obtained at 17 cm. from the end nearest to the 1 ohm. Find the resistance of the mercury column and the specific resistance of mercury at the temperature of the experiment.
;

By

125. Disturbance of Balance of Wheatstoiie Net. 120 the current in the galvanometer is
y z

= E(NH - MG)/A.

NH - MG.
Then

a balance if the current is zero, and If one of the four resistances N, M, G, slightly altered, this can be expressed by putting

There

is

H be

/.

if

N= MG/H+n.
y z

= EHnj A

where, of course, is not large.

A is

nearly constant

when
is

Hence the current

the charge of proportional to

FLOW OF ELECTRICITY
the difference

IN CONDUCTORS.

lOJ)

n between the actual resistance and the balancing resistance, provided n is not large. differ by m from the value By similar work, if

M
z

necessary to balance,

EGm I A

And
But

changes m, n produce the same current nff = - mG

;

if

NH = MG, hence
m/M = n/N.

Example. A P.O. box is used to measure a small resistance. 122, S is small, and we arrange Hence, using the notation of No exact balance is found, but 100 so that S = R/IQO. P/Q the galvanometer deflection (assumed proportional to current) is 13 divisions to right when ti = 27 and 10 to left for 28. Find the
correct value of

for a balance.

Evidently

R-

27

28

- R = R=
S

10

13

26-4
"264

and

ohm.

126. The Potentiometer or Foggendorff Net. A E and e represent the diagrammatic view is given. E.M.F.s of the corresponding batteries. P, Q, G are the resistances A

AC, CDBA, AGC. The mesh curand y in ABCA, ACGA. The equations for the two meshes are
of

rents are x

4J1

P (y

x)

+ G

y.

J.'
Fi"7r>3.

case is when we adjust for zero current in the galo. vanometer in arm G. Then y

The most useful

...

E=(P +
e

Q) x,

r.r

.'.

= PE!(P +

Q).

a strong constant battery, and the two batteries to be compared are connected to the same terminal of the
is

The experiment

is

usually to compare E.M.F.';

110

FLOW OF ELECTRICITY

IN CONDUCTORS.

galvanometer.
resistances If -f Q

A balance is P and Q then for

;

e'

is

kept constant,
e

obtained first for e with with P' and Q P' R, then Q'
f
.

= PE/R,

e'

= P'EJK

and
e/e'

P/P'.

can be a constant battery (e.g. a Clark Since 110 for comparisons of E.M.F. cell) kept only current goes through it in the required position, and only small transient currents pass as the position is sought, the cell is not liable to get out of order, as it would do if used

The battery

for the

Bosscha method
of

131).

127. Forms

Potentiometer.

In

one

form

of

is a bridge wire, either straight as in potentiometer, the ordinary meter bridge or bent to secure greater length. In another, and CD are two ordinary boxes B(E)

AD

AC

each

capable

of

giving

resistances (say) from 1 ohm to 100 ohms. As the resistance of one is increased that of the other is diminished, their sum
Fig.
,34.

either box has its inserted. third form of potentiometer has two resistance boxes used as above, and a bridge wire of resistance 1 ohm The total resistance l)etween them. Q is then 101 is given by one box and ohms and the value of part of

being kept constant and =100. So that every withdrawn from plug corresponding plug in the other box

P+

the bridge wire the box giving a whole and the wire a decimal.
;

number

of

ohms

128. Other uses of the Potentiometer.

of a balance, we have seen e a standard one, the value of

= Px
e is

In the case If the cell is 126). accurately known. Since

(

FLOW OF ELECTRICITY

IN CONDUCTORS.

Ill

P is also
reliable

of measuring currents.

known, the potentiometer gives instantly a method This method is often much more than the measurement by a direct reading galvanol>e

It is very rare that a galvanometer can meter. on so certainly as a standard cell or a resistance.

relied

arbitrary units.

AC

potentiometer wire has a length of 4(H) cm., or other A balance is obtained with a Clark cell at reading = 257 and with a Dry cell at 280. Find the E.M.F. of the Dry cell (that of the Clark = 1 -433).
1.

Ex.

The E.M.F. =

1-433 x 280/257

'56.

Ex. 2. A balance (with the same potentiometer but different current) is found for a Bunsen cell at 340 and a Daniell at 2U~>. Find the E.M.F. of the Bunsen, that of the Daniell being 1 'OS. Find also the Potential Difference between the ends of a wire.
Bunsen = 340 x
P.I).
1

-08/205

'79 volts.
volts.

=400

x 1-08/205 ^2-17

Ex. 3. A potentiometer as described in 127; the

Clark cell current x.
is

is made up with two resistance boxes sum of the resistances being 100. A

balanced

when the
e

resistance
/.
1

AC is 05 ohms.
65
.

Find the

Px,

'433

x =

-022 ampere.

V Ex. 4. A potentiometer net is set up in boxes whose sum is not kept constant. There is a galvanometer which is to be standardised in the arm Q, and e is a Daniell is adjusted so as to produce a balance in a sensitive galvanometer at G. The galvanometer indicates 204, 31, 41 '6, 63'2. !>7 milliamps when P = 54, 30, 27, 18, 12 ohms. Tabulate the errors of the galvanometer. Since x = e/P, the true currents in amperes are the quotients 1'08 by the given resistances; and therefore are 2<>, 3<, 40. are "4, 1, 1 "6, 3-2. 7 and The errors
which
ai e
'

P and

two

niilliamps.

(negative)

be plotted against the galvanometer readings.

An electrometer is connected to two point** 20 cm. 5. varied on a uniform potentiometer wire. The current is apart cell
Ex.
that the scale readings are 10, 20, 30, 40. .TO. balanced correspondingly at distance 276, 133. 85, the electrometer. cm. corresponds Clearly in the tirst case 276

Clark

(5

112

FLOW OF ELECTRICITY
1

IN CONDUCTORS.

hence 20 cm. corresponds to 20 X

divisions indicate 104 millivolts.

"433/276

'104.

Hence 10
215 337 462 597

scale

Similarly

20 30 40 50

scale divisions indicate

,,

129. Rectangular Array of Cells.

sets in parallel,
I
1 1

Let there be in each containing n similar cells in series. In

figure,
1

m=
B

4 and n

5.

Let E,
jl

be the electromo-

1
I

S~*\
I

'!

'iN

tive force

and resistance of
Let

il

il

il

each

cell.

jl

j|

^L^
I I
1

ternal resistance.

be the exIf x be

j
|

||-^fj

the

K
And
the current

current through every mx must be the current through the resistance R. Applying Kirchoff's Law
cell,

to one

mesh,

nBx + Rmx = nE,

.'.

= nE/(mR +

nB).

C in R is given by = mx = mnE/(mR + nB). C

In each of the
it

To

mn

cells

find the heat developed per second. it is Bx~ in the outside wire
;

is

(ma?)

-.

Therefore the total

is

H = rnnBx- +
;

Rm~x~,

= mx~(nB + Rm), = mnxE

so that it is equivalent to the energy supplied per second, It also as it ought to be.

mrii E'i l(mR

nB).

The zinc consumed per second is evidently mnxz if z be the electrochemical equivalent of zinc. It is therefore proportional to the heat supplied.

FT,OW OF ELECTRICITY IN CONDUCTORS.

113

130.

Maximum
G=

Let Cells. the current

N be the number of cells

m)iE/(mR

Current with

put

given number of = mn. Then

nB) =

NE/(mR +

ntt).

Now C is mR -f nB is NRB, which

is least if

greatest (given N) when the denominator But the product of these terms is is constant. And the sum of two otherwise
least.

unrestricted positive quantities whose product is constantthe quantities are equal. Hence C is greater the more nearly nB. Analytically, this is proved by the identity (mR + nB)- = (mR - nB)- + 4mnRB,

mR =

= (mR
Hence,
if

nB)"

constant.

possible,

mR
.'.

nB, and mn

Ar

m~

= NB/R.

since m is restricted to be an integral factor of N, cannot always equal */NB/R, and we are obliged to take the two nearest factors, one on each side of ^NB/R

But

it

and

find

which of them makes

mR

nB

numerically

smallest.

Example. 120 cells of resistance 1 ohm are to be grouped to send a maximum current through a wire of 20 ohms resistance. Find the best method. Here mn hence m~ 6, and the nearest 120, and '20m = n factors to y6 are 2 and 3. - = - 20 or -(-20. It = 2 or 3, n = 60 or 40, 20i Hence happens therefore that the two arrangements, two series each of (>0 and three series each of 40, give the same current in /?. The second arrangement is preferable it uses less /inc.
;

131. Bosscha or
potentiometer method

Lumsden Net.
is

This

is

to compart*

while tlif electromotive forces compare The of cells through which a current is not passing.

the electromotive force

of to

two active*

cells,

The method should not be used

M. PH.
I.

for a

Clark or other standard

cell.

114
cells

FLOW OF ELECTRICITY

IN CONDUCTORS.

and E2 and resistance B^ and B z are of E.M.F. as in figure. arranged with resistance boxes R and R z Let x and y be mesh currents,

and

6r

meter.

the resistance of galvanoThe equations are

(R*

+B

)y

+ G(y-x) =

E,.

If there be no current in vanometer G, x = y,

gal-

If

another balancing adjust-

ment be obtained with

different resistances,

.'.

finally

:E.Z

= R^ -

R^.

R'.,

R.z

If there be no balance, solving for the current in the galvanometer we obtain

^
R.

Q + BI

Rz

G \ + Bj'
-B is of

The
course

potential difference at the points

n(

A
1

and

= v= V

G(x

- y}=
\

(
(

V/ti

E - E + />! Xt +
^ '
,

2 z

C2/

//I /(TV+P.P+P.P \W M + B + X>2/

i

\
)

/1 3

and the

potential difference which would exist if the galvanometer were removed or replaced by an electrometer

(G

= oc

l/G
/
l

= 0)

E,
,,

\R + B,

\ 2 1_ If + BJl {B, + Bi

R z + Bj

The student can

cise.

calculate x and y separately as an exerIn the balancing adjustment

E )/(B
z

B,)

and the assumption

the current.

is

made

that the .ETs do not alter with

FLOW OF ELECTRICITY

IN CONDUCTORS.

IK)
1

Ex. 1. Three Daniells of resistance 2 are in series with a resistance of 4 ohms. the two terminals of one Daniell cell. shall do this a shorter way, applicable when there is only one current. The E.M.F. = 3 and resistance = 7, therefore current = 3/7. If Tbe P.D. required of

ohms and E.M.F.

volt

Find the P.D. between

We

over B,
1

and

= E.M.F. between A and

B,
-

resistance.
.-.

r+1 =

x3/7(
4/7.

113).

F- That
is,

Fi

the P.D. of
If

over

.4

is

4/7 volts.

were connected to B by a galvanometer of resistance 2 ohms, what currents would flow. Let a- be mesh current through the one cell A Band y through the other two cells x - y through galvanometer. Then

Ex.

2.

x
.'.

+
Qy

x =

11/19,

'2(x-y) = 1, + y - x = 2, y = 7/19, x - y =

4/19.

The P.D. Ex.

of

A and B =
cells

2(x

y)

8/19.

are compared by Lumsden's method. A 3. balance is obtained with resistances 50 and 125, and also loo ami 212. Find ratio of E.M.F.'s, and show that one cell has a resist-

Two

ance exceeding 20.

}

~ = 50 +
125

/?,

~ =

E.,

B.,

100 - 50 212 - 125

50
S7'

Hence 4350 + 87#, = 0250 + 50#... As B, cannot be negative, /f, > 1900/87 > 20.

Ex. 4. A Daniell (E.M.F. 1'08) is cum INI red with a Bk-hronmUby Lumsden's method. The resistances with the Daniell and Bichromate were first 6 and 14; afterwards 20 and 35. Find the E.M.F. of the Bichromate, and the least possible resistance of tinDaniell.

132. Examples illustrating Miscellaneous Experi-

ments.
very small resistance is to l>e found. U-twit-n ^lint* a bar.4#G'/>. The connections are made asdntun The box at A is a standard ohm and 2iKM is 2iNNi ,,|,IIH. A' in AH
1.

Ex.

B and C on

116

FLOW OF ELECTRICITY

IN CONDUCTORS.

galvanometer

If A be united to the terminal of the adjustable resistance. = 59. If we get a balance when be united, R = 37. If C be united, = 15. Find resistance BC. By principle of Wheatstone's bridge,

1/AD =
(1

2000/59

Hence
Also

(1 (I

+ AB)IBD = 2000/37 (1+AC)/CD = 2000/15 = 2000/2059 1/(1 + AD) 1 + AD = 2059/2000 + A .#)/(!+ AD) = 2000/2037 + AC)I(\ + AD) -2000/2015 BCj(\ + AD) = 2000/2015 .-.

2000/2037.

Fig. 58.

Hence

finally

Bc=(-L. V 2015
2015

2037
2037

-M/JL 2059
) I

= 2059 _ 2059
Ex.
are
2.
-0110.

A battery of resistance B and a galvanometer of resistance connected in series with a resistance R then G is put in parallel with a resistance $ and the two are connected to the The current in galvanometer is same in both cases find battery.
G
first
; ;

relation

between resistances.
-\-

In

first

Ej(R

case the total resistance is R + -f Cf, therefore current + <). In second case, if mesh currents be x and y, as

in figure 59,

E = Bx + S(x = Gy +
.'.

y} x)

K(y

= M/(SG + SB +

KG).

FLOW OF ELECTRICITY
Hence
E/(R

IN CONDUCTORS.

117

+B+

G)

S/(SG

titi

+ BU)

This arrangement can be used to find battery resistance B, if ft known. If we connect a battery of small resistance to a box //, the combination can be regarded as a battery of resistance H. The above relation can then be used to find galvanometer resistance // or (if this be known) a large resistance R or a small one S.
lie

-1=*Fig. 59.
Fig.
tin.

Ex. 3. In arrangement in Fig. 60. the letters being resistances, find the condition that the P. D. at terminals of r and of /' are equal.
Let x,y, x

+ y be currents in P, Q, r. x(P + B)-yQ = o,y =

-f y),

Then

x(P
;

The

potential differences are r (x

r

Px and
f

these are equal

R).
r.

if

= PI(\+

y/x)

= PQI(P

Q+

This method

P and

(J

used to find a very small resistance are standard ohm coils,

is

Usually

Ex. 4. A battery (of negligible resistance) is connected to A A voltameter and releases 30 c.c. of hydrogen in 5 minutes. > ohm resistance is inserted, and the rate of production of hydrogen falls to 21 cm. per o minutes. Find the resistance of the voltameter, and the production of hydrogen if 10 ohms were inserted.

Ex.

5.

battery, whose resistance

is

made up

to |o

ohms

a resistance box, is put in series with a galvanometer of 10Unlnn The same current is proresistance, shunted with a 1/10 ohm coil. duced when the battery is connected direct to the galvanometer (unshunted) through a large resistance /.'. Calculate If.

118

FLOW OP ELECTRICITY

IN CONDUCTORS.

133. Resistance and Temperature.

fined temperature coefficient (41, end) to measure it ( 53, Exs. 8, 10).

We

have de-

and shown how

is

Strictly, the change of resistance with temperature not quite uniform. If t be the centigrade temperature, the resistance, and A its value at freezing point,

R =
The constants a and
b

A(\

at

U-).

state of the wire as well as

depend somewhat on the physical on its material. As approximate values a = "00367, b = '00000038 for

platinum. The student may verify that, with these values of a and 273 C. b, R is almost zero at the temperature For various very pure metals Matthiessen has given the

mean

values,

-003824, b

= +

-00000126.

For t 273 these would give '0064, or the It may be resistance is 1/167 of that at freezing point. stated generally that even bodies generally regarded as insulators become good conductors when cooled to the very
like that of liquid air, and it is not impossible that all bodies without exception would conduct at the thermodynamic absolute zero.

low temperatures

134. The Platinum Resistance Thermometer. platinum thermometer is designed to measure temperatures beyond the range of a mercury thermometer, and also to measure ordinary temperatures and temperature differences with a precision unattainable by mercury or air thermometers. A form devised by Callendar and Griffiths is shown diagrammatically (Fig. 61). ab is a fine platinum wire, wound on a mica frame and enclosed in a bulb (glass or porcelain) to be exposed to the temperatures measured. Aa and Bb are the thick wires (platinum preferably), called leads, which conduct to it. CD is another wire of same material whose resistance is the sum of the resistIf the difference of resistance of ances of Aa and Bb.

FLOW OF ELECTRICITY

IN CONDUCTORS.

119

AabB and

of CD be found, this is the correct resistance of ab at the temperature of the enclosure. For accurate work another identical thermometer in taken, whose corresponding terminals can be indicated by

dashed

letters.

It

is

at temperature

&

say,

while the first one is at 6. The parts and C'D' are part in series, also the parts CD and A'B' and therefore the difference
;
.

AB

of resistances ABC'D' and CD A'B' is preIt cisely that of the fine wires ab, a'b' is practically proportional to the temperature difference 0'. Supposing ab to be about 1 ohm, the difference of resistance 0' 1 will be about "00367 ohm. for 6 It is quite easy to measure by the Carey Foster bridge to a much smaller quantity.

135. Simplified Formulae. If only one platinum wire is used, the temperature We have is inferred from the resistance.

Fig. 01.

R =
If
t

A(l

at

bt-).

o,

R=A

point.

Let

B
B

hence A is the resistance at freezing be the resistance at boiling point, so that

;

B =A
"
.

{1

+ +

lOOtt

100006}

R - A _ ~ -

t(a

bt)

100(a

6.100)'

A). A) (B If b were o, it is evident thaU 100(72 " This quantity is denoted by p, and is called the platinum calculated on th temperature." It is the temperature erroneous hypothesis that the temperature coefficient of platinum is constant.

Hence
p
t

=
=

a a

-f

ift

im'

6.100

Different observers give very diffeivnt

values for tin

120

FLOW OF ELECTRICITY

IN CONDUCTORS.

temperature coefficient of platinum. They range from a -0024 to -0038. The divergence is undoubtedly due to the different physical state of the samples of platinum examined. If we use

-0036

3-6 bja

10~*,
1'5

= ,

5-4 x ICT 7

then

= -

X 10~ 4

hence the above formula gives

-Z_*

= -

1:5

X 10~ 4 X

(t

100), nearly

and approximately

=
is

1-5

-^

(^

ij.

This formula

recommended by Callendar.

to be nearly correct for samples of efficient a has very different values,

It seems platinum whose cowhence a/b must be

nearly constant.

Example.
Evidently

If

A=
1 '5

1*20,
1 "92.

B=

1'50,

tind

the

temperature
-72/-30

in-

dicated by a resistance

Hence

-p =

p=

100(12

A)/(B x 2'4 x 1'4

- A) = 100 x

240.

= 5,

/.

245 C.

CHAPTER
THE MAGNETIC
netic

VIII.

FIELD.

136. Magnetic Matter. Point Pole. Many magphenomena have at first sight a close resemblance to electric phenomena. We shall find, however, fundamental
differences.

The elementary

definitions can be adopted

from

We

electrostatics with very slight changes. speak of two kinds of magnetic matter or magnetism,

North magnetism and South magnetism. North magnetism is the magnetism observed on that end of a freely suspended compass needle which points nearly to the north in England, and indeed in most countries. The quantity, in a given space, of either kind of magnetic matter will generally be taken to mean the excess of the quantity of that kind over the opposite kind. Point Pole is a body containing magnetic matter, and so small that its dimensions may be disregarded. Nothing quite resembling a point pole exists in nature. The nearest resemblance is one end of a uniformly magnetised steel rod. This pole is rigidly connected with another point pole of the contrary kind at the other end of the rod. shall be obliged at first, however, to speak of detached point poles as though such things wen-

We

possible.

137. Coulomb's Law. (Cf. by one point pole on another

is

2.)in

-The f.mv
the
straight
lim-

It is proportional to the quantity oi magjoining them. netic matter in each, and to the inverse square of distance between them. It is a repulsion if the jtoli-s are
1-J1

122

THE MAGNETIC FIELD.

both
If

or both S, * and an attraction other 8.

if

one

is

N and the

units,

and m, be the charges measured in any convenient and if P be the force and r the distance apart,
l

Pot wiiWa/r2
or

P = m^/pr2
H being a constant.

138. Unit Pole. The unit quantity of magnetism or the unit pole is such that, collected at a point, it would repel an equal and like quantity similarly collected at a point The accepted at unit distance (in air) with unit force. unit is that which repels a like equal pole at a distance of The surone centimetre with the force of one dyne. rounding medium is air in the definition, but the forces hardly depend on the medium at all, unless it be iron or one of a very few substances. It is sensibly the same if air be replaced by
oil,

vulcanite, brass, water, etc.

Ex. 1. Two magnets 10 cm. long and of precisely equal strength are hung by cords side by side from a It is observed that their upper ends, to which point. the cords are fastened, are 1 cm. apart and the lower ends 2 cm. apart. If the weight of each magnet be determine the pole strength, and inclination of 5 g cords, neglecting all forces except the weights of the magnets, tensions of cords, and mutual repulsions. Let be the pole strength and let be the mutual repulsion of lower poles, so that

P = m */& = m ~/4.
To
pole

eliminate the tensions of the cords take

S of magnet SN. Then,

10
2

moments about upper

very nearly,
2

/.
/.

w /4 = 5 g x 1/2, m =g = 981, m =31-6.

*We
when

shall use these letters as contractions for North and South, these terms are used in their magnetic sense.

THE MAGNETIC FIELD.

The
2
f

1*23

repulsion between the lower poles is wi /4 = <//4 that between the upper poles is w 2 /! = g/l, therefore the horizontal force on each magnet is 5 flf/4. The vertical force (weight of acting magnet) = 5g; hence the tension of the cord must act so that it vertical component is four times its horizontal component hence
;

the slope of the cord to the vertical

is

tan ~' 1/4

14.

Ex. 2. If the same magnets were suspended with their in contact, calculate how far apart their poles would

poles

hang.

Ex. 3. If the same magnets be fixed 4 cm. apart, and parallel, so that the line joining the S pole of each magnet to the A" pole of the other is perpendicular to the line of each magnet, calculate the total attraction exerted by each on the other.

139. Field. magnetic field is a region of space within which the influence of magnetic bodies extends. The field of a particular body is the region in which its action is sensible with such means of observation as we
Field Strength or Force or Field Intensity or Field simply) is the force that a unit point pole would experience at the place considered, if it exercised no influence on the magnetic distribution in its neighlxnir-

hood.
the

The mathematical consequences of these definitions are same as those of the corresponding definitions in
8, 9.

electrostatics, see

Field

is

due to a pole m at a distance r from pole has magnitude m/r', and is in the direction of r.

a vector quantity
that

and the

field

140. Potential. The excess of potential at one point, over another point in a magnetic field is the work which the magnetic forces would do on a unit pole travelling (in air) from the first point to the second point.

The mathematical consequences of this definition are As in 11, tin10. the same as for Electric Potential, magnetic potential due to a pole m at a distance r from has magnitude in V, and is a scalar quantity, so that fluare simply added with dispotentials due to different
ii

poles

regard to sign. All the electric and magnetic phenomena which depend

124

THE MAGNETIC FIELD.

immediately on Coulomb's
that

Law

are so closely analogous

assume identical mathematical formulae without further proof, and shall proceed to explain only properties in which marked differences appear. Practically the whole of Chapter I. applies (except 17 and certain consequences, for though Maxwell Lines are used in magnetism, Faraday Tubes are not). Chapter II. does not
shall

we

apply, for nothing analogous to a conductor exists in magnetism. The relevance of Chapter III. is considered in Chapter XII.

Ex. 1. Draw a series of equipotential lines for the poles 10 ^V and 10 S placed at Ar and S, 10 cm. apart. The working and the result are the same as for Exercise 3, 9 in
Electrostatics.

Ex. 2. Two magnets of length 10 cm. and pole strength 20 are placed parallel, with like poles pointing the same way, so that the four poles occupy the four corners of a square. Find the field and potential at the centre of the square, and at the point midway
between the

N poles.

141. The Earth's Local Field. Under ordinary circumstances, the field strength due to the earth is constant in magnitude and direction over a wide area. For example, the field at Greenwich for 1910 has magnitude

F=
slope to horizon
5

-476,

67,

and therefore

its

horizontal component

H = Fcos
and
vertical

-186,

component V = Fsind =

-438.

The vertical plane which contains the earth's field makes now in Greenwich an angle of nearly 16 [15 45'
in 1910] to the west of north. All these data are liable to rapid fluctuations about their mean values for the year, and the niean values alter very slowly with the time.

THE MAGNETIC FIELD.

rj."i

142. Ideal Simple Magnet is a mathematical It consists of two equal and contrary poles, conception. and 8, at a distance apart. It is represented, with some accuracy, by a carefully magnetised knitting-needle or steel bar, the distance between the poles being taken as roughly equal to the length of the bar.* But we shall HW that it is generally not important that an experimental magnet should approach the ideal character. Every magnetised body has the property that the algebraic sum of

An

.AT" magnetism (the S being taken negative) is zero. The Ideal Simple Magnet is the simplest arrangement

all its

which fulfils this condition. By dividing the N magnetism of an ordinary magnet into a set of poles, and the S magnetism into a set respectively equal to them, we decompose the magnet into a numl>er of ideal simple ones.

143.
uniform
Hr

Magnet
field.

ideal simple magnet,

of the poles. On -j- m m at the force exerted is mF, on the contrary way. These S the force is equal and contrary forces form a couple X 8K, where S*K is the perpendicular let

m the magnitudes

in a Uniform Field. Let N8 be an be the direction of the and let Let F be the field strength,

KN

at

mp

mF
to

mF
fall

from

8 on

magnet, 6

= its

If / length to the direction slope

KN.

SN of

KN

of field, this couple

iii/F sin 0.

The product ml
called

is

denoted by M, and

is

the magnetic moment.

Hence the

Fi-

itt.

couple

MF S m6.

This formula shows that the effect of a uniform field on an ideal simple magnet is identical with that on any other ideal simple magnet which has equal magnetic moment, and its axis in the same straight line or a parallel one
*

by spherical

Robisoivs magnets, consisting of a narrow stt-cl bar trrinnr steel knobs, are nearer to the ideal.

126

THE MAGNETIC FIELD.

Example. A magnet of length 10 cm. and pole strength 20 is placed horizontally, pointing magnetic east (perpendicular to the direction of H). Find the couple exerted on it (1) by the earth'shorizontal field //, (2) by the vertical field V taking the values
;

from

141.

144. Compound Magnet. As in 142, any compound magnet is replaceable by a number of ideal simple ones. Let their magnetic moments and axes be represented in FG magnitude and. direction by the sides AS, BC, The first simple of a polygon taken in order.
. .

AB

magnet has moment

;

AB and

axis parallel to

can therefore be replaced (so far as its magnetic moment is concerned) by poles 1 8 and 1 N, or 1 and + 1, at A and B, since these form a magnet of moment AB AB. Similarly the second is replaced x 1
it

1, .+ 1 at F and G. being replaced by 1 Thus at each point B, C ... F, we have 1 together, which cancel each other, and the whole and 1 and -f 1 at A and G. The magsystem reduces to

by

and

at

and

C,

and

so

on

the

last

netic

phenomena which depend on magnetic moments only, we can compound together any system of simple magnets by the polygon law, or vector addition. That is, if a magnetic system can be decomposed into simple magnets whose moments are FG of a polygon represented by the sides AB, BC, taken in order, the system will act like a simple magnet whose moment is represented by the side A G that closes
dealing with
. .
.

moment of this is If therefore we are

AG

= AG.

the polygon. This proposition can be called the Polygon of Magnetic Moments. The moment of the resultant simple magnet is called the Moment of the System.

145. The Action of a Uniform Field on a Compound Magnet. Resolve the compound magnet into constituent single ones. Let their magnetic moments be
their resultant be

represented by the sides of a polygon ( 144), and let M, the magnetic moment of the compound

THE MAGNETIC FIELD.

magnet.

127

The effect of the uniform field on each constituent simple magnet is given by 143, and depends 144) the effect only on its magnetic moment. Hence ( of on the whole magnet is the same as on the resultant

simple magnet

makes an angle 6 with the direction of If therefore F, the resultant effect is a couple of moment M. sin 0. o. It is zero when Its maximum value is MF, and takes place when

M M

= 90. This maximum becomes if F 1 Hence we have a secondary or physical definition of Magnetic Moment. The Magnetic Moment of any simple or compound magnet is the maximum couple which can be exerted on Its direction is that direction it by a uniform unit field. in the magnet which coincides with the field when no couple is exerted. The direction is sometimes called the
.

Magnetic Axis.
and V are fixed together so Ex. 1. Two magnets of moment that their magnetic axes contain an angle a. Find the magnetic moment of the combination, in magnitude and direction. Let it be W, and let it make angles 0, a - d with 7 and V.

Then

W~ =
and
W/s'm a

U*+
U/sin

r F 2 - 26 rcosa,

(a

6)

V/sin

8,

by Lami's Theorem

for Forces.
of

Ex.

2.

Four magnets

moment

3, o, 7,

9 are placed in order

along the four sides of a square. the combination.

Find the magnetic moment of

(5~9)-

W "=

V(3

7)

\'-2.

Its direction makes 45 with the sides, bisecting the angle between the magnetic axes 7 and 9.

Three coplanar magnets of moment 10, 20, 3. Find the angles of 120 with one another. moment of the combination.

Ex.

:io.

equal

nmknmgn

146. Experimental

Determination of Magnetic
Field.

Moment, given H, the Earth's Horizontal

The magnet
is

supported in such a

way

that

its

magnet*

128
axis is free to
less fibre.

THE MAGNETIC FIELD.

move

may be suspended on

in a horizontal plane. For instance, it a f rictionless pivot or from a torsion-

is sin 6, if The couple exerted on the magnet by 6 be the angle made by the axis with the direction of H, If now be the moment of i.e. to the magnetic north. inertia of the magnet about the axis of the suspension, the sin 0/K. If be the small angular acceleration Hence the IK. angle, this can be put equal to angular acceleration^ (for small angles) proportional to the angular displacement, therefore the oscillation is simple harmonic, and its complete period is (by theory of simple

H MH

= MH

MHO

harmonic motion)

T =
For values
of

2ir

K see table below.

;

VKJMfT.

is the Moments of Inertia. In the following table mass of the body I, b, r are length, breadth, and radius and is the moment of inertia taken about an axis through the centre of gravity, whose direction is perpendicular to

the linear dimensions in the formula.

Body.

Thin uniform bar Bar of sensible breadth.

MP/12
Rect6 2 )/12

angular Parallelepiped Cylinder, about axis of cylinder Cylindrical bar, about axis perpendicular to axis of cylinder Hollow cylinder, external and internal radii r and s about to its axis perpendicular
length

Mr*/*

M{1~/12

(r

Hollow cylinder, about axis

cylinder

of

)/2

Sphere
Ellipsoid

M
;

2>--/5

semiaxes a, b, c about an axis perpendicular

;

&*)/

to a and b Hollow sphere,

radii r

and

*)/(r3

THE MAGNETIC FIELD.

There

129

is usually no sensible error in supposing the of inertia taken about a vertical axis through the centre of gravity. But if a correction be necessary for the fact that G is not exactly on the axis, it can be found as be the moment of inertia about any axis follows If through the centre of gravity, the moment of inertia alxmt an axis parallel to this axis, but at a distance x from it, is

moment

K + MX*.

147. Bifilar Suspension Torsion Wire. Instead of using the time of oscillation we can use any means of For inmeasuring a couple. stance, let a magnet be suspended
:

horizontal at two points C and D, from the two fixed points, A and

B, by two equal cords, AC and BD.* Let AB = 2a, CD 26, and AB and CD be horizontal, be angle between them. and Let also I = length of cord A C or BD> h depth of CD below

<

^41?,

gm.,

magnet

in dynes, and let T tension in dynes of either cord. In the horizontal plane contain-

W = mass of magnet so that g W = weight

let

in

B'

of

A'B' be drawn equal and vertically under AB, and cutting CD at its middle point 0. tension T in BD can be resolved into a vertical component
ing

CD

and

parallel

T.BB'/BD
along DB'
;

Th'l,

and

and a horizontal component T. similarly for T in AC.

DW

Resolving vertically,
exerted Taking moments about 0, the couple

= 2T.{DK/l} x perpendicular = 4 T x area BOD/

1,

from

on

/>//

= 2Tab
M. PH.
I.

sin #//.

130

THE MAGNETIC FIELD.

Substituting for

T its
=

value found above, the couple

g Wdb sin
(f>/h.

which it couple can also be measured by the twist Its value is L<f>, 4). produces in a torsion wire (cf. where L is a constant for the wire.
<

Ex. 1. magnet 10'4 cm. long, *6 cm. wide, and 45 gm. mass, Find oscillates in earth's horizontal field in a period of 12 seconds.
its

magnetic moment and pole strength.

Period

r = 2ir

Here

K = -^
7T
.'.

x 45{10'4 2

= M=
2

9-87,

H=

-6 }

= 406-8, T =

12,

-186,

600.

The pole strength m J//10'4 approximately, but the divisor should be a little smaller than the true length. It is near enough = 600/10 = 60. to take

Ex. 2. In the above example, if the magnet be supported at a single point, find how far the centre of gravity will be from the The earth's vertical field may be vertical axis through that point. taken as '48.
Let h be the distance required. The moment of the weight about The magnetic the point of suspension is 4:5 gh = 45 x 981 x h. moment is nearly 600, hence the moment of the couple exerted in a vertical plane by V is 600 x '44. For equilibrium,
45 x 981 X h
.'.

= 600 X '44, = -0060 cm.

Ex. 3. Show that if the magnet of Ex. 1, 143, be suspended on a pivot so as to rest horizontal, this pivot must be at a distance about '6 mm. from the centre of gravity, if the mass be 15 gm.

Ex. 4. Show that a magnet can be suspended bifilarly so as to be in neutral equilibrium. Taking the letters used above for bifilar suspension, let A B be in the direction of the magnetic north, pointing southwards. For

THE MAGNETIC FIELD.

any angular displacement the bifilar restoring couple is / Wnt> and the magnetic couple is 3/7/sin tending to increase 0.
are equal for
all

181
sin 0/A, The**;

values of

if

North
this way, but magnet suspended with gWdb slightly greater than ^fHh, is = o, but is n stae in stable equilibrium when
in

equrum

/gs

exceedingly sensitive to
netic fields.

all

disturbing mag-

mH
pj
,

A
gg

(Fig. 66)

Ex. 5. In a bifilar suspension .4/f makes an angle a with the magnetic

along the axis of the magnet as usual. Find the condition that the equilibrium position of the suspended magnet is perpendicular to the meridian. Here the magnetic couple is MJI, and the angle between A A and
is

meridian while

CD

CD

is

^-

hence the condition of equilibrium

is

MH = gWab cos
Ex.
6.

a/A.

If the earth's field alters slightly

by

8/f, find the angle

ft

through which above magnet turns. Evidently

M(H -f 8H) cos e = Wub cos (a - 0)1 h, M(H + dff) = g Haft {cos a + sin o
(j

tan 0}

<h,

.:

Mdll = gWafi sin *H = tan a tan

a tan 0/h.
9.

An apparatus of this kind would register the alterations in the earth's field, if the magnet were provided with a tracing point adapted to record the changes of 6 on a rotating cylinder.
Ex. 7. With the above tion frequency.
For equilibrium
arrangement (Ex.
">),

find the oscilla-

When

a )>ecomes a

0,

the restoring couple

= J///C08

- gWnb

cos (o

r
a.

*\>

= f, But 6 is small, so neglecting 0- we can put sin and cos (a - 6) = cos a COH B + sin a sin = cos a + e sin
.'.

= - yWnbe Restoring couple

sin a'A.

132
If

THE MAGNETIC FIELD.

k be radius of gyration,

moment

of inertia

= Wk\

:.

period

2*V

*!*_
abg sin a
:

148. Coulomb's Torsion Balance

Magnetic.

long magnet, with well denned poles at its ends, is supported horizontally in a stirrup depending from a vertical torsion wire. The arrangement is as in 4, the magnet replacing the lever BC. There is a scale to read the position angle of the magnet, and the whole instrument should be adjusted so that the torsion head reads zero when the position angle is zero and the magnet is in the magnetic meridian. Of course no couple is acting, and the wire is therefore without twist. second magnet can be set in a fixed position such that its pole D would just touch the like pole C if this were in its zero position defined as above. will repel Such contact will not occur, however, for through a certain angle. This angle can be altered by when the turning the" torsion head. Let its value be torsion head has been rotated through a in the direction which would diminish 6. Then the twist on the wire is -j- a, and the couple due to it is L (9 + a). sin The couple due to the earth's field is ( 145). The couple due to the repulsion acts the other way.

ED

MH
and
;

Let

= OC = OD, as in
C and
m^m^CD- =

5.

Then
be
:J

CD
l

= 21 sin
|-.

If

the pole strengths of

sion is

D
1

2,

the repul-

w 2/4/ sin 2

and

its

moment about
m^n., cos

is
f)

41 sin 2

B
.

Hence the equation

L(e

of equilibrium is

a) -f

MH sin

THE MAGNETIC FIELD.

149. Torsion Balance Experiments.
the above formula reduces to
a

133
If "
!

small,

+ A6 =
if

Hie-

when

CD

is

inserted

and
a,

CD
o.

be not inserted we have

+ AO =

First perform an experiment without CD. Observe 6 (which should not exceed 10) when a negative twiwt (of any magnitude) is given. For instance, when the torsion head is turned 90 let the magnet move 9 we should infer 90 - 9A, A = 10. Next insert CD and find a series of corresponding values of a and 6. Knowing A, we can tabulate a -f AO against 0, and verify a -4- AO x 1 0-, or can simply tabulate 2 (a -f AO) against 0, and show it
;

is

an approximate constant.
Ex.
1.

torsion balance

is

in equilibrium position,

.-I

//

lying

magnetic meridian with wire untwisted. The torsion head is turned 45, and the magnet in consequence turns 10'. The magnet CD is now inserted, and AB is repelled to 2.V from its /em If the torsion position in which it would have touched ('/). head be turned back to zero, find the angle O to which .1 /> |>oint. Use the formula
in the

+ A0 =

1*16*.

We

therefore have

- 45 - 4f>

+ +

10.1

o,

2.K1

= HUV. AO = R'tT'.
-

We

thus get
.4

4'">,

B=

42200 nearly, 6 A - HI A

3SO,

fl

'2 1.

Ex. 2. Suppose that, as before, if no tixed iimgnrt In- inserted, the movable magnet moves 10 from the standard jxisitiun if tluIf the instrument be brought Iwu-k to the torsion head rotates 4.V. Kind \*v repelled 2.T. standard position, and f !) inserted, let how much the torsion head must be rotated to halve this angle.
1

AB

We

have

-I.')

in.
.'.

.1

Also when
a

0,

134

THE MAGNETIC FIELD.

a
is

And

required

when
.'.

a
;

.*.

4-

ll^A = 4 x 23 A

80|.4

362 nearly.

Ex. 3. A torsion balance is mounted on a turntable. Before taking any observation, the instrument is rotated as a whole, so as to bring the movable magnet into the magnetic meridian. Under these conditions, if the fixed magnet repel the movable magnet 20 when the torsion head is at zero, how much must the torsion head be turned to halve the deflection ? Clearly the rotation of the instrument eliminates the earth's field. At the first experiment, the twist of the wire is 20. At the second, the distance is halved, therefore the force is multiplied by 4, therefore the twist of the wire must be 80. But 10 of twist is due to the position of the magnet, hence 70 of twist is put on by turning the torsion head.

AB

Ex. 4. If a turntable is used (as in Ex. 3) so that the magnet is always brought to rest in the magnetic meridian, show that a and 6 = constant. satisfy the equation d~(a + 0)

150. Pield due to an Ideal Simple Magnet. Let and 8 be the poles, m and m their strengths. Let C bisect NS, and CN = CS = L Let be the magnetic moment,

so that

M = Im.

The

field is

required at any point 0.

First let

be at

where

Fig. 67.

tance

and let r and 8 exert equal fields / and / at O in poles These equal fields can be repredirections 0,$. lt sented in magnitude and direction by the equal lines is represented on consequently the resultant lt
r,
.

The

= N0 =
l

perpendicular to JNS. The magnet is then said to be " " relaBroadside On placed tive to 0, or is in Gauss's B Let / be the field position. due to a single pole m, at dis00 : S, and d

00,

is

N0

N0 0$

the same scale by

NS, and we have

THE MAGNETIC FIELD.

If

13.

we assume Coulomb's

law,

This nearly equals M/d3 if / be short iii comparison with d. Next let be at 0, in line SN this is the " End On " Let CO, position or Gauss's A position. r. Assume
,
'

Coulomb's law.

Then the field due to X = m/XO., 2 = m/(r - |f) 3 S = mlSO, = - m/(r + \l)\
1

Total

field is in direction

SN, and
(r

its

magnitude

is

|f)i

23/r

If

be small enough to be neglected,

F.,

2J//r

{
.

be at ^. The magnet (if Third, let Z iYCO short enough) can be resolved into one of moment ^f sin cos 6 along CO.,. If thnperpendicular to C0 y and fore C03 r, we have two component fields,
;!
;

;t

M sin
and
Ex.
1.

djr*

perpendicular to
.

CO

'_,,

2 J/ cos ^/r3 along C'O a

r from

Due east of it, at distance Find a formula f>r the a compass needle. angle through which the compass is deflected. At the position O-> of compass we have the earth's tit-Id // north ward, and the magnet's Held F - '2M/r eastward. Their resultant - /'///will therefore make such an angle with the north that tan The compass indicates the direction of this resultant.
magnet points eastward.
is

its

centre,

Hence
/'

// tan

-2M r\

Ex.
tance

2.

magnet points eastward.

Find formula

Due north
for angle
<.f

r, is

a compass.

of it, at deflection

v*>

compass.

136

THE MAGNETIC FIELD.

t

in Figure The compass is now at northward and F westward.

67.

It is affected

by

fields

As

before,

F=

# tan

M/r*.

Ex.

3.

Use the above apparatus

to prove Coulomb's law.

We showed that if /be field due to one pole at distance r, F = IfIT in the B position. We want to show experimentally that
As
in Ex. 2 above,

then

F=
.*.

IfIT

H tan 0, H tan
0.

3 taking various distances and plotting r against cot verify that 3 oc I//- 3 , oc r or tan cot
,

Now by

we

and
.'.

1/r*.

which

is

Coulomb's law.
If

Ex. 4.

ratio of fields z and " side On positions.

2

the field due to a magnetic pole or 1/r", find the Fl of a magnet in " End On " and "Broad-

F =

m/(r

B
|J)

m/(r ~n

+ %)n

~n

(using the binomial theorem, higher powers of l/r)

and rejecting

F
.".

n+ = =fl/r = lm/r = n ^i a ^ the same distance.

l

Ex.

5.

the positions of the neutral points at which there is no resultant horizontal field. is at O 3 Fig. 67. be L NOS. Let r be distance CO and let The field at O has components
field
,

moment

M and earth'smagnet points H find horizontal

sin 0/r 3 perpendicular to
3

short

due

east.

Given magnetic

2M cos

0/r

along CO, making L 90

CO, making L B with north, - 6 with north.

THE MAGNETIC FIELD.

Resolving eastward

137

23/cos- 0/r3
tan 6

= Msin= V2 =

ejr\

1-4142

= +

r
.

)444'.

Resolving northward
ff

= - 3M sin
=
tan 0/sec 2

$ cos 0/r1 ,

and
sin
lience

cos

tan

0/(l

tan-

0)

v'2/3,

H = M V2/r\
Ex.
6.

To

find the equation of the lines of force of a short

magas

net, neglecting earth's field. Let the line of force through

make
;

<f>

with CO,

Take C

origin

and use polar coordinates

tan

then

rdB/dr.
field

But

/.

= = rdejdr = = rfr/r
tan

perpendicular to r/ field along

r,

sin 0/2 cos 0,

sin 6/2 cos 0,

2 cos 0d0/sin

8.

Integrating,
log
.

>

-.

= 2 log sin = C sin- d.

constant,

Ex.
JY$
is

When

A compass needle 7. slowly rotated about C.

-A^S'is

and northward

at slope field is //

The magnet at O, due east of C. Find the changes of slojH> of (>. r to CO, the eastward field is 2.V cos
is
tf

J/sin 0/r 3 therefore

,

if

be the slope of

needle to the north

tan

2ATcos 0/{Hr*

sin 6],

= A2??JL a-sin0'

being constant.

If n

l>e

large, tan

"'

"*

(i

Ex. 8. Find the field due to a short magnet given by Cartesian coordinates. Let jVS be magnet of length I, C its centre. pendicular on /s^V (produced it necessary) and let
;

at

point

Let

/T

he per-

CU =

.r,

f 7'

.//.

138
The
field

THE MAGNETIC FIELD.

due to

+m

at

is
I

m.NU/NP*

parallel to

CU, m.

UP NP*

m/PN*

its

components are
Similarly

along UP.

gives components

- m.SU/SP3 - mUP/SP*.
,

Hence if X and Y be fields along and perpendicular to magnet, and

U X
Fig. 68.

GP = V x- +
(

NU

Neglecting the square of

and using binomial theorem,

ma?

f 3/.c

=
In same

way

Ex. 9. SJV is an ideal simple magnet, of finite length, whose Show that the pole strength is m. It points due eastward. 3 3 conditions that shall be a neutral point are /OS = AN/ AS, 3 and H/m OA = ON~* - OS~ ; A being the foot of the perpendicular from O on produced.

ON

SN

east of

centre C, and O is a point due the magnet must be rotated from the meridian position in order to produce a given eastward field at O.

Ex. 10.
(7.

SN is a short magnet,

Find through what angle

Ex. 11. If be the magnetic moment of SN, arranged as in 10, and a compass needle be placed at O, find how the of the compass needle varies as the magnet SN is deflection rotated. Distinguish the two cases when M/CO* < and > H.
Ex.
<

THE MAGNETIC FIELD.

Ex. 12. An ideal short magnet, earth's field, has a neutral point at O.

139

pointed southward in the Find the field very near O, at a point whose coordinates x and y, and K, are small to the distance of the magnet. Show the lines of force compared near O are rectangular hyperbolae.

Ex. 13. An ideal short magnet is pointed northward in the earth's field. Show that there is a neutral point O due east (or of the centre C of the magnet. Find the field at places very west) near O and show that the lines of force near O are rectangular
hyperbolae.

SN

Ex. 14. Due south of a compass needle is placed a magnet in the end-on position. The needle oscillates 20 times per minute. If the magnet be reversed, with the position of its centre unchanged, the needle oscillates about the same equilibrium Find the period of oscillation if the position 4 times per minute. magnet be removed, and the position of equilibrium if the magnet and W. be rotated so as to point

Ex. 15. A short magnet oscillates in period 4 sec. if placed at a distance of 30 cm. due east of the centre of a strong magnet (B position). If placed at 20 cm. it oscillates in the reverse posi= '18, find the magneticGiven tion in a period of 6 sec. moment of the strong magnet.

151. Eqnipotential Lines of Simple Magnet. to a pole Exactly as in electrostatics, the potential due
at distance r

The
are -f

m/r. potential at

due to a magnet
in

N8

whose poles

and

is

therefore

XP

m_

XS'
for

Hence the equipotential lines are the loci l/XP - l/SP = constant.

which

We can
struction.
units.
tial

draw these equipoteutials by geometrical conFor instance, let 8N == 10 em., and m = for potenEequired to construct the equipotential
\OI

2.

XP -

10/SP =

2.

The work

is

identical with that in Ex. 3,

13.

140

THE MAGNETIC FIELD.

For an indefinitely short at tion, the potential

magnet, using previous nota.

m {l/NP SP -

l/SP}

= m {SP - NP} /SP NP.

But

if

CP =

r and
I

NGP =

0,.

NP =
'

cos e nearly,

and

SP.NP = r\ V = ml cos
.*.

0/r

M cos

0/r

152. Lines of Force of Simple Magnet.

theory developed for Electrostatics in
directly to

The whole

14-16 applies

Magnetism.

of lines of force for a simple magnet is found as follows With letters as in Fig.
:

The form

69 the

fields

along
2
.

PN,

SPare
2

7/i/r

m/r'

If

PT

PT we have
M
0, 0'

solving

be tangent, reperpendicular to

Fig. 69.

m sin
sin

0/r

- NPT, SPT, = m sin 0'/r' 2

.

if

Now

by

differential calculus, if ds be element of arc,

sin 0'
.'.

de/r

dtf'/r

= =

r'dO'/ds,
0.

But
r
. :

r'

sin $
.

d6

sin

0'

d0'

*.

cos

cos

= = ^ =

sin
0,

0'

sin 6,

constant.

Draw about 8 and N two circles

For any one

line of force let this constant

of

same radius

R and draw

= SN/R.

THE MAGNETIC FIELD.

a set of parallel ordinates ting the circles in ZJand V. and determine a point

141

M UV perpendicular to SN cutP on
For each position
the curve.
of

NV

M,

SU

For obviously
cos
.

8'

: cos 6

cos
is

6'

= SM/R, cos 6 = MX/R, = 8N/R = constant.

This construction matical Drawing.

given in Minchin and Dale, Mathe-

Example. A magnet points northward. Two lines of force are traced from the At one pole, one each side of the north line. distance they are 1 mm. apart, at another 3 mm. Compare the fields at these places. The sections of the same tube of force at these two distances are so that the areas are as circles of diameter 1 and 3 cm. to 9. Hence ( 22) the fields are as 9 to 1.

153. Doublets. A short simple magnet is called a Doublet, in the limit when its length is quite negligible. must be very large if I is negligibly Since ml, finite. small and

The theorems stated as approximations for ideal simple magnets can be taken as absolutely true for doublets,
namely,
The Potential

= J/

cos #//-,

The Field

at distance r

= =
and
and
in general has

2J///-

if

--=

0,

J//r

if

90 \

components
23/ cos 0/r
J/" sin 0/r
3
1

radial,

transverse.

Or
r*

( 3
\
r-

)
/

of doublet, parallel to axis

and

BMxy

p er p en(Jicular to

it.

An

strength

ideal simple magnet, whose length / = set of m, can evidently be replaced by ;i

142
equal

THE MAGNETIC FIELD.

magnets of pole- strength

and lengths which be joined by a curved line, this can be divided into equal short arcs s and each regarded as a simple magnet of length s, polestrength m, and moment sm. Thus a simple magnet is
collectively

make up 8N.

If

8 and

equivalent to a string
nally.

of

doublets arranged longitudi-

A compound magnet can

always be regarded as the

re-

sultant of a set of simple ones. into strings of doublets.

It is therefore resolvable

Doublets can be utilised with advantage in

problems.

certain

shall also find that they (See 219-221.) have real physical significance. The molecules of iron and other magnetic substances are doublets. Hence a magnet is actually a group of an enormous number of doublets.

We

154. Oscillation

Magnetometers.

Magnetometers

are instruments used to measure either magnetic fields or magnetic moments or pole strengths of magnets. If we time the oscillations in a field of strength and moment of of a magnet whose magnetic moment is inertia K, then the period T is given by

T=

2ir

VX/MH

146).

is

if This formula can be used to measure either if is given. It primarily measures their given or

H M

M H

product, for

155.

Deflection

Magnetometers

(Tangent).

small subsidiary magnet ns (Fig. 70) called a compass needle is acted on by the earth's horizontal field H. It is of the magnet experidisturbed by the horizontal field mented on. Its direction then shows the resultant of F

and H.
If this magnet be placed with its centre C due east of the compass needle, and be directed towards it, the comand westward and pass is acted on by fields

'

THE MAGNETIC FIELD.

northward, and will point in the direction of their sultant. This makes angle 6 with the north, where
tan e

143
re-

= F/H.
r

But

F=
.'.

if

= CO

in figure.
0.

M/H =

ir> tan

In figure, ns is shown carrying a light index db perpendicular to its length, whereby the angle 6 is more easily
read.

o.

If, however, the magnet is placed due south of the compass needle (Fig. 71) and directed eastward, its field F is again due west, and tan e = F/H.

But

F=

J/./r

3
,

Both these arrangements can be called Instead of the Tangent Magnetometers.

earth's horizontal field
ficial field

we can have an

arti-

Fig. 71.

either stronger or weaker, to vary the sensitiveness of the instrument. must understand North to mean the direction of tins field unmodified by the magnet

We

SN.

156. Deflection Magnetometers (Sine .If the is pointed towards the compass needle (Gauss magnet

position

A)
axis,

in

about an

and we

an arrangement which can rotate until the compass

l>e

rotate* 1

j>oints per-

pendicular to the line joining it to 3f, the resultant of !* and will be perpendicular to F and therefore, if slope of compass to the north line,

sin 6

= F/H,
2J//H,

and

F=

144
If

THE MAGNETIC FIELD.

M be placed in a

similar arrangement, but in the

position,

we should have

M/H = r

sin

6.

These arrangements can be called Sine Magnetometers.

157. Precautions and Corrections.

or tangent magnetometer

In using a sine

we must remember the magnet

used

is not an ideal simple one, and its length is not always negligible. If I be its length, and it be used in the end on position, the correct formula is

but in a tangent magnetometer

tan 6

= F/H,
tan 6

H
If

we expand by binomial theorem and

neglect

4
,

M_ r H~ tan
3

j\
6

V-

or

_ M~^~

tan 6

necessarily

Again, the geometrical centre of the magnet is not and S poles. In using midway between its a tangent magnetometer end on, one corrects for this by when SN, pointing eastward, is observing the deflection placed in positions A and B due east and west (magnetic)

of compass, and when SNis at A and B pointing westward the geometrical centre being at same distance r in all four The true centre is of course too near in two posicases. tions and too far in the other two. get four values or we may read eight values, for 6 is marked on a of graduated scale by a long pointer ab both ends of which can be read. The mean of all these readings is practically
;

We

reliable.

THE MAGNETIC FIELD.

Ex. 1. Find the correction depending on the length magnet when it is used in the B position. The exact formula is
of

l4J>

the

F=
and
if

Afl(r*

J/')3,i,

we

neglect

this gives

'

r*

Ex. 2. A magnet of length 10'4 cm., width 1 cm., and rectIf suspended horizontally it angular section, has mass 55 gm. oscillates about the meridian with period 14"2 sec. If placed broadside on in a sine magnetometer at distance HO cm. it produces a U Find the earth's horizontal Held //, and deflection (averaged) of 6 the magnetic moment of the magnet. From the length and mass, we deduce that the moment of in.

ertia
AT

-oo
2T

10 -4) -/ 12

495 -7.

If

T be

the period, by

146

T=
:.

MH =

VK/MH,
=
4T- X 49iV7/(14"2)-

47r 2 A7r-

-97-05.
In the sine magnetometer
3 sin 0, M/r = Miff - r' sin = 27000 sin 6 H" = 97-05/2822 = '03431),

2S->2.

.'.

and
//

-185 unit of Held.

Hence

also

jr M-

97-05 x 2822

2731MH),

520 units of magnetic moment.

intro-

A somewhat more accurate value might be obtained by 1.) ducing the corrections for the length of the magnet. (Kx.

Ex. 3. In a Kew magnetometer tlit- magnet oscillates If a brass twr of magnetic moment .V> Inperiod G'6 seconds. attached to it, they oscillate with period 75. The mullet placed broadside on at 40*cin. distance prfKluee.s average deflection 4.'. the Calculate arrangement being that of a sine magnetometer. Calculate also the magnetic moment of the magnet and it* moment
.
i

of inertia.

M. PH.

I.

146
Let

THE MAGNETIC FIELD.

K be

the

moment

of inertia of the magnet, then

T=
.'.

2*-

MH =

VKJMH; MH =
2
,

47r 2 ^/6-6

4ir-jr

For the magnet and

bar,

= 7-5W77.
Hence

(K
and

500)AK:

=
=
=

7'5 2 /6-6
2

2
,

giving

K=

1716,

47T 2

500

(7'5

- Q-Q-)MH =

(7 '5

+ 6*6)

(7'5

- 6-6)MH,

14-1

x -9MH, giving

MH =

1555.

As

in previous

example
r* sin 0,

M/H =
=
Hence

40 3 sin 45

45260.

H* = M* =
Ex. 4. 1240 and
In Paris,

1555/45260,

H=
A

'185,

1555 x 45260,

M = 8390.
magnet has magnetic moment

"20.

of inertia 2600. Calculate its period of horizontal oscillation, and the deflection it would produce in a compass magnetometer if placed at 20 cm. in the usual end-on and broad-

moment

side-on positions, the magnetometer not being rotated.

T=2-jr

VK/MH = 2ir ^2600/1240

"20

20 -.34

sec.

In the end-on position,

2Jf/r3
.

: tan 6

= H tan 0, = 2M/r*H =
= // tan 0, = M/r*H =

2 x 1240/(20) 3 x

-2

57

10'.

In the broadside-on position,

Jf/r : tan
3
3 1240/20 x

'2

37

3'.

Ex. 5. Two magnets fastened together, so that both point horizontally and parallel and are centrally suspended, oscillate in period 14 sec. If one of them be fastened to the other with its If they be fixed position exactly reversed, the period is 36 sec. (horizontally and centrally) with their axes at right angles, what will the period be ?

THE MAGNETIC FIELD.

Iii all

147

three cases the moment of inertia of the combination ha* the same value K, hence the square of the period T is inversely to the magnetic moment = 6'/J/, where C is proportional or Ta constant. If A and H l>e the magnetic moments of the separate magnets, has the values

A +

/?,

A - H,
But

\'A'

/f-

in the three cases.

M = C/T-,
:.A + B=C/U\
Si
*

[]
Fig. 72.

^N

A-B=C/W.
Square and add,
2(A- + K-)

C'{1/14*+ l^)

}.

But the unknown period

T is

given by
4

1/36

},

T=

16-56 sec.

Ex. 6. Show that if a certain condition be satisfied it is possible to fix three horizontal magnets together so that the system is quite unaffected by the earth's field. can this l>e done in practice? The system must have no resultant magnetic moment. This H the case if the magnetic moments of the magnet be represented in magnitude and direction by the three sides of a triangle taken in order (by 144). The magnets can be fixed in this wav provided no one has magnetic moment greater than the sum of the other two.

How

In practice one would adjust by turning each magnet successively in such a way as to increase the oscillation period. When this was
practically infinite,
it

always

2ir

IIMH,

so

M would necessarily

be zero.

are

Ex. 7. A magnet is suspended in a wooden case. Its motions shown by means of a mirror attached to it, which throws a si>ot

of light perpendicularly to the centre of a horizontal scale at a distance of 50 cm. Find the eastward or westward magnetic fit-Id = -ISD.) necessary to move the spot of light 1 em. [// If the magnet turns through angle t), the reflected ray turns -_V.
.-.

">0

tan

'20

=
-

tan 20

"rf.

Hence
but

tan

t)

ll)U

nearly

tan

/' //,

148

THE MAGNETIC FIELD.

Ex. 8. The above magnet has oscillation period 3 '5 sec. control magnet is used, which brings the spot to centre of scale as before but alters the period to 7 sec. Find now the magnetic field needed to move the spot 1 cm. The period is doubled, hence the magnetic field is multiplied by The field necessary to produce the 1/4 and = '186 -f- 4 = '0-165. deflection = -000465. Ex. 9. magnet is suspended on a horizontal axis perpendicular to its length whose height above the centre of gravity is y. It rests horizontal. If w be its weight, its magnetic moment, find the horizontal distance between axis of suspension and centre of gravity. Take V for vertical field. Find also through what angle the magnet will tilt if V alters by 5F (small). If x be horizontal distance,

xw = MV.
The magnet the extra couple is 5 V. swings through a small angle 6, therefore its centre of gravity moves yd horizontally, and the moment of the weight alters by wyQ. Hence
If

alters to

V+

5 F,

wy8
This arrangement is used in a recording magnetometer to measure changes in the earth's vertical field.

Ex. 10. A magnet is suspended so as to rest vertical, the weight and magnetic moment being w and M. Show that, if the axis of suspension point due east and west and be at a horizontal distance x and vertical distance y from the centre of gravity,

xw = HM,
and

by SfT, the magnet turns through an angle (small) Mdff/ivy.

that,
if

H alters

Horizontal

= the dip 5 ( 141). If, however, the coordinates of the axis of suspension (7, relative to the centre of gravity O, be a in direction of magnetisation and /3 perpendicular to this direction, let us find the difference produced by the weight w of the magnet between the actual slope and the dip.
Fig. 73.

158. Dip Needle. If a magnet be suspended on a horizontal axis which points accurately east and west, and the axis contains the centre of gravity of the magnet, the magnet will point in the direction of the earth's resultant field, and its slope

THE MAGNETIC FIELD.

If G'Af, be a and p, and if 5 the vertical, the horizontal distance from

H>
G
slojnj of

MC

be the

tfSf in

to

is

a cos

(d

0)

+ p

sin (5

0).

Hence the moment

of the weight

is

(a cos (5

6)

sin (6

0)\w.

If # be the earth's resultant field, it makes the magnet, and exerts a couple sin 0.

KM
-

with the

axi.s nf

Hence

for equilibrium,

KM sin 6
If

[a.

cos (5

0)

+p

sin (5

0)}ir.

we regard

a, p, 6 as very small,

we have
pu' sin
5',

RM6 =
where
8'

aic cos

5'

= d-

6,

and

is

the slope of the dip needle.

159. Deviation.
netic north

This

is

(direction of

H)

the angle between the magand the true north. It is

determined by the magnetic compass. This consists of a light circular lamina called the Card, turning centrally on a vertical needle. To its lower part

number of separate small magnets this greater magnetic moment for the same weight than a single larger one. It is balanced to hang horizontally under the influence of its weight and the earth's vertical field V if Walters (as when the compass travels to another country) the balance is corrected by small Instead of this form of suspension the counterpoises. lamina can be floated on a liquid, and this ensures prfvt frictionless adjustment. The upper part of the card is graduated in degrees, and sometimes in "points" or eighth parts of a right angle from the point on card. The containing case carries an index, which may 1* a lens, When the case is to read the position of the card by. <>r n> in standard the reading is o "points."
are fastened a
gives
;

much

position,

from the magnetic north.

150

THE MAGNETIC FIELD.

Sometimes (as in the prismatic compass) a telescope or sights are attached to the case, which is then free to rotate. The compass reads the angle between that vertical plane in which the telescope or sights are pointed and the north (magnetic). It thus gives the magnetic " bearing" or azimuth of the object viewed. Sometimes (as in a The reading is ship's compass) the compass case is fixed. then to determine the bearing or azimuth of a line parallel to its zero radius.

CHAPTER

IX.

MAGNETIC FIELD OF CURRENTS.

16O. Ampere's Law. The law is stated as follows. The magnetic field exerted at a point by a short segment
of a conductor carrying a current is directed in a line perpendicular to the plane containing the point and the Its magnitude is proportional segment. jointly to the current, to the length of the segment resolved perpendicular to the line joining it to the point, and to the inverse

square of this joining line. Such experiments as have hitherto been made are in agreement with consequences

mathematically deduced from this law. But these experiments are on complete elvtric
It is practically impossible to isolate experimenta portion of a circuit, so as to study its magnetic field. To deduce a formula. Let P be the point, QK the segment, and QS a perpendicular from Q on PR. Let C be the current, in any arbitrary units. In the limit, when
circuits.

ally

QR
If

is

indefinitely small, the

-,

magnitude of the field where A is a constant.

is

be the circular measure of angle QPS.

:.

= QS

P(j.

the field

As0//\>.

direction of the field is perpendicular to the plane so that it is towards the observer if the motion If from Q to is seen to be counterclockwise around /'. therefore the angle be positively described, the ti*>ld is

The

PQR, and

upward through the

figure

(7.^.

towards

tin-

observer).

151

152

MAGNETIC FIELD OF CURRENTS.

161. Absolute Unit of Current. The unit is so chosen as to simplify the above formula. It is defined as such a current that if it flowed in a circle of 1 cm. radius it would exert a magnetic field 2*r at the centre of the circle.

Hence

F =

2?r

when

2irAc/r, consequently current in terms of this unit,

r =.

and

=.

1.

1.

If therefore
is

But F we express
given by the

formula
It

f=

Ampere's law

taken as a numerical fact that, very approxi10 commercial amperes ( 88). mately, the unit current

may be
1.

Ex.

Find the magnetic

coil of

field at
is c

centre

O (Fig.
r,

75) of a circular

n turns, radius
field

when the current

Qlpl^ x

x^ X>

>

XR

x
P

o|~~

~~z~

absolute units. due to one turn is 2irc/r, hence that due to n turns is 2-rrnc/r. Some authorities define the Coil Constant as the field produced at the centre Its value is evidently per unit current. 2 /r

flowing

The

If the above coil be set in the 2. magnetic meridian, find through what angle it would deflect a compass needle situated
gjj

Ex.

at the centre of the circle.

p| a 7-

The

field

due to

coil is

F = 2vnc/r,
directed perpendicular to the coil and therefore eastward or westward. The earth's horizontal field is //, northward. The resultant of F and //, at right angles to one another, makes an angle 6 with such that = /'///. tan

Hence the

deflection

is

given by tan 6 = 2-n-nc/rH.

this

Since
currents.

=
It

~
is

tan

0,

arrangement can be used to measure

efficient c n

rH =^
2

the usual type of tangent galvanometer.

is

The

co-

the

Galvanometer Constant.
.

It

must not

be confounded with the Coil Constant

MAGNETIC FIELD OF CURRENTS.

If

153

be the current in amperes,

C=
and can be put

10r,

= c

tAn e

where

C =
Ex.

SrII/irn.

3. Find the galvanometer constant of a nometer of 10 turns, of radius 12 cm.

c

tangent galva-

rfl/2irti
is

12 x -186/20T

- 1W55

C'

-355.

The constant

'355 ampere.
.500 turns,

Eac. 4. Find the constant of an instrument of radius 3 cm.

mean

Aw. C =

-0018 in amps.

Ex. 5. Find field exerted by current c in a circular coil of n turns and radius r at a point on the axis of the coil at a distance z
from its centre. Let P be the point (Fig. 75), centre of coil OP = :. Let Q be point on circumference, OQ = r, PQ = A*. The field at due to short arc * is Ac'R- perpendicular
;

t*>

and the

arc.

Its resolute

F in

line

OP

I*(J

=
The
resolutes

sc sin

QPOIR- =
to

*cr/R\
it

perpendicular

symmetry.
that the

The sum
/.

OP cancel one another, by of resolutes along OP is deduced by IK icing

* is '2wrn,

sum

of all the small arcs

/'

-2irr-HC/R*

2irr*nc/(r*

'

z-)

'.

magnet

[At great distances F = 2inir'C/z*, the coil behaves of magnetic moment irnr-c. See 150.J
J;

like

an end-on

Ex. 6. Find the constant of a tangent galvanometer in whu-h the compass needle is supported on axis of circular coil, but not at
its centre.

As above,

in Exs. 2

and

o,
,

F=
.'. .-.

c c

= 2rr*HclR3 = flWtan e/Zwr-n, = If(r- + z*)*.t/'2irr'H.

II tan 6

Ex. 7. Find the value of z in order that the sensitivem-^ nmy be 1/10 as great as at the centre of the coil.

We get

2
(>-

=-)

3 2

lOr

>-'(10->

1),

whence

finally

154
Ex. 8.
this, coil ;
rai

MAGNETIC FIELD OF CURRENTS.

Find the constant of a Helmholtz galvanometer. In \n turns are in one coil of radius r, and \n in another identical
the coils are placed coaxial and parallel at distance r apart, and the compass is at A (Fig. 76) halfway between their centres on their common axis. rm Evidently the field is the same as with one coil of n turns, if z = -|r. The constant 5

Ju

J-. **"

Ex. 9. A conducting ring of radius a is charged with Q electrostatic units and rotated in its own plane about its centre with angular Find the magnetic field at a point velocity w. in its axis of rotation at distance z from its
centre. Q electrostatic units
is Q/v electromagnetic aw, hence the current is

Fig. 76.

units

82).

The

velocity

is

Qaw/v,
3 3 /

and the magnetic

field

=
It can easily be

2irca z /(a~

+ z2

2irahvQ/v(a'

z 2 ) 3/ 2 .
is

line as the electromagnetic,

shown that the and

2

electrostatic field

in the

same

Qz/(a

* 2 ) 3 /2 .

Of course the electromagnetic field would be exerted on unit north pole, and affects only magnetic matter. The electrostatic field affects only electric charges.

Ex. 10. Find the force exerted by the coil of Ex. 5 on a small magnet of moment M, placed longitudinally on its axis at a distance z from its centre. Let be pole strength and I length, so that Im = M. In the can consider the north pole + limit we shall make I = o. to be at a distance z, and the south pole at distance z + L Hence, formula of Ex. 5, the total force using

We

(r*

+z

2 3 2
)

__
2

{r

+ (z +
z2

2
/)

3 /2

/
(r
2

+z 2
*

3 2 /

V
,

r2

27rr

ncm
neglecting

(r

MAGNETIC FIEL" OF CURRENTS.

155

Ex. 11. Copper wire of 1 mm. radius is made into a ring of 10 cm. radius. It is charged with 100 electrostatic units, mid rotated with a linear velocity of 100 metres per second. Find tincurrent in amperes, and the field at the centre of the coil. Assume that the charge is carried with the wire. A charge 100 moving with velocity 100,000 is a current of 100 x 100,000 = E.S. units. This is 10T /3 x 10' = 1 ':*NNK.M. 10; units. The radius is 10, therefore the field at centre = 2r/3U)0 x 1O = -00021 unit of field. The current is 1/300 amperes.
Ex. 12. Find the galvanometer constant of a tangent galvano meter of 300 turns, the diameter of the coil being 10 cm. Ex. 13. A small galvanometer has a coil of 50 turns of mean radius 2 cm. Its needle carries a mirror, and the deflection is read by a beam of light reflected to a scale at a distance of 50 cm. Find in amperes the current indicated per cm. length on the scale. Ex. 14. A tangent galvanometer to measure moderate currents with great accuracy has a single turn of diameter 20 cm. Find the galvanometer constant (1) when the indicating compass needle is at the centre, (2) when it is 24 cm. from the centre, on the axis of the
coil.

Ex. 15.
meter
of

Find the constant of a Helmholtx tangent galvano20 turns, radius 15 cm.

Ex. 16.
9 and
series
7.

galvanometer has two distinct windings,

turns. deflection

of

radii

The inner has 20

through both, the reversed, the deflection is 11 of turns of the outer winding.

passed in When the inner is is 2~>. Find the number the same way.
is

When

a current

resistance

and lo galvanometer has 500 turns of radius Find the voltage indk-ated Iwtwwu 220 ohms. terminals by a deflection of 45.

Ex. 17.

is

its

A galvanometer is in series with a voltameter. is given off IHM kept at 45, and 1 c.cm. of hydrogen Find the constant minute at normal temperature and pressure. If its radius be 6 cm., find the number of of the galvanometer.
Ex. 18.
deflection
is

turns.

162. Field of a Rectilinear Current. I*'t /' the point at which lield is required, and (JK U an element Drop a perof current in the infinite straight line A" V. a circle line, and pendicular PA on the straight

156
centre

MAGNETIC FIELD OF CURRENTS.

in q and r. and radius cut and the diameter xPy parallel to XY, drop perpendiculars rn and qm on it, and draw rs perpendicular to qm, then ultimately the triangles qsr, QAP are similar.

PA

PQ

PR

Draw

The

field at

due to
c.

QR
c.qr

S.RPQ =

PQ
=

PQ.PA'
t

^,

forqr:rs=PQ:PA
'

= c.mn/PA*.

The sum

of all the elements x n

mn

corresponding to

all

the

Fig. 77.

elements
xy

PQ

2.PA.

of the infinite straight line is obviously Hence the field due to an infinite straight

line

2c/PA.

It is therefore proportional to the inverse distance.

Field of a
portions
line

mn

AR is

Finite Straight Line. The sum of corresponding to elements of a finite straight obviously equal to Pn

= PA
Hence the
field

sin

APR.

due to

AR
as

= c.smAPR/PA.

the

Any portion of any straight line can be represented sum or difference of two portions like AR.

MAGNETIC FIELD OF CURRENTS.

l. >7

Ex. 1. A current c flows round a rectangle PQJfS whose sides PQ and US are a and 6. Find the field at centre of rectangle.

With

letters as in figure, the field

due to

PA

Similarly for PB, and like segments. Hence the field of rectangle
8c
/
&'
1

/a*
8c

e^ \ 6

6\
a
/'

B
P

Va- +
ab

b~

A
Fig. 7M.

[~

When
2.

is infinite,

this

"1

Ex.

the field at

= e, and = (Fig. 77), If the length due to c in .4 7? is equal to cejz Vz- -f e'-.

AR

PA

-.

show

that

Ex. 3. Find the field due to a circuit in the form of an equilateral triangle, at the centre of the triangle.
field at centre due to a regular polygon of that this agrees with the formula for a circular current in the limit when n is infinite. [Field = cp rli where /> is perimeter and r, R are radii of inscribed and circumscriUnl

Ex. 4.
sides.

Find the

Show

circles.]

Ex. 5. Show that the field at a distance .r from the centre of a regular polygon, in a direction perpendicular to its plane, is
cpr/(r-

+
4.

x~)

^/F'+T 5

the notation being as in Ex.

163. Potential due to an Infinite Linear Current. Let it be required to find an expression for tin* potential at a point P due to a current c in an infinite straight line. The infinite straight line which carries the cunvnt
is

supposed to be perpendicular

to

the
field

figure

and to cut

this plane at A.

The

plainat any

<>t'

tin-

point

158

MAGNETIC FIELD OF CURRENTS.

its

Q near P is 2 c/AQ perpendicular to AQ, and nent in the direction QP is 2c sin AQP/AQ. done on unit pole travelling from Q to P

compo-

The work

= 2c.QPsinAQP/AD, = 2c sin QAP, by Trigonometry,

2c

circular

measure

of angle

QA P,

in limit.

If
let

\\\
\
*

,\

is chosen for zero of potential, an arbitrary point any arc XQP be described. For each small portion such a& QP, the work done on unit 2c X angle subtended at A. o pole Hence for the whole path XP the R/\

^\\

v work

=
and

2c

|X

\x

y
Fig. 79.

this can be taken as the potential at P. Note however this peculiarity, that the expression for the potential is not If the positive angle single-valued. 0, the work done will be S 2-nby a path (dotted in figure)

XAP =

that goes clockwise. It is -f 2?r by a counterclockwise path which makes a complete circuit of A before proceeding to and its general value is -f- 2wr, where n is any integer positive or negative.

field due to two equal, parallel and contrary acting in infinite straight lines. Fig. 80 is drawn in a plane perpendicular to the two infinite straight lines. These therefore are seen as points A and B, and the and PB. are perpendiculars on them from The fields due to the currents are 2c/AP, 2c/BP, respectively and BP. Draw the circle APB, and let be perpendicular to Then its centre and tangent.

Ex.

1.

Find the

currents

c,

PA

AP PT

L
in alternate

TPA -

PEA
- PAR.

segment, and

TPR -

180

MAGNETIC FIELD OF CURRENTS.

Hence resolving along

PT the component of field

*

2c

sm

_ ~

PB sin PAB

TPB -

sin

TPA
PA
P

/'

sin

Therefore the

field is in direction

OP, and
cos

its

value

/ cos
I

TPB PB
[PA

PA ~r
cos

2c

P.4

PAR + PB cos

/'/Ml,

Since the field at every point P normal to the arc of a circle through A and fi, such arcs are Equipotentials. The orthogonal system of circles are Lines of such as the dotted circle Force, whose centre is T. through They are a set of coaxial circles of which A and B are the limiting
is

by Trigonometry.

APB

points, sects

and whose

radical axis biFig. SO.

A B perpendicularly.

Ex. 2. Find the potential at due to two equal and contrary currents as in the above example. Let the arbitrary point of zero potential be chosen on .-I B produced. Then if A be the line of action of the current approaching, and of current receding, the due to .-I can be taken as - L TAB, and due to B as + potential hence the 911111 L

TBP

= TBP - TA P As

A PB.

this angle is constant for all points on same Circular arc this arc is an equipotential. It can be seen that the com- r. plementary arc of the same circle has potential

APB,

APB

ami inU-i:ti n K' w tn Ex. 3. Using the result of Iti'J, Kx. and .r, show that the |nitntiAl respect to x between the values of the polygonal current at distance a' from it*s centre, in din--tin perpendicular to its plane, is 2cw tan" '(/> sin 2nr) + constant, = number of sides, and tan B = rlR. where
.">,
'

ICO

MAGNETIC FIELD OF CURRENTS.

164. Ampere's Theorem. The law stated in 160 is based on the experimental result, due to Ampere, that a plane circuit of small area has a field indistinguishable from that of a small magnet standing perpendicularly on
the area.

Of course the

)B

Fig. 81.

identity of fields only holds at points whose distances are considerable compared to the linear dimensions of the area or the magnet. In addition we assume (1) that the magnetic field is zero of two equal currents flowing contrary ways in parallel straight lines, when these
lines

approach and ultimately coinmagnetic field is zero of two equal currents, one in a straight wire AB and the other in an indented or finely coiled wire BA' which lies around and always indefinitely near to AB. These assumptions were
cide
;

and

(2) that the

proved experimentally by Ampere.

He used a wire bent back on itself, as ABA' in first figure A and A' being connected to a battery so that the same current flowed in BA' as in AB. Then he made the modification indicated Either arrangement in second figure, winding and bending BA' could be brought near a sensitive magnetometer without affecting it.
;
.

165. Circuit of Finite Size. A circuit and form can be supposed filled by a surface
or curved evenly without points or On this surface are drawn ridges. equal squares, which ultimately are infinitely small and of infinite number. Imagine these to be small circults of insulated wire, each carrying the same current c as the large cirWhercult, the same way round. ever two squares are contiguous, the current in their touching sides are
equal,

of any size
either plane

p
/
I

^-j
\

\
Fig. 82.

and indefinitely contrary, 164. close, and therefore have no magnetic effect, by (1), So the total magnetic effect of the current c in the squares

MAGNETIC FIELD OP CURRENTS.

is

161

identical with that of a current c going round the outer border of the squares, and this border, in limit, is an indented line lying everywhere indefinitely close to the curve

of the original circuit. It follows from (2), 164, that this is equivalent to c flowing in the actual curve. Hence in limit the magnetic effect of the circuit carrying current c is identical with that of the indefinitely large number of equal

squares described above, each carrying the same current c. Each square is however ( 164) equivalent magnetically to a small magnet perpendicular to its plane. The squares and their currents are all equal, and therefore so are the magnets. Hence the original circuit is equivalent to such a distribution of small equal magnets perpendicular to an even surface bounded by the circuit that equal numbers

stand on equal areas.

166. Magnetic Shells. A magnetic shell is a distribution of magnetised matter over a surface, such that the direction of magnetisation is everywhere normal to the That is, a small portion of the surface has its surface. moment in a direction perpendicular to the tanmagnetic not found in nature and gent plane. Magnetic shells are be constructed artificially. cannot They can l>e

number of small simple represented by supposing a large magnets fixed normally to the surface. moment per uniform shell is such that the magnetic unit area is constant. This constant is the strength of the of magnets described in shell. Evidently the arrangement 165 forms a uniform shell.

easily

Consider a small element of surface &S at a be the point at which the potential point P, and let The magnetic moment of SS is in the direct required. and has magnitude of the normal
strength.

167. Potential of a Uniform Shell.

Let

be

it*

PN

The

potential at
.

(by
ir

153)
X.

is

therefore

cosA7V> P0>

M. PH.

I.

162

MAGNETIC FIELD OF CURRENTS.

cos

But 88
(cf.

NPO/POis

cone whose vertex

30).

Hence

the solid angle Sfi of the small 0, and which stands on 8S as base, the potential due to 8S is

And

if

we add

the potential at

due to every element of the whole

surface S, the potential

where ft is the whole solid angle subtended at by the periphery

of 8.

We have shown ( 165) that the magnetic action of a current c is identical with that of a uniform magnetic shell bounded by the circuit in which that current flows. Let us define the measure of a current as equal to the strength of the
Fig. 83.

shall show later that this definition equivalent shell. 161. agrees with that of eft == curThen the potential of a current circuit rent X solid angle subtended by the circuit.

We

Ex. 1. Find the potential at a point P due to a given current c which flows along an infinite straight line. Let the straight line be called A A' and let the plane of the figure be perpendicular to it and pass through P. Then the straight line A A' is represented in the figure by a single point A. Let .4.Y be an arbitrary prime radius. The method adopted
applies only to complete
circuits.
finite

Consequently

the current c in the instraight line A A' must be replaced by one

circuit of which A A' is one boundary. Let this

flowing in a very large

circuit lie in the arbitrary plane XAA', on the side remote from X. It is then equivalent to the infinite shell AB. to the perimeter of this shell The straight lines joining

generate the

two planes

P PAA' and PC drawn

t

through

MAGNETIC FIELD OF CURRENTS.

parallel to the plane

168

XAA'.
;

If

about P, these planes cut it in a lune DTE of angle = XA P. The area of such a lune is 20 consequently this is the solid angle. The potential at P is therefore 2c0, if we suppose the circuit As the plane is arbitrary, the completed in the plane XAA'.
absolute potential
is

a sphere of unit radius be drawn

any two points

AX is taken.

is definite,

indeterminate. But the potential difference of and is the same wherever the prime radius
163.

This result agrees with that of

Ex. 2. Find the potential due to a current in an infinite straight line and a return current in a j>arallel straight line. Let the straight lines be AA',BB', Fig. 79 ; and let the plane of and be perpendicular to them. The the figure pass through circuit can be supposed a rectangle bounded by A A' Jilt' and two Hence the straight lines frm finite lines at an infinite distance. These to the boundary all lie in the two planes PAA'J'B/f. lanes cut a sphere of unit radius about P in & lune whose angle E APB. Hence the potential is 2.APB. The equipotentials are such loci that L A PR is constant. They are therefore cylinders (perpendicular to the plane of the figure) Iftf. standing on circular arcs through A and B. Cf. Ex. 2,

',

P
s

Ex. 3. If r be the radius of a circular coil of one turn carrying on the axis from the centre current c, and z be distance of a point of the circle, show that the circle subtends at O a solid angle - z/ \ x z* + r2 ). Deduce the potential at O. By differentia2ir(l : show that the field at O in ting the potential with respect to 2*-r 2 c/(2 2 + r2 ) 3 /2
.

Ex. 4.
is

Find the potential at the centre

one
face.

current Hows once round a square whose side is n. of the cube of which the square

Bx.

5.

is

If a current c flows

the centre of a polyhedron of n faces, all equal. around one face, show that the potential at

is 4irc//t.

Ex. 6. Find the potential due to a current flowing in A regular from all theanglr* of the polygu polygon at any point equidistant

168. Cyclic Constants. Consider a magnetic shell When (> is at A. disc. (see Fig. 85) in form of a plane side, the solid near it in front, i.e. on the indefinitely

taken as angle subtended can be

'Jr,

for this

is

half

164

MAGNETIC FIELD OF CURRENTS.

total solid angle

subtended by all directions round a point. As C recedes STTS, if s be the strength. it would be repelled if it along any path ABC were a unit north pole consequently the potential falls In figure, drawn nearly to scale from its value at A. for a circular disc, the angles are subtended at B, C, TT, ATT, etc., as marked, and the

The

potential is

potentials are therefore TTS, ^TTS, in plane of disc .... At

the solid angle and potential are zero but, since the disc is equivalent to a small magnet pointing in direction GA, the
;

field at

D is

parallel to

AG

and

the potential gets

is

than It zero as we travel onwards.

still less

ZTTS at E, F, G. Consequently the difference of

_ _ negativeKB, fyrs,

and takes the values

Fig. 85.

G. replace the disc by its equivalent current, so that s =. c. to pass direct from G It becomes possible for to and since the distance is indefinitely small, no work is done, that is G and A are at the same potential for the But 4;rc of work is done by infinitesimal journey AG. magnetic forces on unit pole travelling from A, by path back to A again so that a finite quantity of work is done in a closed cycle beginning and ending at the same point. When any summation or integration gives a finite value when taken round a closed cycle, this value is called the Cyclic Constant. It is of course evident that if a unit pole had travelled round the other way, AGFEDCB, the work would have had the contrary sign. Had it travelled round an integral number of times, say n, the work would have V>een 4firnc. The work done in going round a closed path
.
.

potentials at for the journey

and

is
.
.

4irs

ABC

Now

ABCDEFGA,

A BC

A'B'
is

.... G'A, which

does not loop through the circuit,

of course zero.

MAGNETIC FIELD OF CURRENTS.

iTi'i

169. Magnetomotive Force (M.M.F.).- -Tin* work which is done by the magnetic forces on a unit N a* pole it travels completely once round a circuit is called the magnetomotive force in that circuit. This work is reversible, for an equal amount of work must be supplied iu order to carry the pole around the circuit in the contrary

direction.

evidently a close analogy tatween M.M.F. and The most obvious difference is this. 102). usually meet with E.M.F. in a circuit around which electricity is flowing, but there is nothing flowing around a circuit in virtue of its M.M.F. Hence E.M.F. can l>e defined as the work per unit charge making the circuit, but M.M.F. is the work that would be done on unit pole if it could be imagined to make the magnetic circuit. By last paragraph, the M.M.F. in a circuit which surrounds once a current c is 4nrc.
is

There E.M.F.

We

170. Webers and

Ampere Turns.

In

ltl-li>!>

the magnitude of the current was taken equal to that of the equivalent magnetic shell. That is, the current c is in absolute units. The M.M.F., 4irc, is then in webers a weber denoting the M.M.F. of such a circuit that one pole travelling round erg is the work done on a unit it once. Engineers prefer to use another unit called the Ampere Turn, which is the M.M.F. of a circuit which once embraces a current of 1 amj>ere. Since an ampere = 4- x 1 1<* 1/10 absolute units, therefore an ampere turn
;

1*257 webers.

AD equal distances along a common axis pendicular to their plane. mean radius of the winding Let a
(

171. Solenoids. A solenoid is a helical coil of win*, such as would be constructed by winding wire evenly round a long straight circular ruler. The wire may U> in one or more layers. tr.i versed Very approximately the effect of a solr-noid a current is the same as that of a numU>r of ciivul.ir wires of the same radius, whose centres are jimmied at
in Fix'
*

the radius

16G

MAGNETIC FIELD OP CURRENTS.

the number of turns, Let n any one of these circles. the length of the cylinder or equivalent circles. Let I Let C be the current in occupied by the winding. current in absolute units. C/10 or c amperes Each circle is equivalent to a magnetic shell of strength c or 0/10 and area TTCI~, and therefore of magnetic moment TTd-c. Hence the whole magnetic moment of the solenoid The is Trtfnc. This is altogether independent of I. formula holds for a short wide cylindrical winding, like the coil of a tangent galvanometer, or a long narrow one. The M.M.F. is kxnc or 4^0/10. This too is independent of I. It can also be expressed as nC ampere-

turns.

sensible distance

172. Field in a Solenoid. from the ends,

The
is

field outside, at a very small compared to

that within the hollow.

The

field inside is

form *

sensibly uni-

let it

be called F.

Hence, nearly the whole work on a unit pole completing the

circuit

(/v.v.-.vTvn

~>
number

^ N

ABDA

(Fig.

*
/

done

inside,

and

86)

is

FL

Therefore

F=

where

is

the

of " turns per unit length."

It is evident that the field at the sum of fields due to parts

E EA

can be considered as

and

ED

These parts (supposed long) have equal

effect,

of solenoid. conse-

quently each exerts a field %F. It follows that the field of a solenoid precisely at its end, in the plane of the last turn, is %F, i.e. half as great as the field in the interior.

turn area

173. Field of a Solenoid. Exact Treatment. Each is equivalent to a plane circular magnetic shell of Tret" and uniform c strength (7/10, so that its

= =

* See precise working which follows lower down.

MAGNETIC FIELD OF CURRENTS.

magnetic
I
;

167

moment is TTO?C. There are n turns in a length so if l/n be small we can consider each magnetic shell as a magnetic disc of length l/n and pole strength These n discs ira?cn/l, its poles being its flat ends. are successively in contact, the 8 pole of each annulling the equal pole of the next, so that only the poles at. A and are left uncompen sated. The field at a distant point is nearly mlBAm/BDif a be small. This

m=

The field at a point quite close to A, but just outside, can be divided into two parts. The disc pole at A has uniform density <r cn/l consequently it exerts m/ira* a force 27ro- ( 34) The pole at D exerts a 2ircn/l. 3 For a long solenoid we can force m/AD" mrcn/l neglect this term and put the field = 2ircn/l. The field at E inside the solenoid is the sum of the fields due to the two solenoids EA and DE. If these can both be treated as long, the field of each is 2ircn/1, and the total

=
.

field at

E is

4wcn/l.

If
field

be on the axis of the solenoid, at a distance z from A, the duo to the flat disc ?m 2 at A of surface density <r can be shown
27nr {1

to be

-z/Vd* +

z-}.

If
z

= DK,
\'a*

the field due to

D
2Tr<r{\
z'/

z~\.

Hence accurately the

field at

If

B be at

A, this
'2ir<rl

Va*

+ /-'

168

MAGNETIC FIELD OP CURRENTS.

sum

and D, the field at from If z and z' be the distances of of the fields just outside two solenoids of length z and z',

Of course a

cn/l.

Find the field in the interior of a solenoid 10 cm. long, 1. cm. radius, of 500 turns, and carrying a current of half an ampere.

Ex.

-9-10
Fig.
87.

The radius is immaterial, if we regard it as small. The field == = 500/10 = 50, therefore the field = lOir = lirNc, c = 1/20, and 31 '4. If we use the strict result given by the Calculus, the field at the centre

=
The
length.

47riVc

5/

v'&

12

30-8.

difference-is relatively large,

is

the diameter of the solenoid

about 2% of the whole, because not very small compared to its

Ex.

2.

For the same solenoid,

find the field at the centre of

7

one end. The approximate formula gives

gives 15'6.

2irj!S c

15*7.

The

strict

formula

Ex. 3.- For the same

axis, 5

solenoid find the field at a point on the

cm. from the end.

MAGNETIC FIELD OF CURRENTS.

169

The approximate formula treats the solenoid as a magnet whose : The poles are at dispole strength is N-jra c = 50?r/20 = 5ir/2. tances 5 and 15 from the point considered, therefore the field is

$-

(1/5

1/15

2
)

7T/10

7T/90

-279.

The exact formula gives

'274.

Ex. 4. Draw a curve showing the relation of field to position on axis for the above solenoid. The results found in Ex. above are utilised in the graph shown along with other results found similarly.

13

Ex. 5. Find the cyclic constant of the above coil with the current f ampere. There are 500 turns, so the constant is 250 ampere turns, or 4?r 500/20 = lOOir = 314 absolute units.
.

is wound uniformly with 1000 turns of of its section is '6 cm. ; the radius of the ring itself (from the centre of the ring to the centre of its section) is

Ex.

6.

An

anchor ring

wire.

The radius
Find the

within and outside the windings, and the 1 ampere. Obviously the M.M.F. is 1000 ampere turns, or 4*- x 1000 x 1/10 = 1257 webers. Let be the field at distance r from the axis of A unit pole travelling round the axis at this distance ring. describes a distance 4?rr cm. ; hence the work done on it
8 cm.
field

M.M.F.

in the core, for a current of

= 4wr.F =
Hence

4/r

x 1000/10.

F
Its

100//-.

mean value can be taken as 100/8 = 12'5 gausses, ver}' nearly. This wound ring can be regarded as a set of 1000 magnetic
shells each equivalent to one turn of wire. Their thickness is we like (provided it is small), and we can suppose the shells to

what
have

8/1000 and be bounded by planes which are not parallel but intersect at the axis of the ring. They will then fit close together, and the + face of each will exactly cancel (for external points) the face of the next. Hence there will be no magnetic field at all exerted at outside points. The whole of the lines of magnetic flux are internal, and the arrangement is not maga
thickness
2ir.

mean

netic except in its circular core.

Ex. 7. Find the magnetic moment of a solenoid of length 20 cm., radius *6 cm., number of turns 400, current '4 amp. Find also the difference of magnetic potential (approximate) between its ends; and the field (1) in the interior, (2) exactly at the centre of an end face, (3) 50 cm. from the centre in a direction along, and
at right angles to, the axis of the coil.

170

MAGNETIC FIELD OF CURRENTS.

Coil.

174. Best Shape of a Section of a Galvanometer be the point at which the field is to be Let measured PQ the bounding curve Let OX be the axis of the section.
;

the resulof symmetry of the coil The tant field will be along OX. problem is to find the form of the which produces the largest curve with a given quantity field along
;

PQ

OX
I 2

of wire.

A
field

length

cl/OP

OP, and

Fig. 88.
cl

nent d sin XOP/OP- along the axis. If the coil were wound in such a way that this length were taken off at P

of wire at produces at perpendicular to therefore produces compo-

and put on at Q, it would produce The most economical winding has these two expressions equal since otherwise we could get a larger field by transferring wire from one place to the other. So the form of the boundsin

XOQ/OQ-.

ing curve
constant. tion

is

such that sin

XOP/OP'

The curve has the polar equar-

sin

0.

175.

carrying equivalent to n plane parallel coils carrying the same Let A be current, each of one turn.
current
c

Moving
of

Coil Galvanometers.
is

coil

parallel turns

(absolute)

their

total area.

As

parallel,

their

magnetic

additive
is

and the sum

<p

their planes are moments are is Ac. If the coil

in a magnetic field
it is

H, whose direction

makes angle
planes,

with the normal to the acted on by a couple

HA c sin
Let the
coil

0.

Fig. 89.

be suspended by a vertical torsion wire so

MAGNETIC FIELD OF CURRENTS.

that the planes of
zontal
its coils

171
hori-

when the wire is untwisted. magnetic field Let L be the torsion constant of the wire, so that LB is the couple exerted by the wire when its twist is 0. In that position 90 hence the condition for 6,
</>

are vertical

and contain a

equilibrium

is

HAc<x0 = Le.
L be the L sin
constant and the
is

If the coil be suspended bifilarly, and of the bifilar suspension, the couple is

equilibrium condition

HAc = L
Of course
field

tan

0.

H can either be the earth's horizontal

be
bifilar, one it away.

field

or a

produced by permanent magnets or

electric currents.

coil

wire can bring the current to the If the suspension be torsional, the current can be brought by the torsion wire and carried away by a vertical wire underneath dipping into mercury, or by a fine wire twisted into a very feeble spiral spring. The figure shows diagrammatically the coil BC of an Ayrton-Mather galvanometer. EB is the torsion wire, CD a spiral, E and are the electrodes, and $ are poles of a strong permanent magnet.
If the suspension

and the other take

circular coil of 100 turns, radius 5, hangs in the magEx. 1. netic meridian by a torsion wire which would be twisted 6 by Find a couple of magnitude 200 absolute units.

through what angle

units) passes.
If

it

turns

if

a current

(absolute

couple

200 produces a twist of 6,

ir/30

radians, then

L= A =

6000/7T.
25?r,

Since there are 100 turns of area

25007T.

Hence the equation

HAc
becomes
giving

cos

= L6 = 6000
=--

186 x 25(K>7rc cos

0/cos

0/*,

-76f>r.

It

is

usually better to find the

number

of degrees in S

let it

be

Then

and we obtain

D/cos

O/w-D/lM, D = -076.-) x

180e/ir

- 4-s

-.

172

MAGNETIC FIELD OF CURRENTS.

Ex. 2. Give numerical results for above coil, if the current be one-tenth ampere. If the deflexion is read by a mirror and scale, the scale being 1 metre distant, find the scale reading.
Here
. .

D/cos

= =

1/100,
-0438.

= 1. So = -0438. very small, we take cos = '00765 radian. This is the angle rotated by the Also mirror, therefore the reflected ray rotates 26 = '0143. The arc subtended by 26 at 1 metre distance is 26 x 100 = T43 cm. ; hence 1'43 is the scale reading.
As the angle
is

circular coil is suspended bih'larly in the earth's field, 6 when a certain current passes. If however it be not allowed to turn, it will deflect a compass needle, Show that we have placed at its centre, through an angle 0. sufficient data to find both the current and the earth's horizontal
3.

Ex.

and turns through angle

field.

We have
.

'.

A = mra 2 He = L tan
,

6/nira

2
.

But

b}'

the formula for a tangent galvanometer

c

aff tan

(f>/2irn.

Hence

H~ = 2L
(a

tan 6/a? tan

<

formula which does not contain

c~

n),

and
<f>/2ir~an.

tan 6 tan

torsion wire is twisted 1 per couple of 100 dyne cm. Ex. 4. It supports a rectangular coil of 250 turns cm., in a magnetic field, between the poles of a fixed magnet, of strength 120. Calculate the current indicated per 1 deflection.

1x3

Ex. 5. If the torsion wire in the coil of Ex. 4 is replaced by another one, and it be observed that the period of oscillation of the suspended coil is halved, how much will this affect the sensitiveness of the galvanometer, i.e. the current indicated per 1 ?
Ex. 6. A coil of total area 50 sq. cm. and weight '5 gm. is supported bifilarly by two perfectly flexible wires, 2 mm. apart and 5 cm. long, which act as leads to the current. Calculate the current for a deflection of 1, the magnetic field being that of the earth -186).
(

176. Direct Reading Galvanometers. Ammeters and Voltmeters. Every galvanometer measures primarily
the current through
itself
;

and secondarily the P.D.,

MAGNETIC FIELD OP CURRENTS.

which

173

current

X galvanometer

resistance,

between

its

Ammeter

terminals. It can therefore be graduated either in current units or in units of P.D. If used to measure currents and, graduated in amperes, it is an Amperemeter or
similarly a Milliammeter is graduated in thousandth parts of an ampere, and a Microammeter in millionths. If used to measure P.D. and graduated in volts it is a voltmeter and we can also have millivoltmeters, and micro voltmeters. For an experiment we may want to know the current supplied to an apparatus (e.g. an incandescent lamp, or a dynamo) and the P.D. between the poles of the apparatus. In the first case we use an ammeter which is placed in series with the apparatus and measures its actual cur;
;

the

But it is expedient that the presence or absence of ammeter shall not appreciably affect the current measured therefore the ammeter ought to be of small resistance compared to the pieces of apparatus with which
rent.
;

it is

In the second case a voltmeter is generally used. in parallel with the apparatus, and measures the placed But it is expedient actual P.D. between its terminals. that the presence or absence of the voltmeter shall not appreciably affect the P.D. measured consequently the voltmeter should have a large resistance compared to the
;

apparatus. Note that

if a voltmeter of very high resistance be shunted with a 1 ohm coil it becomes an ammeter. For if it be put in series with a circuit, practically the whole

and every ampere of current goes through the 1 ohm current produces 1 volt P.D. between its terminals. In the same way a milliammeter becomes a voltmeter if its resistance be made up to 1000 ohms by putting a box in series with it.
;

177. Dynamometers and Current Balances.

These

are instruments for measuring the force or couple exerted by one coil upon another situated in a standard posit ion. They thus estimate the product of the two currents. If the two coils are in series, the two currents are the

same

let its

value be

c.

dynamometer then measures

174
c
2

MAGNETIC FIELD OF CURRENTS.

directly.

The reading

is

unaltered

if

the current be re-

If the current be an alternating or fluctuating 2 one, the value of c is continually changing, but usually the so rapid that a measurement can be made changes are which represents the average value of c 2 This is imThen ( 181) the portant if c varies harmonically. 2 average of c is half the square of the maximum current. Another way of connecting is to put one of the two coils, which has low resistance, in series with an apparatus, so that it is traversed by the whole current supplied and to put the other coil, which has high resistance, in parallel with the apparatus, so that its current represents the
versed.
.

Then the dynamometer voltage between the terminals. measures the product of voltage (P.D.) and amperage i.e. it gives the wattage, or number of joules of (current) It thus measures Power energy supplied per second. directly, and that is the reason for the name Dynamometer.
;

178.

The

Weber Electro - Dynamometer.

The

instrument has two coils. The large fixed one is like that of a tangent galvanometer, with its plane vertical and in the magnetic meridian. The small one hangs at the centre of the large one by a torsion wire depending from a torsion head. This wire is untwisted, and the torsion head reads zero, when the axis of the small coil is in the
plane of the large one.
coils,

When

currents flow in the two the small one is deflected and

has to be brought back to its standard position by rotating the torsion head. The current in the small coil enters by the torsion wire, and leaves by a fine wire spiral underneath, or by a wire dipping into mercury, or any arrangement which minimises
torsion.
Fig. 91.

coil

Let a, b be radii of large and small m, n be numbers of turns x, y

;
;

be currents in absolute units. The field at the centre of the large

coil

is

MAGNETIC FIELD OF CURRENTS.

(

175

The magnetic moment of small coil is 161, Ex. 1). If 6 be the torsion angle measured on the torsion a constant for the torsion wire, the couple head, and
Trnb-y.
is

LO.

Hence
L0 =
Tfiib-y

x 2-irmx/a

2ir~b~mnxy/a,
0.

so that xy is

measured at once by the angle

exerts no couple on the coil, for all Note. The earth's field measurements are made when its axis is pointing northward. The British Association Electrodynamometer is of this type with The large coil is replaced by a pair of coils certain modifications. radii arranged as in a Helmholtz galvanometer [ 161, Ex. 8] 25 cm. and distance apart 25 cm. The number of turns used is any multiple of 30 up to 450. The suspension is bifilar, and its sensitiveness is adjustable by altering the distance apart of the
;

wires at top.

be 50 turns of radius 14, and the be 700 turns of radius 1, both being in series, calculate the couple exerted on the suspended coil, kept in standard position, by a current of 1 ampere.

Example.

If the fixed coil

suspended

coil

179. The Joule Current Balance. The fixed and moving coils are parallel. When like currents flow, they act as if they were two magnets whose dissimilar poles are
opposed they therefore attract each other. The weights needed to hold the movable coil in a standard position are
;

proportional to the product of the currents.

Fig. 92.

An

improved form
coils
a,

The four
have radius

is the Kelvin current balance. Let each represent the fixed system. and let x l>e and number of turns

P
p

their current.

represent the movable system. They and number of turns n and current y they can each be regarded as a magnet of moment

The two

coils
if

are smaller

their radii be b

Let the current x be the same way round in P, and P3 and the contrary way in P2 and P,, as indicated by the
,

M=

jnrb'y.

176
arrows.

MAGNETIC FIELD OP CURRENTS.

and the other in p 2 unite to exert a force, supposed upand exert an equal contrary wards, on p 1 while 3 4 The earth's field exerts no couple on p^p v for force on p r the currents in it are opposite ways. The couple exerted by PjP2 3 4 on p p 2 (in the standard position) is found at once from the formula in Ex. 10, 161, by regarding each small coil as replaced by a magnet of the same moment.

Then

Let y be one way in p

and
;

PP

The couple depressing p l is balanced by weights in such a way as to bring to its standard position and it is evident that the required gravitational couple is a calcu-

p^

lable multiple of xy. The weights used are generally sliders which can be placed on the bar connecting the movable
coils.

These instruments can be used for the direct measure-

ment of a single current. Putting the two coils in series we have x == y and therefore the quantity measured is #2 They can also be used as Wattmeters, as above (177).
.

CHAPTERS.
BALLISTIC DISCHARGE AND OF CAPACITY.

MEASUREMENT

ISO. Fluxion al Notation. Let x be any varying quantity whatsoever. Let t be the time, reckoned from any chosen epoch. Let the value x occur at time t then we denote the value at time t + 8t by x -f Sx. The quantity alters by fa in the interval St. The average rate at which x alters for this interval is, of
course, 8x/8t. If the interval 8t is taken very small, and ultimately zero, then 8x also is small and ultimately vanishing, for (in

any natural process) no quantity changes with absolute

limit.

suddenness. Ordinarily the fraction 8x/St approaches a This limit is denoted by dxjdt or by -T. Instead of

writing

it is

permissible to write

dx = xdt
as an abbreviation, for &tr approximates to the value i&t when 8t, and therefore 8x, are small and ultimately vanish-

In words, x denotes the " rate of change of ar." If x be the distance which a point has traversed, x will be the velocity of that point. One uses x for d'x/dt- to denote the rate at which x alters. If therefore .r be velocity, x will be acceleration. Another important case is that of angular
motion. If be the angle already described at time t, If the angular velocity and the angular acceleration. 12 177 M.PH.I.
is

ing.

178

BALLISTIC DISCHARGE,

be the quantity of water in a reservoir, V will be the rate at which V is increasing, or the current flowing into If F be negative, the water is actually the reservoir. the electric charge- in a flowing out. Similarly if q suitable receptacle (an accumulator or condenser), q will be the current inwards, or q the current outwards. Any number of other instances might be given.

181. Mathematical Formulae. Harmonic Change. or. o where n is a constant. This x, let x -f- n"% is the equation of simple harmonic motion. The general solution (which the mathematical student can verify by
If x differentiating)
is

x a and

sin(

-f E),

E being constants.
x
an Gos(nl
of x
;

The values of x recur when t is increased by 2ir/n. This therefore is the period T. The rate of change of x is

E).

The maximum value

occurs

is

called the Amplitude.

is

It

when

nt

-j-

E=
A

and

a.

The maximum

value of x is an, and therefore is equal to 2ira/T. The constant is called the o if we reckon t Epoch. It from the instant when x vanishes. The average value (algebraic) of x is zero, for it is as often positive as negative. But

x~

a- siri~(nt

E)

a~

a~ cos 2(nt

E).

The average of the second term is zero, therefore ^a 2 is the average of x". The average square of a quantity varying harmonically is half the maximum square.
182. Logarithmic Decrement. If x oc o or x/x A, where A is constant.

Ar
or
Of

=
1

x, let

How

+
x/x

3?
.T.

is
d-t

the rate of change of the Napierian Logarithm

MEASUREMENT OF CAPACITY.
Hence

170

therefore log x diminishes at the constant rate A. The name Logarithmic Decrement is given to A. initial value (when t o) of x be

If the

log

XQ -

log

x =
X

\t,

=
.

(log
e

a-,,

log.T)//,

xjx = r _ .t
. .

xt >

XQ f

- \t.

The above logarithms

by multiplying
logs, to

are to base e. They can be got base 10 by 2*3026 hence

;

(lo glo

a-

lo glo .r)/2-3026/.

183. Resisted Harmonic Motion.

-f 2Xa;

n-x

Consider the equation

o.

First
stants.

ae a and k being conassume that the solution is x Then x = kx, and x = k-x, consequently
,

k-

- 2k\ + H 2 k

o,

giving

A/Xif

__
M-.

This solution
are then

is

perfectly suitable

\~
;

n- be positive.
e ~
**,

There
-

and a of k, say k l and k., independent solutions. It can be verified that

two values

be

are

is

a general solution containing two arbitrary constants a and This is the n- be negative. solution fails if Xinteresting case. To solve it, put

/>.

The above

n-

X-

+ m-

then choose a

new

variable y such that

By
and

differentiation,

x=(y-\y)<
jr

(y

'2\y

180

BALLISTIC DISCHARGE,

Substitute these in the differential equation.

After dividing

by
of

we

get

y + m'-y =
which the solution
(

o,

181

is

y = a
therefore
a-

sin (mt

E),

= ae~ Xt

sin (mt

E).

This can be regarded as a Simple Harmonic Motion whose amplitude is not constant, but is always = ae~ ^' Hence X is the Logarithmic Decrement of the Amplitude.

184. Free Oscillations of a Galvanometer Needle. Consider a needle suspended without friction. If it be displaced through a small angle 0, its suspension exerts on
a couple tending to replace it, and ultimately propor0. This couple may therefore be denoted by LO, where L is approximately a constant. Employing Newton's Fluxional Notation, we denote the and the angular acceleration by 6. angular velocity by
it

tional to

The same
the time.

quantities are denoted

by

- -

and

G
dt~

dt

Ti

being

If be the moment of inertia of the needle, the acting and the angular couple must equal the product of If therefore the needle be simply swinging acceleration. under no disturbing force, the equation of motion is

Ke = or

L6,

LIK =
The

and the motion

n*), of

is

Simple Harmonic (by

181, putting

period

T=
full

27r

VKjL.

solution

of the equation of
6

motion can be

written.

a sin

VL/K,

MEASUREMENT OF CAPACITY.

181

where evidently t is the time reckoned from that instant = o. The greatest value of 6 is a it occurs at which

when

VK/L =

$T.

The value

of

or - at

is

a \/L/K cos
t

VL/K

and

its

greatest value

is

when
=

o,

and

is

WQ

a V/Z/A:

2jra/ T.

current in a galvano185. Transient Currents. meter is called transient if its total duration is a time

small compared to the period of oscillation of the galvanoIt is evident, of course, that a current meter needle. may be transient in one galvanometer and not transient in another. In most forms of galvanometer ( 175 and Exs. on 161) a couple acts 011 the needle which is simply proportional to the current when the deflection 6 is small. Let Ac be the couple for current c (absolute units). If c be a steady current, equilibrium is reached for such a deflection 6 that this couple balances that due to the L6 ( 180). Let C be the suspension, so that Ac ordinary galvanometer constant, i.e. the current indicated per unit deflection. Then

CO,

AC =

L,

C=

L! A.

If c be the average value of a transient current of short duration t, Ac is the average couple, and Ac/K is the average angular acceleration for time t. The total angular If q ct, q is the velocity given in this time is Act/K. total electric charge carried by the transient current through the galvanometer. It gives the needle an instantaneous angular velocity Aq/K. Let the needle be at rest in its equilibrium position

182

BALLISTIC DISCHARGE,

when

this happens. It will be set in motion with the above angular velocity, and will start to oscillate freely in its natural period, with a maximum angular displacement,

a say. The maximum angular velocity when = 0} it is ZTTOL/T ( 184). Hence Aq/K = 2va/T.

is

the value of

It follows that a can be used to measure q. The galvais then said to be used Ballistically, and the Ballistic Constant Q is the value of q which would corso that 1 respond to a

nometer

= Qa

Q = 2w K/A T.

Compare

this with the

Ordinary Constant.

By
t

division,

QIC

But

T=
hence
finally

2?r

Vfffi,

KIL

=j&ff T / ^
i
;

QIC =

T/2ir.

This very simple relation holds also in coulombs and amperes. It enables the Ballistic Constant to be found at once when the Ordinary Constant has been determined.
The complete period of swing of the undisturbed mirror 1. a galvanometer is 3 seconds. A current of one microampere produces deflection of the reflected light spot through 8 divisions What charge is indicated when the galvanometer is of the scale. used ballistically and the spot swings to maximum distance 13 divisions from central reading ? Measure c and q as current and charge per 1 cm. deflection of ~ ~ Since 8 cm. indicates 10 G amps., c = 10 6 /8 = spot of light. 1-25 X 10- 7 Since q = cTfiir, q = 3 x 1-25/2*- x 10~ 7 The charge ~7 or '776 microcoulomb. required is 13</ = 7'76 X 10 Ex.
of
. .

Ex. 2. Find the ratio of the ballistic constant in coulombs to the current constant in amperes if the period of oscillation is 1 second.

Galvanometer 186. Frictional Resistance to Needle. If the resistance be due either to the air, or to a
liquid, or to

induced currents,

it

is

proportional to the

MEASUREMENT OF CAPACITY.
angular velocity.
to 9

183

A couple acts on the needle proportional

Call
it

and opposing the motion.

Nti
t

we

therefore

get the equation

KB = - N6 - L0
T
o.

or

Kd + A + L6 =

This equation is of the form considered in may here be written (replacing x by 0)

183, which

+
much

2X0

n-0

o.

In any galvanometer suitable for ballistic work, A is 2 smaller than n, therefore A 2 it is negative, and the
is

solution

=
where

ae

X^

sin (mt

E)

write

We can ordinarily m = n.
is

2 neglect A (but not A),

and therefore

Comparing the equations, we

decrement
If there
X

see that the logarithmic

NI"2K.

were no should have

friction, N = o

and \

and we

Period

T=

2ir/n

2ir

>fK\L.

The actual period

of the term sin (mt

E)

is

however

2-n-lm

27T/

Vn*

X2

period.

Thus the observed period T differs from But if A 2 be negligible, T = T'.

T, the corrected

187. Apparent and Corrected Amplitude.

the time from the instant
therefore put

Reckon

T',

m
=

when 6 n. Then
X/

o.

2 Neglect A and

ae

sin

/,

184

BALLISTIC DISCHARGE,
first

The

outward swing terminates when

nt

= *

TT/2n

274,

hence
e==ai

=ae- ^ Ti\

a/a,

= e^/ 4

The next extreme swing, when t = 3T/4, is negative "" The next is a. and numerically = a 2 = ae ~ 5X7V 4 x77 2 and so on. Hence aja t = e / ae The equations j = Qa, where Q/0 = 27T/T, hold only for the amplitude a which would exist if there were no If there be a logarithmic decrement, a and a 3 friction. may be observed, and a found from the formula
'
.

'

a/a,

Ex. 1. The galvanometer of Ex. 2, 3 of 87 had successive swings 15 and 13 and period 2 sec. ; what was its logarithmic decre-

ment

Approximately, 2 is the diminution in 1 sec., i.e. a half period ; 2. But x = if therefore x = swing = 15, then x = X#, there2 corresponds to the average fore X = 2/15. More accurately, x = = I (15 + 13) = 14, hence value x
2

14X, X

1/7

1428.

Strictly, in 1 sec. the logarithm to base 10 diminishes by log 15 - log 13 = -06215 (to 5 places). Divide by -43429 to reduce to -1431. The approxi6215/43429 Napierian logarithms; hence X mate method is as good, in practice, as the more accurate.

Ex.
10'4
;

therefore we can put - x = 10*7 ; therefore

2. The period is 1'6 sec., and successive swings are 11 and find logarithmic decrement. The half period is -8, the charge in '8 sec. is 11 10*4 = *6,

dxjdt
6/8

6/8.

Also x
-0701.

% (11

10'4)

= _

x\x

x 10-7

its

3. If a quantity diminishing under viscous resistance halves value in every p seconds, and divides its value by 3 in every q seconds, find the relations between p and X, q and X.

Ex.

*This

is

an approximate statement, which involves X being a

small quantity.

MEASUREMENT OP CAPACITY.

185

Taking Napierian logs, the logarithm diminishes by log 2 in time In the same way X = log 3/g. It is a p, therefore X = log 2/p. sufficiently close approximation to take X = '1\p = 1'ljq; but the correct values of loge 2, loge 3 are '69315, 1 '09861.

Ex. 4.
directions)

If the first

what

is

and second swings be 13 and the corrected amplitude ?

a/ 13

11 (in

opposite

=
=

V13/TI,
(3 log 13

or
log a
.

log

1)/2.

This gives a 14'13. But an approximate method is used when the logarithmic decrement is so small as this. The amplitude diminishes 13 11 or 2 in a half period. It is assumed it diminished half as much, or 1, in the previous quarter period. Hence
a

13

14.

The

error here

is

only one per cent.

Ex. 5. The first swing is 10 'o to right, the second is 9 to left, and the complete period is 2 seconds. Calculate the logarithmic decrement, and find after how long the swing will be less than 3 cm. Find also the corrected amplitude. Ex. 6. If such a viscous resistance were applied to the galvanometer of Ex. 5 that the second swing was a third of the first, find how much the apparent period would be affected.

188. Condensers.
Ballistic work,

Large capacities are necessary for

hence there are many plates arranged as In practice they are sheets of tinfoil in the figure. separated by mica or other thin
dielectric.

The

practical unit of

capacity is the capacity of a holds a charge when the P.D.

l

Farad, it is the condenser which of one coulomb of its terminals is one volt. That is, the charge ~ Fl #- 93> is 10 absolute units when the 8 potential is 10 absolute units, ~ therefore the farad is 10 9 absolute units of capacity. A coulomb is 3 x 10 9 electrostatic units of charge, and a volt is 1/300 electrostatic units of P.D., hence a farad is 9 x 10 11 units (electrostatic) of capacity. This is too

186

BALLISTIC DISCHARGE,

large for convenient manufacture, consequently standard condensers have their capacity given in microfarads or microfarad is 9 X 105 absolute millionth s of a farad. If q, V, K, electrostatic units.

be the charge, potential and capacity in coulombs, volts and

farads

KV. then q Condenser keys are intended

Fig. 94.

(or in absolute units)

simple type is as shown, the insulating parts being shaded. The movable brass DQ is connected to terminal A. The small spring presses it, when undisturbed, on the pad connected to terminal B, and pressure on the vulcanite at P can disconnect it from B and connect it rapidly to terminal C. In

to charge densers.

and discharge con-

more complicated keys there is an arrangement for holding the key suspended for any arbitrary time in contact with
neither

B nor 0. Let one pole of the condenser, battery, and galvanometer be connected to A, B, C respectively, as in figure. Let the other poles be connected to earth. When the key touches B the condenser is being charged by the battery, and when the key touches C the condenser discharges through the galvanometer. If none of

Fig. 9o.

the conductors has too large a resistance we can assume If the charging and discharging to be instantaneous. therefore V be the E.M.F. of the battery, the charge sent No resistances matter, through galvanometer is KV. unless they are very large (see 189).

Ex. 1. A 50 volt battery is used to charge a 1/3 M.F. (one third microfarad) condenser which is then discharged through a galvanometer. The jump is 15 divisions. Find the ballistic constant (q).
;

Here
and
hence

Q= Q=
q

I5q,

KV =
I'll

% x 50 x ~ X 10 6
.

10-;

MEASUREMENT OF CAPACITY.
Ex. 2. A Clark cell charges a condenser of 1 M.F. discharge through galvanometer produces a jump 3 '4 cm. ballistic constant.
8-47
;

187
and the Find the

=
=

KV =

10- 6 x 1-43;
7
.

hence
q
4-2 x 10-

Ex. 3. Would the working of the above (Ex. 2) be modified if the second swing (the reverse way) were observed to be only 3*0 cm. ? Here (cf. Ex. 4, 187) the amplitude diminishes by 3 '4 - 3'0 = '4 in a half period. In a quarter period, the diminution should be "2. Hence if the friction had been destroyed, the first swing would have
been 3'6 nearly
giving
q
;

and

3%=
=

10-

1-43,
7
.

4-0 x 10-

Ex. 4. With the same condenser of unknown capacity we get kicks of 3'4, 9'2 when a Clark cell and an accumulator are used. What is the E.M.F. of the accumulator? Evidently the jumps are proportional to the E. M.F.'s, hence if the Clark be 1 -43 volts the other cell is
1-43 x

92

-1-3-4

3-87 volts.

Ex. 5. With the same battery, and with a standard M.F. condenser and another condenser, jumps of 15'5 and 9 '3 are obtained. What is the capacity of the other condenser ?
93/155

-6

M.F.

In experiments such as 4 and 5 it is never necessary to make a correction for frictional diminution of swing. For such a correction does not affect the ratio of the swings.

Ex.

6.

meter is 10" 6 amperes. The period of swing- is 2 sec. A condenser is charged by 5 Clark cells in series, and discharged through the galvanometer, producing a kick of 12 divisions. Find the capacity
of the condenser.

-The current indicated per unit deflection of a galvano-

189. Discharge through Large Resistance. Let be the capacity of a condenser and R the resistance through which it is being discharged. At time /, let the charge and potential be Q and V, so that Q = KV. The difference of potential at the ends of the wire is T', hence

the current

is

V/R.

But the current equals

the rate at

188

BALLISTIC DISCHARGE,

which have

is

decreasing, hence

it

Q.

We therefore

Q =
This
is

VjR = - Q/KB.
18'2,
~~

an equation of the form discussed in ~ flKR and therefore F = its solution is Q = Q e The Napierian logarithms of both the charge
,

and
/

Ve

KR

'

Q and

the

at the rate (KR) the condenser be being charged by a battery of E.M.F. E, through a resistance E, and if Q, V, have above meanings, the current is Q and it (E F)/B.

potential

F diminish

Again,

if

Hence
If

KV =
x
:.

(E - V)/B.
V, this gives ~ t/RK e ,

=E-

= - xjRK,
the

x = x

x<> being the initial value of x. commencement of the charging,

Choosing

o at

when
E{1

V=o

and x
},

= E,

we have

E - V =Ee~ t/RK V =
,

- e~VRK

and Q = KE{\ e~ t/RK }.

t

The average current

for time

is

If

be not large, so that t/KR

if

is

fairly large,

C = KE/t.

small enough for its square to be neglected, using the exponential theorem we have
Bvit

t/KR

is

is the same as if the condenser had In ordinary telegraphy let R be resistance of the live wire. Only one end of it is connected to the battery the other is to earth, which can be regarded as a condenser so capacious that t/KR is small. Consequently

so that the current

been absent.
;

MEASUREMENT OF CAPACITY.
the current
sistance
is

189

C/R, which implies that the effective reoffice to another is only the resistance of the wire one way.

from one

microfarad condenser discharges through a megohm. long a time is its charge (1) halved, (2) divided by 1000? = 10 - 6 = 10 6 therefore = 1 and Q = Q e~ f The Here ( 2, t charge is halved when e~ 1/2, e* Ioge2 = '7 sec. nearly. It is divided by 1000 when t = Iog e 1000 = 3 log, 10 = 3 x 2%3 =
1.

Ex.

In

how

KR

6'9 sec.

Ex. 2. What would be the corresponding times if the same condenser were used as in Ex. 1, but the resistance were only 10000

ohms

KR = 1/100, so the times are given by IQOf = 7, and 100* = 6 We infer that the discharge is practically instantaneous even when
'9.

very large resistances are used. The methods of 188 are valid with any resistances up to considerably over 10000 ohms for most of the discharge takes place in a time very small compared to the galvanometer period.
;

Ex. 3. If a condenser of 1/3 M.F. be discharged instantly through a galvanometer, the jump is 18. If the key remain suspended so that 2 sec. intervene between disconnecting the condenser from the battery and discharging it, the jump is only 7. Find the
leakage resistance of the condenser. During the two seconds the condenser is discharging through the enormous resistance, R ohms, of its dielectric plates. The logarith-

mic decrement

= =
Hence

(log, 18

log, 7)/2

2-3{log ln 18
1
-7-

loglo 7}/2

-472.

KR =
but

-472

K=
hence

1/3

x 10
fi

6
,

R=
Ex. 4.

3 x 10 /'472

6-35 x

10''

6'3.">

megohms.

The dielectric plates of a condenser are made of a material whose specific inductive capacity (in electrostatic units) is k, and whose specific resistance (in ohms per cubic cm.) is /.
is 1/3 x 10 coulombs, and unit potential is 300 volts, show that the charge and potential of the condenser have a logarithmic decrement of Av/12 x 10 ".

Given that an electrostatic unit charge

Ex.
and

5.

The

its dielectric

be specific resistance of mica is taken to constant or specific inductive capacity

x
is

10'

',

(>-.">.

Apply the result of Ex. 4 to show that the logarithmic decrement is 4-9 x lO" 3 and show that the charge will halve in about 4 hr.
;

190

BALLISTIC DISCHARGE,

19O. Comparison of Condensers. Sharing Charges. and Let be the capacities, and let the insulation z be perfect. First, if the capacities be small, as with condensers used in electrostatics. Connect to an electrometer and charge it to a potential V giving deflection x. Of course one coat of the condenser and one terminal of

the electrometer is earthed, and the other coat is connected to the other terminal. The second condenser (previously discharged) is now connected to the first. The -\charge VK^ is shared and the total capacity is hence the potential falls to. 1 V/(K 4and the de2) flection becomes y. Assuming that deflections are propor-

,,

tional to potentials

we

infer
y\x

= K.KK, +

K,)

If

KJK

is

enormous,

it is

bet-

ter,

charge, to disconnect K.,, discharge it, share again, and so on till the

after sharing the

Fig.

ttfi.

sharing operation has been reEach time, peated n times. the potential is multiplied by JQ. Hence if 2 be K.KK, the deflection after n sharings,

In Fig. 96, ABC and A'B'C' are condenser keys of the be pressed and then usual type (as in Fig. 94). If released, K^ is first connected to the battery and then to In figure, K, is connected to earth by the electrometer.

C', and therefore is discharged. Pressing and releasing D' makes it first share the charge of K and then discharge and this can be repeated many times with great itself
l
;

rapidity.

be large enough we use a ballistic galvaSecond, if nometer instead of the electrometer. It is put in the same place, and the only difference is that the key ABC should be capable of resting suspended in contact neither at A nor C. First press D and let the key fly back to B thus
l ;

MEASUREMENT OF CAPACITY.

191

is charged by the battery and discharged through the V. Next press D galvanometer, the jump x measuring to recharge and suspend the key is now insulated and may be made to share its charge n times with .K"2 by working the second key. Finally the suspension is released and contact takes place at B and the charge n V{K /(K 4- z )\ is sent through the galvanometer and measured by the jump y. Thus
l

K K
l

ar/y

-{(*!

+ *,)/*}.

Ex. 1. A condenser is charged by a given battery and discharged through a galvanometer, giving a jump of 30 graduations. It is recharged, its charge is shared with a standard 1/3 M.F. conFind its denser, and it is then discharged giving a jump of 18 cm.
capacity,

and state the jump after two sharings.

K/(K +

1/3)

18/30

A'

1/2 in microfarads.

After two sharings the jump

is

30(18/30}-

10-8.

Ex. 2. A standard 1/3 M.F. condenser shares its charge 20 times with a small condenser K, and the jump is thereby halved.
Find
A'.

1/2= {l/3/(l/3+
1

20

A')}

+ 3K =

2 l/ -, log(l

3 A)

& log
of
1

2.

A' is small.

As an approximation, the Napierian logarithm Hence

3A-

3A"

is

3A'

if

= = K= =

& log

2,
;

-693/20 = -03465 -01155 M.F.

Using common

logs,
(1

log

3 A)

-3010/20
-0352,

-01505
-01 17

log 1-0352

3A'=

AA'.,,

M.F.
is halved in be divided by

Ex.

3.

If the capacities

be

A",

and

and the kick

If it

sharings (m large), prove three in n sharings, prove

A'2 / A!

A'.,/A',

'Ijm.

=
=

I -I /ti.

Obviously
{(A',

A",)/A-,}'

2,

(A,

A' 2

K)"

3.

192

BALLISTIC DISCHARGE,
of

Taking Napierian logarithms, and neglecting squares

quantities,

small

log

(1

+ K./KJ = K./K, =

m
-

1 log 2 =
1

-7/m,

K,JK =
l

log 2
1

1-1/H.

More accurate values

Ex. 4.
If the

are '693/w,

'098/.

also K^ be shared with /fa, and if leak for time t, show that the final charge is the same whether the sharing occurs before, after, or during the leaking. If before or after, the sharing multiplies the charge by

charge of

K f(K +
}
l

K.,),

and the leakage multiplies by

and the order

t

of multiplication is indifferent. If during, then a time t comes - ^ after, the sharing. If the time be taken after before, and t sharing, the charge at time t is unaltered and therefore the same
,

leakage takes place subsequently. Hence the final effect is the same. It follows that leakage and sharing can be separately calculated.

Ex. 5. A large condenser K is shared with a small one k a hundred times, and the jump is multiplied by *3. The time taken is noted, and when K is recharged and allowed to leak for that time the jump is multiplied by '9. Find IcjK. The diminution due to sharing only is '3/'9 = 1/3 hence
;

100 k/K
therefore

= k/K =

1-1 (see "Oil

is

Ex. 3);
1/90 nearly.

constructed thus. It consists of 50 plates of which the effective area of each is 100 sq. cm. the dielectric is air, and its thickness is 1/2 mm. Find its electroShow that it would have to be connected (as static capacity. above) about 80 times to a charged M.F. condenser to halve its
6.
;

Ex.

A standard condenser

55 the capacity - A/ltrd. The total area A = 50 x 100 hence the capacity k = 20 x 50 x 100/47T = 8000 1/20 be a microfarad, its capacity in nearly, 7958 more accurately. If Hence electrostatic units is 9 X 105

potential.

By

and d

fc/tf

= =

8-842 x 10

-3
.

The number

of connections

-693

4-

(k/K)

78.

Experiments of this kind can be used to compare the electrostatic

and the electromagnetic units

difficult,

of capacity. It is obviously however, to determine the precise contact of the key

;

which exactly halves the potential

and

it

is

also difficult to

MEASUREMENT OP CAPACITY.

193

standardise electrostatically and electromagnetically the two condensers used.

Ex. 7. An electrostatic standard condenser is prepared whose capacity is 1000. A standard microfarad is charged, and made to share its charge 500 times with the smaller condenser. In what ratio is its charge diminished ?

Ex.

8.

parallel

Two condensers (which do not leak) are placed in and charged, and are then separately discharged through
Show
the kicks are proportional to their
it

a ballistic galvanometer.

What difference capacities. charged in series ?

would

have made

if

they had been

Ex. 9. A Leyden jar, capacity 500 electrostatic units, is charged and is allowed to discharge itself slowly by conduction through a very bad conductor (e.g. a damp silk thread). It is observed that
charge is halved in ten minutes. conductor in megohms.
its

Calculate the resistance of the

191. Rotating Commutators. In Fig. 97, the cirThe concular wheel A has its insulating parts shaded. whose other ductors may all be connected to a condenser while pole is connected to spring springs B, C are connected to poles of a battery or otherwise kept at a P.D. equal to 7. As the wheel rotates, the condenser is charged whenever the metal to potential of the wheel touches 0, and is discharged whenever the metal shall suppose these touches B. The instantaneous. operations charge given at each contact is KV. If there be n contacts at either spring per second, the total Fig. 97. charge transferred per second from

We

C
(r,

to

is

nKV, and

if

a galvano-

meter be put in
or
6?,

at either of the positions V, in figure it will indicate an average current provided of course that the period of the galvanometer needle is considerably larger than l/n. Thus the condenser and commutator act precisely as a resistance of magnitude
series with

CB

nK

R'

= 1/nK would
M. PH.
i,

act with the

same constant P.D.

13

This

194

BALLISTIC DISCHARGE,
does not obey the same laws as ordinary

fictitious resistance

resistances if put in series or parallel with other resistIts effect is always calculable by higher matheances. matics, but the only really simple case is that in which we can assume a constant potential difference and an instan-

taneous charge and discharge.

192. Comparison of Capacities. Zero Methods. The Method of Mixture is shown in Fig. 98. Let c be
the current which flows through R and R 2 at make. The condensers
l

are charged to P.D.'s cR v cRr, and the charges that run into them

through the galvanometer collectively - cK'^ + cK.,R.z

.

Fig. 98.

The same charge flows back at break. The galif

vanometer

is

unaffected

K R.
2

The condenser charges

the charge is zero, or are considered to

= K^ on mix
.-K g

their

way, whence the name. In the second method

the connections are as in Fig. 99. When a balance is reached, nothing goes through the

jr*-

galvanometer at make At make, break. initially, both ends of the galvanometer have Fig. 99. been connected to the same pole of the battery, and therefore are at the same The potentials at any subsequent short time t potential. will also be the same ( 189) if
or
I

MEASUREMENT OF CAPACITY.
l l

195

Hence a balance is reached as before if K R = K^. In both these methods the galvanometer is used ballistiBut if a rotating commutator be used we have a cally. steady current and the condensers behave precisely like resistances \jnK r l/nKr Both methods of connecting are then seen to be cases of the Wheatstone Net. It may be noted that these methods of comparing resistances are much less affected by condenser leakage than the method of 190.

GENERAL EXAMPLES.
Ex. 1. Express the capacity of the earth, regarded as an isolated sphere, in farads. 4 x \(PI"2ir cm., hence this is its capacity in electroIts radius static units. farad is 9 x 10 n . Hence if be the capacity of ~3 . Hence evidently the earth in farads, 2/900*- = 707 x 10

A
;

E=

E=

707 M.F. and discharging a M.F. condenser to earth is not an absolute discharge, but a sharing the charge with a much larger
capacity.

Ex. 2. If a toothed wheel of 20 teeth were connected as a rotating commutator to a M.F. condenser, how fast would it have to rotate in order to make the equivalent resistance = 10000 ohms ? R = 1/nK ; but = 10*, = - 10 6 , .'. n = 100. There must be 100 contacts per sec., therefore the wheel turns 100/20 or five times

per

sec.

Ex. 3. The condenser of Question 6, 190, is compared with a standard M.F. by a zero method. If 1 ohm be the resistance connected immediately to the M.F., find the resistance R connected to the other condenser.

R=

9 x 10*/7958 (nearly)

113.

Ex. 4. A gold leaf electroscope of capacity 6 electrostatic units leaks so fast that its charge is halved in 10 minutes. Find its insulation resistance.

In
log, 2

farads,
-T-

K=

6/9

600 and also

6/?/9

The x 10 11 l/KR. Hence

.

logarithmic

decrement

x 10 11
/.

=
=

R =

600/loge 2 = 600/-7, 9 x 10 /-7 - 13 x 10' 3

l:l

ohms

13 x 10 7 megohms.

196
Ex.
tial of

BALLISTIC DISCHARGE.
5.
If

the above electroscope (Ex. 4) be charged to a poten-

200

volts, find the current.

Current

13 200/13 x 10

1'54 x 10~

12

amperes.

19 9 electrostatic units. Dividing by 3 X 10 we get 5'1 x 10 These Examples, 4 and 5, show how the largest resistances and the smallest currents are measured.

193. Condenser and Resistance in Parallel.

condenser of capacity

Fig. 100.
is

placed in parallel with a in any circuit containing a resistance make and break key. If the final current in the wire at make is C, the P.D. beis tween the ends of the wire and hence the charge in the condenser is KRC. Hence during make, while the current rises from zero to its full value, a little more electricity flows towards the end of R, end of R, and from the
is

RC

itself. The excess If we could goes into the condenser. arrange an apparatus to measure the difference of total and BG, or CD and BG, of flow between the parts the circuit, it would register the excess charge KRC.

than flows through

KRC, and

AB

CHAPTER

XI.

INDUCED CUKKENTS.
194. Mutual Energy.
Consider two permanent magnets or other magnetic systems exerting forces one on the other. Their Mutual Energy (or Mutual Potential), M.E., is the work that will be done by the magnetic forces if either system be removed to an infinite distance from the

In this other, each system remaining unchanged in itself. chapter we shall consider the systems to be surrounded by air or other media which are magnetically equivalent to
air,

and the next chapter

media.

will

be devoted to the special

effects of different

195. Formulae for Mutual Energy. If one of the two systems be a unit magnetic pole at a point 0, the M.E. is the potential at due to the other system (see Def. 140). If this other system be a current of strength c absolute units, flowing in any circuit, subtending a solid

angle ft at 0, the potential, and therefore the M.E., is eft. If the pole be of strength m, the M.E. becomes cwft. But 47rm is the total number of lines of force that radiate in every direction from a pole m, hence wft is the number of the lines due to m that fall within a solid angle ft, i.e. that pass through the circuit of c. Hence the M.E. is

due to m. Further, if the system be any magnet or system of magnets, it can be supposed replaced by a series of poles m situated at points 0. The M.E. is then the algebraic sum of the numbers of the lines of force, due to each separate But the sum of the pole, which pass through the circuit. numbers of the separate lines from different point -poles which go through any circuit is (as in 20) the same as
c

x number

of lines of force through c

197

198

INDUCED CURRENTS.

the number of the resultant lines due to the aggregate of the point-poles, which go through the same boundary. current system can be regarded as a system of magnetic

shells.

Hence, the M.E. of two systems, one of which is any whatever and the other is a current c (absolute units), is the product of c by the number of lines of force due to The the first system which traverse the circuit of c. number of lines through a circuit may be called the Flux through that circuit, and will be denoted by F. Hence

Mutual Energy

W= Fc.

moved or altered, F changes its value by an amount 8F, and the rate of change is F or dF/dT ( 180). If c does
not
alter,

196. Change of Flux.

If the first

system be either

then

W=
and therefore

Fc gives

W=

cdF,

W = cF.
the rate at which the mutual energy
is

Now

W=

being

increased. The increase must be caused in causing the motion or alteration of F.

by work provided

But ( 102) E.M.F. is the work supplied (reversibly) is reversible, per unit current per second. Evidently for it changes sign if c does hence the E.M.F. due to the

motion is E F. The law that Induced E.M.F. W/c Rate of Change of Flux is known as Faraday's Law. It can be written E F. Of course E is in absolute units. To reduce to volts we divide by 108 ( 103). The law can be differently expressed. F the number

of lines enclosed by the circuit c, so 8F the number of lines cut by the circuit in the change considered, and

F=

number

of lines cut per sec.

197. Lenz's Law. This gives the direction of the E.M.F. produced. The Induced E.M.F. is so directed that the magnetic field of the resulting current opposes the change of flux.

INDUCED CURRENTS.

199

For the mechanical forces acting between two systems tend to produce a motion which provides mechanical work at the expense of their mutual energy and therefore diminishes W. Consequently, the B A* spontaneous motion, if permitted, A maes makes ereore negave, an negative, and therefore F U.;A and so tends to diminish 5 negative Motion

W
;

__
;

Hence be is of contrary sign to c, and would produce motion of contrary sign to the spontaneous moc.

'

F 'S- 1 ^ 1

tion

hence the change of flux induces a current which opposes the change. If reversed, so is 8c, therefore the law holds in this case
;

be

also.

train runs in London with a velocity of 40 miles an Ex. 1. Find hour, over insulated rails whose distance apart is 1| metres. the P.D. thereby produced between the rails. take 11 yards = 10 metres, and therefore a mile = 1600 metres = 1-6 x 10 5 cm. In 1 sec. the train moves 40 x 1'6 x 10 5 /3600 5 cm., and it sweeps out an area 40 x 1*6 x 10 x 150/3600 sq. cm. The earth's vertical field is '438, there are therefore '438 lines to every horizontal square cm., so the number of lines cut per sec.

We

= F = 40 x 1 -6 x = 1-17 x 10'.
units. If

10 5 x 150 x -438/3600

It follows that the E.M.F. in the wire is 1-17 X 10 5 absolute ~ In volts it is 1'17 x 10 3 '00117. in figure is the train, the downward flux is increasing in the area current which would oppose this to left of BC. increase would produce an upward field in the area A BCD.

BO

A BCD

Similar reasoning shows that it would produce a downward field in the area A' BCD' in which the downward flux is diminishing. Hence the current, if it existed, would flow from B to C and No current can therefore the E.M.F. is in the direction BC. endure between insulated rails, and therefore the algebraic sum of the E.M.F. in BC and the P.I), of B over C is zero. Hence, when The rail the steady state is reached, B is at the higher potential. ABA' is higher than DCD' by '00117 volt. The rail of higher Of potential is on the left hand side of the travelling train. course the result would be contrary if the vertical component of the
;

earth's field were upwards.

Ex. 2. A plane frame of any shape, and area A, has ^V turns of wire wound around it. The frame is rotated with angular velocity u about a vertical axis in (or parallel to) its plane. The two ends

200

INDUCED CURRENTS.

of the wire are soldered to brass terminals

which rotate L and and Y for with the frame and make contact with two springs only a very short part of each rotation, while the frame is passing through coincidence with the magFind the P.D. pronetic meridian. "^ duced between the springs. X_Y

XfiK/

Zl/g

When

is

the

angle

rotated

--through, the component perpendicuof the earth's lar to the plane in sin 6, magnetic field The number of limit if 6 be small. is lines of force through ;

= Hd

but there are

fore

HAd

Magnetic North
Fig. 102.

/
F

the number = NHA6. Hence the circuit = = But the rate of change

turns, and thereof lines through

NHA

Of o

js

the angular velocitj% or

=
is

w.

so long as the frame is the springs and except at such times, therefore P. D. produced in the springs.

Hence the induced E.M.F. is NHAw, almost in the meridian. But it never touches

NHAu

the

a square frame of 50 cm. side. There are 1000 connected in series with a Clark cell and a galvanometer. It is evident that no current can ever pass unless X and Y are touching the terminals of the wire ; and that no current will pass even then if the E.M.F. due to the motion is equal and opposite to that of the Clark. Find how many turns the frame must make per sec. for an exact balance. The induced E.M.F. is NHAu. The E.M.F. of a Clark is 1'43
3.
is

Ex.

turns.

X and Y are

volts

1-43

X 108 absolute x 10
8

units.

Hence

1-43

NHAw
=

1000 x -186 x 2500 x w,

and the number

of turns per sec.

=
Ex.
4.

49 nearly.

and put

The same frame as in Ex. 3 is rotated 10 times a The apparatus is connected in series with a galvanometer in a potentiometer circuit. balance is obtained at a distance 45 cm. of potentiometer wire, while a Clark cell balances at 220 cm. Find the E.M.F. of the Clark. The E.M.F. of the frame, in volts,
second.

= =

1000 x -186 x 2500 x w/10 1000 x -186 x 2500 x 207T/108

IT

-186/2

-2922.

INDUCED CURRENTS.
The E.M.F.
of Clark

201

=
It
is

'2922

x 220/45

1-428

1'43 nearly.

any constant

evident that Examples 3 and 4 indicate methods by which cell can be standardised in absolute units.

Ex. 5. Find the maximum E.M.F. produced by rotating a circular coil of 500 turns, 20 cm. radius, 10 times per second.

198. Impulsive E.M.F. or Electromotive Impulse. If 8q be the charge which goes round a circuit in the interval 8t, 8q/8t is the average current. In the limit ( 180) dq/dt c. If c be a current entirely due to inducbe the resistance of the cirtion, and cuit in which it flows, we have

- SIR,
"
~dt

E = dF/dt,
~~R
'

~di

constant. the initial flux, the constant is determined by the condition that no current is induced, and q
If

It follows that q be the final flux

= F/B -f a
and

(}

Fig. 103.

=
F

mains

=F

o, if

re-

hence

= FIR - FJR = (F -

F,)/R

dFjR.
t

Of course 8F simply
is

signifies the

change in

and there
q

is

shall also use the

The quantity 8F is called the Impulsive E.M.F. We name Electromotive Impulse, and the

no suggestion that this change is small. measurable by a ballistic galvanometer.

The charge

abbreviation E.M.I.

We therefore have

Electromotive Impulse Charge *r- Resistance. To reduce 8F to practical units we divide (as in 195) 8 The Practical unit is the impulse due to a volt by 10 enduring for a second.
.

Ex. 1. A close coil of small radius (1 cm. e.g.) consisting of 20 turns of moderately coarse wire is connected in series with a galvanometer of 5 ohms resistance. The X. pole of a simple magnet of

202

INDUCED CURRENTS.

pole strength 80 is thrust well through the coil. Calculate approximately the charge that goes through the galvanometer. The number of lines originating from the pole is 4?r.80. Making the approximate assumption that each of them is cut 20 times, once be the E.M.I, in by each turn, we get 5^ = 4?r x 80 x 20. If = lir x 80 x 20 X 10 ~*. The total resistance of volt- seconds, the circuit can be taken as 5, the resistance of the galvanometer for a few turns of coarse wire can be neglected. Hence

Q =

4ir

x 80 x 20 x 10~ 8 / 5
~
6

4 x 10

coulombs.

Ex. 2. A set of permanent magnets is arranged as in Fig. 103, T the aggregate pole strength of the A poles in contact being 500. There is a movable coil of 120 turns which can be thrust rapidly from one position to the other, so as to pass completely over the JV. Its resistance is 2 ohms. Estimate its E.M.I., and the poles.
.

charge which
sistances I

Let

it would send through ohm, 5 ohms, 400 ohms.

ballistic

galvanometers of

re-

be the E.M.I, in practical units, then roughly

U = 47r
Of course
all

x 500 x 120/10 9

7'54 x 10 ~'\

the lines are not cut, so is actually smaller than this. The total resistances in the three cases are 2|, 7, 402, hence the charges are somewhat less than
3-016 x 10~ 3
,

1-077

x 10

~3
,

1-875

x 10

5
.

An

arrangement

of

ballistic

work

in the

We

magnets of this character can be used for same way as a battery is used for current work.

shall call it a

Magnet Inductor.

Ex. 3. A Magnet Inductor of negligible resistance produces a kick of 25 divisions with a given galvanometer. If a 50- ohm coil be put in series, the kick falls to 19 divisions. Neglecting the corrections that ought to be applied for logarithmic decrement, find ~ the resistance of the galvanometer. If the E.M.I. = 7 '54 x 10 3 find the ballistic constant 185) of the galvanometer. Let G be the required resistance. The charges are U/O, U/(G + 50). But their ratio is 25 to 19. Hence
, (

25(7

19 (G
~
3
,

50)

G-

19 x 50/6

158 ohms.
is

U=
UIG =

7*54 x 10 7-54 x 10

hence the charge denoted by 25 divisions

Y 158 -3.
division,

The galvanometer constant q = charge denoted by one

2 x 10- 6

INDUCED CURRENTS.
[If

203

the resistance of the inductor be 2 ohms, the corrected galvais 158 - 2 = 156, but q is unaltered. The kind of correction to be applied to q is indicated later. In experimental work the E.M.I, of a magnet inductor could not be calculated as in Ex. 2, but would be found experimentally.]

nometer resistance

flat circular coil (Delezenne Circle, or Earth Inductor) Ex. 4. of 225 turns of wire of mean radius 18 cm. is held exactly horizontal. It is rapidly reversed so that its position is again = '44, find horizontal. the Taking the earth's vertical field as E.M.L due to reversal. The area of one turn is TT. 18 2 = 3247T. The total area of all the turns = 324* x 225 729007T. The flux is V, and the change of flux due to complete reversal is 2A V. Hence

5F = 2 x

729007T x -44

201500,

U=dFx
A Delezenne circle can
Ex.
stant battery, for its E.M.I,

10- 8

-0020.

be used as the ballistic analogue of a conis calculable and unchanging.

5. Calculate the E.M.I, of the above coil if held vertically an E. and W. plane (perpendicular to the magnetic meridian) and suddenly reversed. Given // = '186. The calculation is the same except that the horizontal field '1S(> The result is -000850. replaces the vertical one '44.
in
If the above circle were reversed with respect to Ex. 6. the earth's vertical field, and were in series with a galvanometer The of (1) A ohm, (2) 450 ohms, find the charges sent round. If the jumps in the resistance of the coil is given as 10 ohms. two cases be 17 and 11, find the ballistic constants of the galvanometers. This Example indicates a method of standardising a balNote. We have three principal methods: (1) Find listic galvanometer. the current constant and the vibration period, and deduce the ballistic constant as in 185 (2) Notice the deflection due to the discharge of a standard condenser charged by a known battery, as A fourth method is in 188, Ex. 1 (3) By the Earth Inductor. by the formula of 185.
;

Ex. 7. A small coil of 200 turns of 1 '5 cm. mean radius is placed in the intense magnetic field between the pole pieces of a powerful electromagnet. The plane of the coil is perpendicular to the lines of force. The coil is in series with a galvanometer whose ~T and the resistance of the circuit is ballistic constant is 4 x 10
,

204
450.

INDUCED CURRENTS.

When
is

jump
and

the coil 10 divisions.

is

jerked right out of the magnetic

field,

the

Find the

field strength.

Here

Q =
Hence

4 x 10- 7 x 10 4 x 10-

4 x 10-

6
,

U = QR =
dF=
Now
=
Hence the
field

x 450

1-8

x 10~ 3

1-8

x 10 5

the total area of the coil

TT

1 -5

x 200

4507T.

= =

flux per unit area

1-8

x 10 5 /4507r
is

400/7T

127.

quite suitable for measuring such fields. If the gap between the pole pieces is wide enough, the field could also be measured by suddenly reversing the coil, i.e. rotating it

The method indicated

through 180.

Ex. 8. If the circle of Ex. 4 be rotated about a vertical axis 30 times per second, connected by springs as in Fig. 102, except that the contacts are continuous for practically the whole of each half turn, and are reversed as the circle passes through the E. and W. position, find the average E.M.F. produced. By Ex. 5, an E.M.I, of -00085 is produced in each half turn, and therefore 60 times per second. The average E.M.F. = '00085 x 60

-051 volt.

Ex. 9. Find the E.M.F. (average) if the coil be rotated as in Ex. 8 but about a horizontal axis, the connections being reversed every time the plane of the coil is horizontal.

Ex. 1O. simple Dynamo consists of a coil of 5000 turns rotated 20 times per second in a magnetic field whose maximum flux through each turn is 5 absolute units. Find (1) Maximum instantaneous E.M.F., (2) Average E.M.F. per half turn under the most favourable conditions, (3) E.M.F. of mean square, i.e. that E.M.F. whose square = average value of the square of the E.M.F.
produced.

196 we 199. Consequences of Leiiz's Law. In saw that the induced current has a magnetic field which opposes the relative motion of the two systems. The induced current a F, and therefore oc the relative
velocity of the systems, other things being equal.

The

INDUCED CURRENTS.
;

205

field of the current oc the current and therefore the total force called into play is proportional to the velocity and opposes it. Consequently, it produces the same effect as

viscous friction.

This effect is discussed generally in It 182, 183. produces a logarithmic decrement, A, proportional to the retardation per unit velocity. Given F, the current oc \jE, the conductivity of the conductor. Consequently A oc l/R. This A is the logarithmic decrement due to induced currents. The viscosity of the air produces another logarithmic decrement. If the magnet of a moving
needle galvanometer swings within a metal ring, or the coil of a moving coil galvanometer be packed in a cylindrical metal

(Figures 104, 105), Fig. 104. large transient currents induced. Oscillations are either impossible or are rapidly destroyed, and the galvanometer indicates almost immediately, with perfect steadiness, the final reading which indicates the current in the coil. Such a galvanometer is unsuitable for ballistic work, and is called " dead beat."

box

ABCD

we have

Ex. 1. In an ordinary oscillation magnetometer there is no appreciable logarithmic decrement. If a flat plate of copper be laid under the magnet, the amplitude is observed to be halved in If a precisely similar plate of zinc be used, the fifty swings. amplitude is halved in 180 swings. Compare the specific resistances of the metals. Whatever be the distribution of the currents, they will be the same in both cases. The magnitudes, however, are inversely proportional to the resistances of corresponding portions of the conductors. The plates are alike in all other respects and therefore the currents (for the same velocity of magnet) vary inversely as the The specific resistances are therefore proporspecific resistances. tional to the logarithmic decrements, and therefore inversely proHence portional to the time in which the amplitude is halved.
Specific resistance of zinc
:

specific resistance of

copper

= 180:50
Ex.
halved
2.
if

3-6:

1.

In how many swings would the above amplitude be both plates were used, one resting on the other ?

206

INDUCED CURRENTS.

be the number of swings, then N, 50, 180 are in the ratio of If resistances of corresponding portions of the compound plate and of the copper and zinc. But the resistance in the first case is that of the copper and zinc is parallel, therefore
1/JV

1/50

1/180

N = 39.
if

Ex. 3.

How

thick a zinc plate would be as effective as the

copper plate ? Obviously the zinc plate conducts as well as the copper plate its thickness is 3*6 times as great.

Ex. 4. A ballistic galvanomenter has a very small logarithmic decrement. When its terminals are connected by zero resistance, the amplitude halves in 30 seconds. When they are connected through a resistance of 50 ohms, the amplitude halves in 38 seconds. Find the resistance of galvanometer. The logarithmic decrements in the two cases are "69/30, and If R be the galvanometer resistance, these are inversely 69/38. = 30/38, R = 237 '5. proportional to R and R + 50. Hence R/(R + 50) Ex. 5. A galvanometer of 450 ohms resistance has a logarithmic decrement, due to entirely mechanical causes such as the resistance If a resistance of the air, which halves its swing after 30 swings. How of 5000 ohms be inserted, the swing is halved in 20 swings. soon will the swing be halved if the galvanometer be simply shortcircuited
in the three cases are proportional to 1/30, 1/20, l/N. But logarithmic decrements due to different causes are simply additive Ex. 4), hence the parts of the logarithmic decrement due (cf. 190,

Let ments

N swings be

the number required.

The logarithmic

decre-

to induced currents are proportional to 1/20 - 1/30, 1/JV - 1/30. These are in the inverse ratio of the total resistances. Hence

l/N -

1/30

1/20

1/30

=
-

5450

1_

~= N

J_ 30

450 5450 = 109 50 x 60 540

:

18

-I-

109

127

N=

4*3.

This example illustrates the difficulty of using ballistic galvanometers shunted. It also illustrates another point. If the swing is halved in 4 '3 swings (i.e. 4 '3 half -periods), the common logarithm of the swing diminishes in a quarter period by
log 2/8-6

-3010/8-6

'0373

log 1-09.

Consequently the first swing observed ought to be corrected by being multiplied by 1*09 (see 187) when accurate ballistic measurements are taken.

INDUCED CURRENTS.
Ex.
6.

207

by condenser discharge, by an earth inductor, its period the logarithmic decrement is zero in the Assuming first case, what is it in the second case ? < With the notation of Stf
has period 2 '50
sec.

A ballistic galvanometer, excited

If excited
'

rises to 2'56.

'

2-50

27T/H, 2-56

27r/ra,

and m- =
X

ri*

-54.

X-.

Hence
X2

4ir 2 {(1/2-50)-

l/(2-56)*},

and very few swings can be observed

This method of observing X is usually a bad one, for a slight alteration of period is only detected in a large number of swings, if X is at all large.

A suspended metal lamina is oscillating, in its own a strong magnetic field. Show that there will be a logarithmic decrement proportional to the field and inversely proportional to the resistivity of the lamina.
Ex.
plane,
7. in

Ex. 8. A circular copper disc is smoothly pivoted at its centre so that it can rotate in its plane about a vertical axis. If it be started rotating in a strong steady magnetic field, show that it will be viscously retarded. If it be in a magnetic field which is made to rotate about the vertical axis, show that it will ultimately rotate
with the
field.

2OO. Mutual Induction. Let both of the systems whose M.E. is TF be currents in circuits. If c be the current in the first or primary circuit, the field at every point in space due to this circuit is proportional to c,. It must be remembered that this is only strictly true under the conditions assumed throughout this chapter, that there is no medium in the magnetic field whose magnetic proin perties are fundamentally different from those of air particular, no steel or soft iron.
l
;

proportional everywhere to c,, the flux the second or secondary circuit must also be Mc and Fc (as in proportional to c p therefore is an absolute conMc^c where 195), therefore stant depending only on the dimensions and relative position of the two circuits, and C is the current in the second one. if c 1. The conmust Mc lt Since is called the Coefficient of Mutual Induction (or stant
field is

As the

F through

W=
F

F=

W=

F=

INDUCED CURRENTS.
simply the Inductance) and the symmetry of the relaMc^ shows that its value is unaltered if the Hence the first and second circuits be interchanged.

tion

W=

definition,

The Coefficient of Mutual Induction

is

of

two

circuits

the Total Magnetic Flux due to unit current in either circuit which passes through the other. The In this definition absolute units are implied. Practical unit for this coefficient is 10 9 Absolute units and is called the Henry.

201. Induced E.M.F. If c be altering, let E be the E.M.F. induced by this alteration in the other circuit. In F Mc lt hence = E/c r If howabsolute units, E ever E and c were in volts and amperes, these quantities ~ and 10 l c v so that in in absolute units would be
l

absolute units by the use of the

definition of
is

WE
The

WE/c^
Henry

M can be adopted,

9 multiplier 10 is avoided in practice. see that another

We

The Coefficient of Mutual Induction of two circuits the E.M.F. induced in either when the current in the other is increasing at unit rate. The practical unit is the Henry and is the mutual inductance of two such coils
'

that an E.M.F. of one volt is induced in either if the current in the other is increasing at the rate of one ampere

per

sec.
Cj

If
lt

Mc and

receives a finite alteration 8c v then

F always =

is

constant, hence

dF = Mdcv

But 8F
hence

is

E.M.I, in the secondary, and

i

qR

198),

qR.

have therefore a third definition of M. The Coefficient of Mutual Induction is the impulsive E.M.F. produced in either by a unit change of current in the is in Henries if we reckon the other other. quantities in terms of the ampere, volt and second.

We

INDUCED CURRENTS.

209

The secondary is connected to a ballistic galvanomilli-amps. meter (B.G.) whose constant is 4 x 10 " 7 coulombs. At make or break of primary, the jump is 7'3 divisions. Find the coefficient of mutual inductance, given that the resistance of secondary circuit is 550 ohms.
Here
q
dc

Ex. 1. The primary circuit contains a battery, a tangent galvanometer or milliameter (T.G. in Fig. 106) and "a tapping key for make and break. When the current is flowing, it measures 35

= =

7'3 x 4 x 10c

2-92 x 10
2
,

6
,

3'5

x 10~

and

M = Rg/dc
=
=
2-92 x 550 x 10
~
6

/3-5

x 10~ 2

4-6x10 -'Henries.

A tangent galvanometer has current constant 4*1 and primary circuit. The secondary circuit has a resistance of 100 volts and includes a galvanometer whose ballistic constant is " 1*13 x 10 5 The deflection at make in the primary attains the steady value of 40, and the jump at make or break (opposite ways) is 12 divisions. Find M.
Ex.
2.
is

in the

Here
Sc

4-1

x tan 40,

R =

100, q

12 x 1-13 x 10 -'.

Hence

M=

100 x 12 x 1-13 x 10- 5 /4'l tan 40

3'94 x 10-'.

Ex. 3. The primary circuit is a solenoid of 1 cm. radius, 12 cm. length, and 200 turns. The secondary is 500 turns wound Calculate the mutual infairly centrally around the solenoid. duction. Using absolute units, if unit current flows in the solenoid the Held This is the inside is nearly uniform and = 4rr x 200/12 ( 172). number of lines of force per square cm. The area of cross section 2 = is T. I TT, hence the total number of lines penetrating the solenoid is 4ir- x 200/12. But each line penetrates the secondary circuit 500 times. Hence the flux in the secondary due to unit current in the primary is 4?r 2 x 200 x 500/12. By definition, this is the value of in absolute units. Reducing to Henries by dividing ~4 9 by 10 we get 3 "29 x 10

Ex. 4. Determine a general formula for a standard inductance constructed as above given the number of turns of primary = length of solenoid I, radius a, number of turns of secondary .V.
; ,

M. PH.

I.

14

210

INDUCED CURRENTS.

Field in solenoid (for unit current) = 4irn/l, number of lines it = irar x <lirn/l, therefore flux through secondary per This is the inductance in unit current in primary = lir~a-Nn/l. absolute units.

through

Ex.
as

5.
>

The usual manner

is is

inductance

this.

On

primary
in

wound

of constructing a standard of mutual a porcelain reel of suitable shape the in two coils of radius a, distance apart a,

The field is then very uniThe form for a considerable distance around the centre. secondary s is wound in one coil of radius b, considerably less than a. If the number of turns of primary and secondary be n
a

Helmholtz galvanometer.

and N, find M. For a Helmholtz galvanometer the

unit area, near the centre
is

field, or number of lines per (per unit current)

3 /2

a2

+ |a 2 }
is

16?i7r/5

y5a.

The flux per unit current

got by multiplying this by Consequently in absolute units

M = lQir'Nnb'
Calculate in henries the inductance of a standard inconstructed as above if there are 900 turns in the primary of radius a = 3, and 590 in secondary of radius b = 2.
6.

Ex.

duction

coil

In henries,

M = 10~
Note.

167T 2

x 900 x 590 x 2 2 /5 yo x 3

'01 exactly.

In practice, b can be taken as large as a. The approximate formula used in Examples 5 and 6 is then replaced by an accurate one calculated by Higher Mathematics.

Ex.
is

bination.

Calculate the mutual inductance of the following comof the coils is 225 turns of radius 14 cm., the other The two coils have the same centre 1000 turns of radius 1 cm.
*7.

One

and

axis.

2O2. The Coefficient of Self-induction (or the Inductance) of a single coil is, in absolute units, the
total
coil

magnetic flux through that

It
is

in that coil.

with

itself.

coil, due to unit current obviously the mutual inductance of that It is measured in henries for practical

purposes.

Denote
Lc.

it

by L.

When

c is

If c should be altering,

F=

the current, the flux is Lc. This is numerically

F=

INDUCED CURRENTS.
,

211

ve the E.M.F., but the sign should be for induction always opposes the change that produces it ( 197). Lc is the self-induced E.M.F. Hence

203. Energy of a Current. Let the current c increase by the very small quantity 8c in the short interval 8t
then Sc
sec.
is

c&t.

The E.M.F,

is Lc, hence Lc is the energy supplied per per unit current. The whole energy supplied per sec. Lcc, and LccSt or Lc8c is supplied in the interval Bt con-

sidered.

Hence we can write

dW =
the d denoting (as usual, see
indefinitely small.

Lcdc,

180) that the changes are

By

integration,

= o when c = o. no constant being added, for is the work done in establishing the current, This and is not to be confounded with the energy which has to be supplied continually, at the rate Re 2 ( 107), to main-

tain the current unaltered.

204. The Production of Current in a Circuit. Let an E.M.F. of amount E be produced in a circuit of At any time t after resistance and inductance R and L. Lc and therefore the make, the self -induced E.M.F. is resultant E.M.F. is E - Ld = Re.

Put
x =
c

- E/R,

then

This equation
L.

is

of the type considered in

is

182,

if

Its solution

a nf e
,.

-Rt L

212

INDUCED CURRENTS.

But XQ means the initial value of therefore x E/R, and

x,

and

o initially,

E
R

E
E

-st/L

The same equation and inductance of a

results if
coil

R and L be the resistance whose terminals are suddenly

brought to a steady potential difference E. At start, ~ Rtl L can be put = 1 e Rt/L, rejecting squares of small hence quantities
;

= Et/L when

is

small.
if

The The

final state is

large, for

Rt/L
coils,

is

approached very rapidly then considerable even when

R/L

is

t is

oo) is E/R. (Rt/L denoted by suffixes 1 and 2, be in parallel and a potential difference E be applied, then, after a very
final current

small.

If

two

short time,
cz

= Et/L z

so that the current divides in inverse ratio to the inOf course, after a ductances if it be very transient. considerable time, e,/<?2 RJR as in 112. This final state is reached very rapidly if R/L be great for both It is obviously sufficient to make L very small coils. and the coils in a resistance box are always wound so as to diminish L as much as possible. Since the ordinary law of distribution of currents is not followed, one cannot alter the sensitiveness of a galvanometer by shunts in a known ratio when the galvanometer Wheatstone Bridge arrangements, is used ballistically. and other networks, are frequently used in ballistic work But the results are always liable to 206, 207). (see criticism if due precautions are not taken, such as the use of non-inductive resistances. If a current c be flowing in a wire whose ends are

INDUCED CURRENTS.

213

suddenly connected so as to reduce the P.D. to zero, the Lc = Re of which the solution is equation is
;

an E.M.F.,

inductance L, and contains EfR. Suddenly the resistance is altered to R'. Find how the current alters. Let the current be c at time t after the change. Then
1.

Ex.

E giving a steady current C =

ELc = R'c x
;

circuit has resistance R,

and putting
\ve have, as in

= EjR -

above paragraph,

But
hence

x = EjR' C

C,

E
R>

-R't/L}

)
t~,

+C

-KtIL

If

is

so small that

we can

neglect

.-.

C - c=

Ct(R'

R)/L,

so that the current

commences

to diminish at a rate

LIC(K

R).

Ex. 2. With the notation of last example, find how much extra charge flows round the circuit due to self-induction. [R > R.] The current ultimately drops from C to EjR or CR/R'. The change of current is therefore

Hence the self-induced E.M.I,

is

and the charge = E.M.I. /Resistance

_ CL

Ex. 3. At the centre of a coil of radius 14 and *22."> turns is placed a copper ring, radius 1 cm., resistance '000*2 ohm. Calculate

214

INDUCED CURRENTS.
if

the charge which goes round the ring or broken in the coil.

a current of

amp.

is

made

Ex. 4. The primary of an induction apparatus is a short The solenoid, 1000 turns of 1 cm. radius and *5 ohm resistance. secondary is 225 turns of 14 cm. radius and 10 ohms resistance. If the terminals of the secondary are joined, determine the charge which flows round if a current of 1 ampere is produced in the primary. Find also the charge which goes round primary for a current of 1 amp. in secondary. Ex. 5. The arrangement of Ex. 4 is used as a standard of If one coil can be rotated about a common mutual inductance. diameter, show that a rotation 6 multiplies the coefficient of mutual Find how much the coefficient would be inductance by cos 8. altered by sliding the central primary a distance of 10 cm. perp.
to the plane of the secondary.

be the 205. Comparison "of Inductances. Let of mutual inductance of one pair of coils A, and 2 another pair B. Arrange the primaries of A and B in then the series with a battery and a make and break key
1

M
;

||U|

J My

currents in these primaries are necessarily always the same and the impulsive E.M.F.'s in the secondaries are proportional, for any change of curand rent, to the inductances

Fig. 107.

with Fig. 56, and it will be seen that the secondaries 8 and $2 occupy precisely the place of the batteries B l and B r The formula is the same and is proved the same way. If $, and $2 be the resistance of the secondaries, the imand pulsive E.M.F.'s (and therefore the inductances If other resistances if2 ) are in ratio E, -f S 2 + $2 also give a balance, jR/, z
l
:

These impulsive E.M.F.'s can be compared by Bosscha's or Lumsden's method ( 131). The figure may be compared

M M
l
:

= R +
1

#1

# +
2

#,

= #/ +

#,

R z *8
'

hence

INDUCED CURRENTS.

215

Another method is to put resistances r, and r2 in series with the primaries P and P2 and arrange these in parallel with a battery and key in the
l

The seconare arranged in series with the ballistic galvanometer. Adjust ?j and r, for a balance. When this is attained, the currents in and P, are inversely as P, r2 and TI and 2
circuit (Fig. 108).

daries

P +
:

the impulsive E.M.F.'s in 8 and $2 are therefore in the

l

Fig. 108.

ratio

MJ(P +
1

r,)

M,/(P2

r2 ).

The

ballistic galvano-

meter

is

unaffected

if

J/ i: J/2

= P.+r.-.P. +

r,.

A
r,'

and

second balance r./, then

J/!
/.
:

is

obtained with other resistances

J/,

3/j

J/o

P + r,'
l

P,
'

r,',
.

r/

rl

r2

r2

A comparison of the figures will show that the two methods differ only in having the battery and galvanometer interchanged. In both methods alike, it is quite possible to arrange the coils in such a way that no balance can be obtained because the two inductances assist one another. If this
fault
is suspected, reverse the connections either to one primary or one secondary. Precautions ought to be taken that the magnetic field of neither primary affects the other secondary and that these magnetic fields do not affect
;

the galvanometer.

206. Comparison of Mutual with Self Inductance. To compare M, the mutual inductance of two coils S and
its

in figure.

primary, with L, the self -inductance of 8. Connect as In the first place the three resistance boxes P, Q, R may be arranged with S in an ordinary Wheat stone and T may be omitted. There must l>e two Net, and keys, the battery key and galvanometer key, B.K. and G.K.

216

INDUCED CURRENTS.

if desired) to get an exact in figure. Alter P and Q (and balance; testing always by first pressing down B.K., and not pressing G-.K. until all transient induced currents are exhausted. The necessary time is generally a minute fraction of a second so that the keys are pressed almost simultaneously, but B.K. must have priority. The balance are generally boxes in integral must be exact. As P, Q, ohms, the nearest approximate balance must be corrected by adding a piece of fine wire to any convenient resistance, preferably to the largest one. When the balance is perfect, it will not be affected in any way by joining on the resistance box
;

T.

T
Fig. 109.

should

now be

joined

in

(unless this

was done at

start),

and the balance should be tested by giving the priority to G-.K. instead of B.K. as before. The

galvanometer needle cannot be steadily deflected, for the balance is bound to be perfect when the transient currents are exhausted. But it may be jerked by the transient curoc rents. If all is well, the jump is one way when T T disconnected] and the other way when T o. [i.e. so that If this is not the case, reverse the connections of the primary current goes through it the opposite way. When this is the case, a balance is only reached when the

= =

impulsive E.M.F. in S is zero. Let G be the final current through P. The E.M.I, in S in P due to mutual inductance is + M.C. The current is finally divided between the three resistances Q S, P -\- R, and T so that the final current in S is

is

Consequently the E.M.I, in S due to self -inductance i LC'. For a balance, they are contrary ways, and
LG' = MC,

INDUCED CURRENTS.

217

M=

C'

= (0 + IV4

S) )

But

PS = QR

for the preliminary balance

therefore

eliminating S,

M
The method only
will

FT
applies, therefore,
if

L >

and

it

be impossible to get the second balance by merely altering T unless L/M > 1 Q/P. If no second balance can be got, even by reversing the connections of the primary, a new first balance must be obtained with a large P and small Q. The difficulty seldom occurs, for generally L is much larger than M.

207. Comparison of Self-inductions. To compare the self-inductions L and L.2 of two coils U and V. The connections (Fig. 110) look complicated, but are based on the ordinary Wheatstone net. If the resistance box T has all its plugs in, T can be regarded as a mere point, and R, V, U, S form the four arms of a bridge. perfect balance is obtained, the battery keys being
{

We

always put down then have

first.

Next make
nite.

T
'

infi-

and Q Alter to obtain a perfect balance (with the battery kev down Since P R, V, Q + U, S are four anus of a first).

Fig. 110.

bridge,
Therefore
so that

218

INDUCED CURRENTS.

The balance
whatever

T may

(for steady currents) will be since no current goes

;

now be perfect through T.

and

Finally, get a balance for transient currents, the galva-

nometer key being put down first in every altered until there is no jerk.
It is evident that the
final

test

T being

PEV and QUS are in ratio

LQ
2

steady currents through

Hence the impulsive E.M.F.'s

:

in

and

are in ratio

L,P. But, taking the case of currents at break for simplicity, the theory of Bosscha's or Lumsden's method shows that these impulsive E.M.F.'s are in the ratio of V + 8 to R + + U, where is the resistance of T and P + Q

in parallel.

Hence
Z

L Q = _V+S
L,P

R+U+X
R
(P

/L.Z

+ Q)R/P + T(P + Q)I(T + P + Q)' PS(T+P + Q) = Q{RT+ RP + RQ + TP}' = Q*{PR + QR + PT + RT}/P*S(T + P +

__ _ __ _ _
X
V
=

V+ S
+

R+U+T(P+Q)j(T
+P
Q)'

P+

QY

PS/Q + 8 + QR/P + T(P + Q)/(T

(P

Q)S/Q

Q).

Obviously this formula enables one to find the selfinductance of any coil if one has a standard of self-inductance. The precautions needed in carrying out this experiment are that the current balance must be exact, that the resistances P, Q, etc., are non-inductive and that U and V be so placed that they neither influence the galvanometer at make nor have a mutual inductance.
;

2O8. Direct Measurement of a Self-induction. Let R be the resistance, and L the inductance, of a coil. It is arranged with adjustable resistances P, Q, S, and a battery and galvanometer, so as to form a Wheatstone

INDUCED CURRENTS.

219
;

it

Bridge as in Fig. 111. Another box r is inserted with R has all its plugs in at first, and therefore adds no resist-

ance.

(exact) when the battery key is put down the galvanometer key then P/Q Put R/S. down the galvanometer key first, and then the battery key, and notice the jerk x. If q be the ballistic constant of the galvanometer, qx is the charge which has been sent through it. If C be the final current in the coil R, CL is the E.M.I, which causes the charge qx to flow. Fig. 111. The ratio .qx/CL can be calculated according to the theory explained for steady currents in 53, III. In fact, replacing F, G, H, L, M, by

Get a balance

before

being resistances of battery and galvanometer) ^and E, x y by CL, qx, we get

Q, P, G, 8, B,

(B and

= CLPKQR + PG + QG + PQ), whence P is found. But as this necessitates using a formula which is neither easy to remember nor easy to The small refind, one generally proceeds as follows. sistance r is introduced, and the steady deflection y due to
qx

the disturbance of the balance is observed. If c be the current constant of the galvanometer, cy is the current carries a current C which through it. The resistance will hardly alter for the small charge of R into R + r. This alteration is equivalent to inserting an E.M.F. (backward) of amount rC so that the current cy is due to the E.M.F. rC in the same network in which a charge qx is due to the E.M.I. LC. Hence

qxfcy

= LC/rC =

L/r.

But Hence

if

T be

the period of the needle, q/c

= T2ir
diminish

185).

L=
Instead of increasing

Trxl'2*y.

by

r,

one

may

6'

by

220

INDUCED CURRENTS.

This has ultimately the same effect if rjE s/8, because proportional charges of like sign would leave the balance unaltered and not affect the galvanometer. Or one can diminish P, or increase Q, by p, q. Then calculate r

from
r/R

either s/S or

p/P

or g/Q

and use the above formula.

209. Comparison of Inductance and Capacity. Let L be the self -inductance of a part of a circuit, the rest Let r be the resistance of of which is non-inductive. any portion of the circuit, and let it be put in parallel and with a key. Let R with a condenser of capacity be the whole resistance of the circuit, and C the final cur-

rent.

The E.M.I,

of the coil

is

-LC.
Evidently the condenser is to charged potential difference therefore the rC, charge which enters it is KrC. If q be the extra charge which
finally

traverses r at
q

make
r.

or break,

+ KrC must traverse

q

the resistance

Put

+ KrC =

Q.

Now Kirchoff's law for any mesh, that the sum of products of current and resistance all round the mesh is equal to the sum of E.M.F.'s round the mesh, is, by integration, also true for charges and E.M.I.'s. Therefore - LC. qr + Q(R -r)=
But
q
.'.

= Q - KrC,

QR-

Kr*C = - LC,

so that

Q =

\IL =Jtf:

Hence if this condition is fulfilled there ceases to be any extra current except in the section r and the leads of the

INDUCED CURRENTS.
condenser.
circuit

221

A ballistic

galvanometer anywhere else in the

would be unaffected.

Ex. 1. The self-induction of a coil is '012 henry. Find what resistance, in parallel with a one-third microfarad, will apparently annihilate this inductance.

We have
hence

L = A>2 L =
;

1-2

x 10--,

K=

10- 6 /3

r-

3-6 x 10

4
;

rj^l90.

Estimate the self-induction of a solenoid of 1 cm. radius-, 12 cm. length, and 200 turns. What difference would it make if there were 500 turns ? As in Ex. 3 of 201, the total number of lines through the first coil is 47r 2 x 200/12. Each line penetrates the first coil 200 times,
therefore its self-induction

Ex. 2.

L=
With 500
It

200 x

47T 3

x 200/12 x 10 9
x 500/12 x 10 9

1-32 x 10~ 4

turns,

L'
is

500 x

47r 2

8"22 x 10~ 4

easily seen that coils of the same dimensions but different numbers of turns have inductances proportional to the square of the

number

of turns.

and that LI = M*. be produced in the first coil, let / be the number In of lines enclosed by the first coil and therefore by the second. estimating the magnetic flux, each line must be counted as peneBut times. trating the first coil n times and the second
?i

Ex. 3. If it were possible to wind two coils of n and .A" turns so close to one another that any magnetic field enclosed by either was necessarily enclosed by the other also, show that their mutual inductances I and L, and self -inductance JA, are in the ratios
2
:

JV2

r?JV,

If unit current

= flux through first coil due to unit current = flux through second due to unit current
/

in that coil (Def. in first (Def.

202)

200)

therefore

nf,

M = i\7;

and

M=n

A\

Interchanging the

coils

(which does not alter ^f)

L:M = N-.n.
Hence

L Mil = X~ Xn
:
:

ir,

and
LI

J/

2
.

222

INDUCED CURRENTS.

21O. Energy of mutual inductance

M and

Two

Circuits.

Let the circuits have self-inductances L and I. Let

them carry currents C and c. The energy of the first coil regarded as a system in itself is %LC 2 The energy of the second is %lc z The mutual energy is MCc. Hence the total
. .

+ MCc +
2MCc +
;

i/c

lc*.

Here L and I are essentially positive but by reversing the connections of either coil we can alter the sign of M, so is doubtful. But it is physically impossible that should be negative, therefore the quantity LC 2 2MCc -f- lc2 is

positive whatever C and arrangement of two coils,

may

be.

Hence, for every

LI

> M*.

In Ex. 3 of 208 we have met with a hypothetical case 2 which LI Though this is mathematically impossible, it can be approached so closely that we can treat it as an ordinary case in electrical engineering, where of course high approximations are treated as absolute results.
in

=M

The expression for the energy leads to various consequences given below as examples.
Ex. 1. What is the self-induction of two coils connected (either are supposed given. way) in series ? L, I and = | (L + 2M + I) c~, hence Here C = With upper sign, c. the self-induction is L + / + 2M. With lower sign, the self-in-

duction is L + I 2M. Therefore we can find Mutual Induction by two measurements of This is not, perhaps, particularly useful, because it Self-induction.
is

easier to find

M direct.

Ex. 2. What is the self-induction and r) connected in parallel ?

If

of

two

coils (of resistances

R
r),

C be

CR/(R

the total current, the currents in the coils are Cr/(R

r).

Hence

\{Lr*
is

2MrR
2

and the self-induction

Lr*

(R

MrR + + r)'

IR*

INDUCED CURRENTS.
Ex.
Let
3.
If

223

two

coils

be in parallel, find the ratio of resistances so

that the self-induction be a minimum.

x = r/(K

r),

then

- x = R/(R +

>)

and the induction (taking

M negative)
x)
(I

= Lx~ - 2Mx(l

=
This
is

- 2(M +

l)x

+ 1(1 + 2M +

2
.r)
,

{(I

+ 2M + L}x - (^f + J)} 2 I + 2M + L

is zero,

L)x\ 4- LI - M*

least

when the squared term

.

R+
R R +

L+ M + 2M + L

and
r

L+ M T+ 2M +
=L+

V
I.

so that

:r

M:M+

Ex. 4:. If two coils be separate, it is always possible to arrange = o. Show that their self-inductances can then them so that be compared by arranging them in parallel, each in series with a resistance box, and adjusting until their combined self-induction is a minimum.

Obviously putting
:

o in the above,

= L

hence

is

found.

211. Source of the Field Energy. -Let

E be
LC

E.M.F.

of the battery, and be resistance. At make, the current alters from o to C; therefore the E.M.I, is and the " " extra charge As this charge goes through the is LC/R. battery it produces electrolysis, and the chemical energy 1 since C E/R. Consequently supplied ELC/R the extra energy supplied by the battery is LC~ half of this establishes the energy of magnetic field and the other half becomes heat.

= LC

Ex.
ally

1.

Two identical

flat coils in series witli

a battery are gradu-

to the nearest possible coincidence (with the currents going opposite ways). The energy of the Held was LC originally ; and finally is practically zero, since the fields of the What coils annul one another at all points moderately distant.

moved, from a distance,

becomes

of the lost energy

224

INDUCED CURRENTS.

= In the position of coincidence, since the flux due to Hence is the either coil is the same in the other coil as in itself. E.M.I, due to mutual inductance in each coil and if R be the total resistance of circuit, the extra current carries a charge 2LC/R. The induced current is the same way as the original one, therefore this charge takes energy 2ELC/R from the battery ; this = 2.LC-. 2 = The currents repel one another, so mechanical work LChas to be done .to put them into the position required. The lost energy of field is LC*. So there is a total energy 4Z/O- apparently wasted, but actually spent in heating the wires.

LC

MC

Ex. 2. What difference would be made if the moved to the nearest coincidence with the coils
round
?

coils

had been

the same
2

way

The energy of the field changes from LC- to 2LC ; the battery supplies less energy to the extent 2LC- ; and the mechanical Z attraction provided to the motive apparatus, therefore LC- of and the wires are potential energy is lost. The total loss is 4LC-

LC

less

heated (to this extent) than they would have been had no motion taken place.

induction is M. How much heat is developed in the secondary at make or break of the primary? What is the source (in each case) of the energy that appears as heat?

Ex. 3. in Fig. 106.

primary current

The

is arranged to carry a current C, as resistance of the secondary is R and the mutual

Ex. 4. With the arrangement of Fig. 112, if L = AV 2 , show that the work done by the battery during make is twice as great as if the condenser were absent ; and that the energy of the electromagnetic field is equal to that of the charged condenser.

Ex. 5. Find in Joules and in calories the energy needed to establish a current of '1 ampere in a coil of self-inductance *05
henry.

212. Alternate E.M.F. The general equation connecting E.M.F. and current in a circuit is

E = LC + RC

(99)

Cases are often met with (see Ex. 1 below and 236) where the E.M.F. alters harmonically with the time, and we can therefore write E = EQ cos nt,
the period being

T=

2ir/w.

INDUCED CURRENTS.

225
a),

Assume
or dC/dt

as a trial solution C cos (nt nC sin (nt a), hence

then

cos nt

= C {R

cos (w

a)

- nL sin

(n<

a)}.

But by trigonometry EQ cos nt = E cos {(nt = EQ cos (nt -

a)

a}

a) cos

()

sin

(?j<

a) sin a,

hence, equating coefficients,

E
therefore

cos a

= C

R,

(}

sin a

= C nL,

tan a

= nL/R

and

mum

The maximum current is connected with the maxiE.M.F. E by the equation

213. Lag- and Impedance. Choking Coil. The above equation resembles Ohm's law, C E/R therefore " ^"^" i g th e vlt? apparent resistance." It is called the Impedance.

-f 47r, etc.

occurs when nt = a, a + The maximum current and the maximum E.M.F. when nt = o,
;

27r, 2ir,

4rr, etc.

Consequently the
This angle
is

maximum

current

is

later

than

the

maximum E.M.F. by
is

angle.

angle

a time a/n, where a is an acute nL/R. This acute given by tan a The frequency of the current is, called the Lag.

of course, n/2ir. l/T The rate at which energy is being system at any instant is EC, which

=
= =

supplied to the

E cos nt E C {cosn
()
.

cos (nt

a),

(}

nt cos a

sin nt cos nt sin a}.

is

the average value of cos "nt, for a very long period, 1/2 and the average of sin nt cos nt or J sin "2nt is zero, as Therefor sin 2nt is a periodic function as often 15 M. PH. i.
;

Now

226

INDUCED CURRENTS.
is

fore the energy supplied

at the average rate (see

181)

or

= \ E^CQ cos a = \ RC-^ = R x average value of (7 2 = i RE\/(R- + w 2 2 ).

is very small but nL large, the current will be If small and the waste of current energy will be very small coil of this kind is called a Choking Coil. also.

flat coil of turns and area Ex. 1. (as in Ex. 2 of 197) Its ends are rotates about a vertical axis with angular velocity w. and inductance L. Find how the connected. Its resistance is current alters with the time. When 6 is the angle rotated through, the component of per= .fiT sin 6, and the total flux = sin 6. pendicular to the coil

The E.M.F. is E = F = But we can take 6 = wt and

NAH NAH cos 6

=w
n
;

0.

hence

E = NAHw cos
where

wt = E cos at, E = NAHu.

Hence the current

= C
7

cos (at
z

a)

E VR
/

tan a

=
At low
small,

We may notice two cases.

small, tan a proximately a = o,

speeds,

or

if

L/R

is

is

and ap-

C = En
The current
is

cos wt/R,

NAHu cos wtjR.

is therefore a maximum when wt = o or when the coil At high speeds, or if in the plane of the magnetic meridian. L/R is large, tan a is large, a approaches the value 90, and the current is a maximum when at = nearly 90, or the coil is in the

east

and west

position.

Ex. 2. Find the effect of a circular coil of radius r, rotating as the above, on a compass needle supported at rest at the centre of
coil.

due to

When 6 = C is

ut

and the current

is

C=

<7

cos (ut

a),

the field

X=
=

27r<7iV/r

[ ((at

161, Ex. 1.]

2-irNCo cos

a)/r,

INDUCED CURRENTS.
and
it

227
line.

makes an angle
is

(at

If the rotation

with the magnetic east and west

ward component

be in the direction indicated in Fig. 113, the eastcos

tat
2

cos

tat

= 2irNC = 2-n-NC^

cos

((at

a)/r

{cos

tat

cos a
is

sin

(at

cos

(at

sin o}/r

and the southward component

X sin

(at

= 2irNG = 2irNC

sin

<at

cos cos

(tat
(at

a)/r

{)

{sin

(at

cos a

sin-

(at

sin a}//-.

The average values are

Eastward, A^ Southward, X.,

= irNCQ = 7r.V(7

cos a/r sin a/r

= irNV R/(K~ + L-(a~)r, = 7rAT wL/(7? 2 + L-<J)r.

(t

compass H northward, and

angle

The

NOn =

needle will behave as if affected by the earth's field by the above average values. It will deflect an from the north, given by <f>

tan

Replacing
plifying,

by

its

value
_

- AV(/7 - A',). NAHw we get, cancelling

77 and sim-

(R~

T. 2

<a-)r- TrN~AL(a'~ small.

It will be sufficient to suppose

L
-

Then approximately

tan

yj

*".
r

= 7r 2 JN -rw/7?. An observation of But ^4 = Trr-, hence tan enables one therefore to calculate 7? in absolute units. A correction for the value of L ought, of course, to be applied. L is calculable mathematically from the number of turns, or can be eliminated by a series of observations at different speeds and the effect of L is very small if the speed is small. Since 77 does not appear in the final result, the accurate determination of 77 is not important. This experiment is the British Association method for standardThe ohm based on this method was called the B. A. ising the ohm.
;

unit. The tictual B.A. experiment was considerably more complicated ; for instance the rotating coil was not a flat circular one, but a pair of circles arranged as in a Helmholtx galvanometer. A number of subsidiary experiments were performed at the same time, in which the Clark Cell was standardised and the silver deposited

electrochemically per coulomb was determined.

CHAPTER

XII.

PEEMEABILITY.
214. Field and Induction in Magnetic Shell. Consider a uniform plane magnetic shell ( 166) of though finite, is very small strength S, whose thickness compared to its area. Since S is the magnetic moment per unit area, the magnetic moment per unit volume will be I where
,

r=8/x.

The surface density a- of magnetism on the faces I. 8/x pole strength per unit area be the normal component of that magnetic field Let which is due to external magnets other than the shell. The field due to a flat plate of density >X o+ I, close to the plate, is 2irl ( 34). ^ which has north magnetism exerts The face force 27rl to right on a unit pole at P, and to left at Q and R. Similarly 8 exerts 27rl and Q and to right at R. Hence to left at the total influence of the shell is zero at and R, and 47rl to left at Q. To avoid the N complication of having Q within the actual Fig. 114. material of the shell, it may be considered to be in a tunnel so narrow that the influence of the ends of the tunnel is negligible. The normal fields at P,R,Q are X,X and 4xrl Although Q is not literally within the shell, respectively. we shall define the field Z within the shell (neglecting the tangential component) as the field at Q, and we therefore

have

Z=XThe
fields at

4*1.

and

are the same,

= X.

There are

lines of force per unit area reaching the face R, 228

and

PERMEABILITY.

229

It is reasonable to imagine the lines leaving the face N. lines per unit area continuous, and then there would be within the shell. They are here not called lines of force, but lines of induction. The induction is the number of lines per unit area taken perpendicular to the direction of the lines. Within the shell the field or force is Z, and we say there are Z lines of force per unit area. If there were a tangential component of the external field, we should simply add a tangential component Y both to the force and induction as above described.

215. Field and Induction within any Magnet. At any point Q within a magnet, let I be the intensity of That is, if any small volume V around Q magnetisation.
be considered,
its

and

magnetic moment
in a certain

is

VI, and points

proportional to direction called the

direction of J. can draw two parallel planes, perpendicular to I, and one each side of Q. The distance between can be as small as we like so that we have traced in the
;

We

magnet a magnetic shell. The field at Q is defined

constructed, as in

tunnel has its may have a tangential and normal component

as the field in a small tunnel Hence the 214, normal to this shell. This field axis parallel to the direction of J.

Z and Y

as above.

The induction at Q would be, for a shell, the field just and outside the shell in air ( 214). Its components are Y. If we consider the magnet as constructed of shells whose faces are perpendicular to SN, the induction in each is the field which we should get if we left an air spacv between it and the next. This is the field which would exist in a fissure or crevasse of small but finite width.

It

is

called

Hare

Jf. Now the tangential components of B and the same, and the normal components satisfy

A'

= Z+
If

47T/.

Hence we can write

B=
if

471-7

that the 4- only denotes addition whon 47rJ are in the same line, hut denotes composition or vector addition in other cases.

we remember

Hand

230

PERMEABILITY.

Example. long bar magnetised longitudinally with uniform If it were sawn through transintensity / has cross section A. versely, find the force which one portion of it would exert on the other portion. The surface Q is uniformly spread with magnetic matter of surface density /. Consequently the attraction it would exert on unit $ pole close to it is 2r7. ( 34)
But the surface 7? carries AI units Hence the resultant attraction
of south

polar magnetism.

=
There
is

2-n-FA.
2-n-T-

thus an extra magnetic tension of value

per square

centimetre.

at any point

216. Definition of Field and Induction. The field H, within a magnet, is the field which would be observed in air * in a small tunnel constructed around that
is in the the magnetisation, and the cross section of the tunnel is indefinitely small compared to its length. The induction B, at anv Fig. 115. point within a magnet, is the field which would be observed in air in a small fissure or crevasse whose plane faces are perpendicular to the direction of magnetisation and have diameters and areas infinitely large compared to the distance between them. In Fig. 115 the tunnel is shown to right, and the crevasse to left.
;

point

provided that the axis of the tunnel

direction
of

217. Induced Magnetisation. For a large number of substances the following law holds accurately. The exceptions are the most strongly magnetic substances, including For these, the law is obeyed in iron, nickel and cobalt. very weak fields with a certain degree of accuracy. The total induction (B) is in the same direction as the
total field (If)
*

and proportional
is

to

it.

When great accuracy these definitions.

sought,

vacuum

is

substituted for air in

PERMEABILITY

231
is

The constant ratio of induction to field (B/H) the Permeability (/A), and is positive. Hence

called

B=
Combine
this

fj.II.

formula with
4T/ =
.-.

B=
//,

H -f

4<irl,

and we have

(AI

1)1 f.

where k

a constant called the Susceptibility, and connected with /A by the equation

is

47T&

A*

1,

/*

4**.

is -4- ve

218. Faramagnetism and Diamagnetism. If//. >1, and the substance is said to be paramagnetic.
;

Examples are
oxygen,
etc.

iron, nickel, cobalt, ferric chloride, liquid If /x o and the substance is 1, k

indifferent.

Gases should be compared with a vacuum

(see

not

with air

212).

Any
air,
is 1,

footnote, rare gas, as

/P

normal
ferent.

almost indif-

If

p <

substance
netic.

negative. The called DiamagExamples are bismuth,

is

is

and liquid nitrogen.

219. Uniformly Magnetised Sphere.

The magneti-

sation of the sphere may be considered due to a large number of doublets of compole- strength length /, all in the same direction

Fig. 116.

mon

and

If n be the tributed. netic moment per unit

OX, and uniformly disnumber per unit volume, the magvolume

nml =
is
/.

nml, hence

If a be

the radius of the sphere,

its

whole magnetic

moment

is

232

PERMEABILITY.

parallel to

individually at a constant distance I, their corresponding 8 poles, hence they can be regarded as uniformly distributed through a sphere of centre N, while the 8 poles are uniformly distributed through one of centre 8, 1. There are n where poles (or 8 ones) per unit area, hence the density of each magThe sphere netisation is nm. of magnetisation acts at all external points as if its mag-

The

N poles are

OX, from

8N =

netic matter were concentrated at JV. It therefore is equivalent

to a single pole at of strength 7ra?nm. Similarly the sphere of 8 magnetisation acts like at 8.Hence the whole magnetised sphere acts like a doublet situated at C, of

Kl = ^7ra?nml f 7ra J. be an external point, the field at P is the resultant of KjNP* along NP, K/SP~ 150. along PS and can be found as in If Q be an internal point, the sphere of centre composed of north magnetisation can be regarded as a sphere of radius NQ, mass ^vNQ^.nm and a shell whose external
Fig. 117.
3

strength

If

and internal
;

and a. The latter exerts no force the former exerts %irNQ?.nm/NQ? = fyrnm.NQ along NQ. The sphere of south magnetisation has a field along QS. The resultant of these is parallel to
radii are

NQ

N8

and

=
o

nm NS
.

= ^^1o

Strictly it
I.

is

negative,

being in the opposite direction to

The induction
r/.

B=
The

47r/

- *:/
o

lines of induction (external

and

internal) are

shown

in Fig. 117.

PERMEABILITY.

233

220. Magnetisation Induced on a Sphere in a Uniform Field. Let X be the strength of the inducing
field.
is

Assume that the induced intensity of magnetisation equal to I and in the direction of X. The field within the sphere due to the sphere itself is ITT!, hence the total field is
But
.

H=XB = H + 47r/
'.

ITT/.

215),

B=X+

|7r/.

And

B=
Hence

nH.

X + ITT/ = n(X

|7r/),

B=* H+
/*

2'

/i

In the limit when /* is / 3A74ir, and 5 = 3 A. These are independent of and very small compared to the corresponding quantities for a bar see Ex. 1 below.]
.

fj.

is placed of permeability strength A'. Assuming that it is uniformly magnetised, by induction, to intensity /, find the ratio of
[j.

Ex.

1.

A very long

unmagnetised bar
field of

longitudinally in a

weak

XtoL

In a long bar, uniformly and weakly magnetised, the field due to the bar itself can be disregarded for nearly the whole volume of the bar. Hence the actual field within most of the bar is the field due to causes other than the bar's magnetisation, and therefore is // = A'.

But

B=
and
/
-=

tilf,

-?

-Ji = ^ ^
4ir
4ir

Ex. 2. If the bar be long and narrow, and be placed obliquely at slope 6 to the direction of the field, find the couple that acts mi it if ytt 1 be not small. The longitudinal field is 7/cos 0. The transverse field is //sin t). The former produces longitudinal magnetisation of intensity / =

234

PERMEABILITY.
;

(/j. \}H cos 0/4?r as above the latter we shall disregard. the volume, then the magnetic moment is

If

Kbe

M=
and the couple
is
(

VI =
V(n VkH*

J> 1)

1)# cos

0/47T,

143)

MH sin

=
=

H- sin9
cos
0.

cos

d/4-rr,

sin

For paramagnetic bodies k is positive, and this couple tends to diminish 9 and draw the bar into a longitiidinal direction.

Ex.

3.

To

find the period of small oscillation of a long para-

magnetic bar in a magnetic field. Let be its moment of inertia.

The

couple,
(

if

be small, =

L0

where L = V(n - l)H~/4w. The period 154) is T = 2-n- ^K/l^ If d be the density, the mass is Vd, and the moment of inertia is
(nearly)
.-.

K= K/L =
=

VdP/12, vPd/3(n
2-n-l

I)//-,

and the period

irl

Vd/H N/3&,

since

n -

4irk.

number of small spheres, each of great permeare distributed evenly through a nonmagnetic matrix. To find the apparent permeability of the mixture. be the uniform field which induces magnetisation. If we Let can neglect the effect of the spheres on one another, the / within each sphere = 3^Y/4?r If v = volume of all the spheres per 220). unit volume of the mixture, the magnetic moment of the mixture per unit volume = Iv = 3Av/4?r. If be the average field in the mixture, the field within the spheres is /ero and that around the spheres is A, hence

Ex.

4.

ability

(/A

large
or
),

The apparent

susceptibilit}

Jc=* =

F
1

=
and
fj.

3v/47r(l

r),

+ 4**=

(1

+2?')/(l

r).

long cylinder

221. Transversely Magnetised Cylinder. A very is uniformly magnetised in a direction per-

PERMEABILITY.
pendicular to or outside.
its axis.

235

Find the

field at

any point inside

As in the case of the sphere ( 111") Let a radius. replace the uniform magnetisation by a set of doublets of m, uniformly distributed so that length I, pole strengths there are n per unit volume. All the north poles collectively form a cylinder of uniform magnetic density mn. By theory of attractions, this would produce a field at an external point 2irazmn/NP along NP, and (Fig. 116) the south magnetism exerts a force 27ra?mn/SP. These forces and are in the along ratio SP consequently the is similar triangle of forces at to Z SPN, and the resultant

NP PS PN
: ;

PT makes angle SPT= Z PNS. Thus a circle described about SPN touches PT. In limit, when S and coincide, this circle touches the axis of mag-

netisation

OA

at the centre

hence the external lines of force are circles which would all touch one another at 0; see Fig. 118.

Fig. 118.

The magnitude

of resultant component along 2 27ra wwZ/SP.PiV; "but vmnl therefore the field Hence the field at unit volume I. magnetisation per
: :

SW,
180

NP = SP

P=

- POA.
to

2az I/OPz and

,

it

makes with

OP

an angle

OPT =
S

For a point
is

inside, the forces

from
;

and

to

are

respectively 2irmn.NP, 2Tr.mn.PS

= parallel27?I 47r7
Example.

AO

and

2irl.

2?r7. The induction Z-mnnl Fig. 118 shows the lines of induc-

hence their resultant

tion inside

and

out.
cylinder of permeability
/u.

is

in a lield h.

Find the magnetisation produced

placed transversely in it, and the in-

duction. - 2ir7, the If 7 be the magnetisation, this causes an internal Held The total internal Held is therefore sign showing its direction.

77

2irl.

236
But
.'.

PERMEABILITY.

47T/

.-.

2ir/

= =

(fl
(/*

- \)H=(p - 1)A/( M + 1).

1)A fr (M

1)27T/,

And
1).

In the limit when

/JL

is infinite,

B is only

'2h.

222. Molecular Currents. Diamagnetism. Let a magnetic molecule be supposed to consist of a circuit carrying an electric current, and having inductance L, but no resistance at all. If there were any resistance, the current would perish, and magnetic properties would not be permanent. Let first the circuit be fixed in position, and an external magnetic field begin to act upon it. This would generate an induced current, so that the charge
circulating during the change

= Change

of Flux/Resistance.

resistance is zero, and the charge cannot be therefore the total change of flux must be zero. That is, the change produced by the external field is exactly equal and contrary to the change of flux produced by altering the current. The current therefore alters by
infinite,

But the

F/L.

Now, by Lenz's law, current F/L opposes the So a change of magnetic alter its magnetic action

the magnetic action of the extra change of field which produced it. field 8H causes every molecule to by an amount proportional to &H

and opposing it. The medium, regarded as space containing a large number of such molecules, is therefore magnetised so that its intensity I is proportional to and has the contrary sign. The susceptibility of the medium is therefore negative, and the medium behaves as a diamag-

netic one.

This can be illustrated experimentally. A sphere of bismuth [diamagnetic] is repelled from the space between
the pointed pole pieces of a powerful electromagnet. sphere of copper in the same position would be repelled

A
if

PERMEABILITY.

237
;

the poles were suddenly magnetised by a strong current for the increasing field would induce a current in the copper, and repel this induced current circuit before it had

time to decay.

223. Molecular Currents.

Paramagiietism.

We

next suppose that the current circuits are not fixed in position. The molecule is then equivalent magnetically to a small equivalent bar magnet set perpendicular to the plane of its resultant current circuit. In any unmagnetised medium, the magnetic molecules have all directions indisIf a magnetic field act, it tends to get the criminately. axis of every one of these equivalent magnets parallel to itself. The magnetic molecules are not supposed absolutelv free their deflections will be resisted, and each one will yield to the field by an amount which is more or less proEach unit volume of the portional to the field strength. medium will acquire a magnetic moment proportional to the total effect of the field in directing the equivalent
;

magnets parallel to itself. The magnetic moment acquired through the mobility of the molecules is therefore in the same direction as the magnetising field. So this cause produces paramaguetism. Thus essentially diamaguetism is due to induced currents, and is proportional in amount to the coefficient of mutual induction of the molecular currents. Paramagnetism is proportional to the freedom with which magnetic molecules can be rotated. A vacuum has, probably, no magnetic molecules. Every other substance would have both the paramagnetic and the diamagnetic property but in some substances the first would preponderate and in
;

The diamagnetic property is always others the second. very weak. The paramagnetic is weak except in a few substances we therefore infer that molecules are nearly always held with considerable rigidness. This being so, it follows that the deflections of the molecular magnets are very small in most cases, even in the intensest fields, except within iron, nickel, etc. Small deflections are usually proportional to the deflecting fonv hence k is a constant for everv one of the inauv sub;
.

238
stances

PERMEABILITY.
(whether paramagnetic or not)

whose

suscepti-

bility is small.

Power.

224. Molecular Currents. Saturation. Coercive In mechanical systems large deflections are

usually not proportional to the deflecting force. therefore expect k not to be constant in iron. Besides, if deflections exceed certain limits, a system is generally so distorted that it tends to return to an altered equilibrium Often a position when the deflecting force is removed. limit exists beyond which no distorsion can pass. Thus, in the case we are considering, no magnetic field, however great, could do more than set all the magnetic axes of the molecules parallel to itself and only an infinite field could do as much. should expect therefore that very magnetic substances would show the following properties That there is a limiting intensity of magSaturation. netisation (J) which can only be approached but is essentially unattainable. That if a large enough field be Coercive Power. applied and then removed, the substance does not return to its original state but shows (more or less) residual magnetisation, of the same kind as was produced by the field but of smaller magnitude.
;

We

We

225. Hysteresis. Irrationality. Another property that we might not, perhaps, have expected is that magnetic substances do not instantaneously take their final equilibrium state in any applied field. In a strong field the intensity increases gradually; when the field is removed it falls gradually; and if the field is first increased and then diminished the maximum intensity comes later than the maximum field. This property is called It has mechanical analogies. wire Hysteresis. under great tension does not instantly take its full length and if the tension be alternately increased and diminished, the maximum length is later than the maximum tension. Even for moderate fields the magnetisation of iron is not strictly proportional to the magnetising force. This

PERMEABILITY.

239

Field

i2
20.

-fief -h2pJ Field

240

PERMEABILITY.

property may be called Irrationality; and is expressed mathematically by the fact that Jc (and therefore p) is not In Figs. 120, 119 typical curves are given constant. showing how B and p alter with H. Of course we define Jc and p by the same equations as before, namely

/ =

JcH,

B =

fjiff,

/JL

4dfc.

As I
zero,

is finite
//,

when

is infinite,

k or

I/H

tends to limit

and

tends to limit

1.

226. Total Flux. Let A be the cross section of any portion of a bar of iron or other magnetic substance. Let be the longitudinal field then the induction pH. There are B lines of induction per unit area, hence the of lines crossing the section total flux or total number A pHA. Let x be any length of the bar, and V the difference of magnetic potential at its ends. Then is the work done by a force acting for a distance x or

B=

= AB

V=
Hence the
total

Hx,

H=

V/x.

number of lines = F = pA V/x.

F/V = pA/x.

crossing the section

Or
Compare
with the formula for flow of electricity, the P.D., 111), where C is the current, the resistance. If Q be the specific resistance, x and A the length and cross section,
this

and and

V/R

.:

CIV = A/xS
//.

Therefore the permeability

l/Rn the
,

specific conductivity.

has a certain analogy with Also the resistance R is

which quantity is called the analogous to x/Ap; reluctance. Of course l//x, can be called the specific reluctance. In virtue of the above analogy, we can (as in 109, 112) infer that if two reluctances be in series the resultant

PERMEABILITY.
reluctance
is 1\
;

241

magnitudes

their sum and if two be iu parallel, of and r2 their resultant reluctance is

,

227. Magnetic Circuit. We have seen that lines of magnetic induction do not start or terminate anywhere, and either go both ways to infinity, or form re-entrant curves. The lines due to a current circuit are re-entrant, and loop round the current. In such cases any one bundle of lines which is followed completely round until it joins itself again is called a Magnetic Circuit. If there be an iron core looping round the
great permeability causes as many lines as posit and there is practically no great error in supposing the iron itself to form the circuit. But if a few lines stray into the air and rejoin the iron again the effect is that of an air reluctance in parallel with an iron reluctance much less than itself. Assuming that any for the total lines which stray are negligibly few, take number of lines in the iron. A V, where V is For every section, /x pAV/x, or Fx the work that would be done on a unit N. pole in travelling the short distance x. Adding up for the whole circuit, of
its

current

sible to

crowd into

F=

length

sav,

Fl

= M2r.

Hence V is form the complete circuit /. " 169. It is as defined in the Magnetomotive Force the same for all circuits which loop through the current circuit, whether they be described iu iron or air, and its value is 47rnC, where C is the current (in absolute units) and n the number of turns. The unit of M.M.F. [Magis called a Gilbert,* but engineers often netomotive
collectively "

is the sum of the work done on a unit N. pole Here for displacements over all the short distances x which

2F

Force]

* The Gauss is the unit of Magnetic Induction and also of Field, the Gilbert of M.M.F., the Oersted of Reluctance, the Weber of Total Flux. These names are not in common use, and seem rather do not recommend anyone to remember confusing than helpful. them.

We

M. PH.

I.

Iti

242

PERMEABILITY.

If the current be 1 amp. estimate it in " ampere-turns." and there be 1 turn, then C 1/10 and n=l, hence the " " ampere turn 47r/10 Gilberts

1-257

5/4 nearly.

Note. In the next examples we are taking p. = 200, and thereThis is quite arbitrary, for Fig. 119 fore k = (fi - l)/47r = 15-8. shows that can have all values from about 100 to 2400 for the same iron in different fields. Also the values of \i differ widely for different specimens of iron in the same field, and for the same iron at different temperatures. Apparently the highest permeability observed is about 12,000, for iron in a weak field, at about 770, a temperature very little below the point at which magnetic properties vanish.
fj.

Ex. 1. Find the flux around an iron ring of mean radius 8 cm. The iron of the ring is of circular section and of diameter 1 cm. The
ring
of

evenly wound with 500 turns of wire, which carry a current ampere. Take fi = 200. The advantage of such an iron ring is that there are no free poles, and therefore no demagnetising force. The M.M.F. = 500 x '1 = 50 ampere turns = 20?r absolute units (Gilberts). The area of the cross section is ?r/4, and the length of the iron circuit is 167r, thereis
-1

fore the reluctance

=
and the
flux

167T

{2007T/4}

-32 oersted,

= =
Ex. 2. wound on
flux be
?

207T/-32

1257T/2

196 Webers, or 196 absolute units.

If the

same wire carrying the same current were closely wooden ring of the same dimensions, what would the
//,

fj.

= 1 instead The only difference in the calculations is that The reluctance is 64, and the flux = 207T/64 = '98. 200.

of

Ex. 3. If the wire had not been wound uniformly, but the 500 turns confined to only a portion of the ring (say a quarter), what difference would this make to the iron and the wood ? Iron is so much more permeable than air that hardly any lines of induction stray out of the metal. The magnetic circuit is confined (practically) to the iron, and its reluctance, and therefore its flux, is practically unaltered. Wood is equivalent to air. The lines run within the wood in the wound portion, whose reluctance is a quarter of the whole, and therefore is about 1/256. But at the ends of the wound portion the lines diverge into the air, and the reluctance outside the windings is therefore much diminished. The total re-

PERMEABILITY.

243

luctance is therefore nearly 1/256, hence the total flux, which is the flux in the wound part of the wood, is about four times as great as before and the flux in most of the unwound wood is much smaller, as only a few lines lie within the wood.
;

Ex. 4. The above iron wound by 500 turns of wire as

ring

and wooden

ring are

evenly

before, but the radius of the winding is double that of the section of the ring. What difference does this

make? The M.M.F. is the same as before and so are the reluctances of the rings. Hence the flux in the iron is unaltered and the flux in the wood is unaltered. There is an additional flux in the air space within the windings. The sectional area of this is three times that of the wood or iron, therefore the flux in this space is three times that in wood, or 2'94. The total flux within the winding is therefore about 199 for the iron, 3'9 for wood. It is unimportant with an iron core whether the winding be even and whether it is close. But with a wooden core these things are important.

Ex.
1

5.
?

The

mm. made

iron ring of Question 1 has a saw cut of width across its section. What influence will this have on

the flux

The reluctance of the cut (length 1/10, area r/4, /t = 1) is The reluctance of the metal removed is got by 4/10ir = *1273. dividing by 200 and is '0006 but the reluctance of f he whole metal
;

of the metal remaining is '3194. Adding, the total reluctance is '4467, and the flux = 207r/-4467 = 140 nearly.
is '32

and therefore that

Ex.
1/10

6.
?

What would

be the flux

if

the width of the

saw cut were

mm.

The flux is 189. This differs from the by over 3".Y, and shows that corrections
very large indeed.

flux 19(i of a complete ring for an imperfect join are

Ex. 7. What would be the effect of a saw cut of width 1 mm. extending only half across the section ? The reluctance of a complete cut was found to be '1273, and of the metal removed '1273 200. We have half the cut and half the metal, in parallel. If r be the reluctance of the metal portion, the air portion is 200 r, and the two in parallel have reluctance
r

x 200

r/(r -f

200
is

r)

200 r/201

'1273 '402

-0(103.

The

reluctance practically the same as

total

if

'3197, and the flux there were no cut.

= 20r

3197 = HMi,

Ex. 8. If two magnetic circuits of reluctance .1 and /> are surrounded by the same electric current, show that their joint Show that this is true whether tlio reluctance is AB/(A + B).

244

PERMEABILITY.

even ferromagnetic, provided they do not appreciably influence one another.

circuits be para- or dia- or

Ex. 9. current c (absolute units) flows in a long straight conductor. Round it is wound symmetrically insulated iron wire, of radius r and permeability /*, in a helix of length I, number of turns n, and radius a. The terminals being joined, calculate the flux in the helix. Show that the result is independent of I and n.

228. Induced Currents. In a field containing substances other than air let there be two circuits, which we shall call the Primary and the Secondary, carrying currents Let first every substance present c and c (as in 200). be simply paramagnetic or diamagnetic, that is, every p and k is a constant. The magnetising field which is the direct result of c l is proportional to c : and produces induced magnetisation proportional to c r This magnetisation causes fields proportional to itself (and therefore to c,) and acts as a demagnetising force in paramagnetic bodies and a supermagnetising force in diamagnetic, but the consequent magnetisation produced is proportional to the causative magnetisation (because k is constant) and therefore to c r The subsequent effects due to this consequent magnetisation can all be discussed in the same way. Hence everywhere the final field, induction, and magnetisation which are due to Cj are proportional to c 1 and independent of the current c in secondary. The flux through the circuit of c due to c l All the matheis therefore Mc lt where If is a constant. 200 210 follow, and matical consequences explained in can be called the coefficient of mutual induction, and 201. defined in any of the three ways given in
l

229. Influence of Ferromagnetic Substances. Things are less simple if ferromagnetic substances are The original magnetising force due to ^ is still present.

But the magnetisation directly procr not proportional to it, but depends on c in a more complicated manner and depends likewise on any other magnetisation previously existent in the iron, etc.,
proportional to

duced by

it is

whether permanent or due to some other current. The demagnetising force due to this magnetising is everywhere

PERMEABILITY.
proportional to
it
;

245

to this demagnetising force is

this
Cj

but the consequent magnetisation due no longer proportional to it

Continuing

but depends on the previous magnetisation.

Mc

argument we find that the final resultant flux due to which goes through c is not only not a constant multiple
l

of c p but is not even a function of

c,

only.

And

the

mutual energy, instead of being Mcc (200), has to be = 4>(c c), where is a function which is not written symmetrical in ^ and c, is not even dependent only on c, and c, but is dependent on the previous history of the iron

(or other ferromagnetic substance)

alters continually in the course of

in such a

way that

</>

an experiment.

230. Definition of Mutual Inductance. For convenience, one often speaks of the mutual inductance of a pair of coils (e.g. a "Transformer") which has an iron core. But the only sense which can be attached to the term is the following The mutual inductance of two coils associated with ferromagnetic substances is the coefficient of mutual induction of two coils in air which would exhibit the same induction phenomena under the precise circumstances of the experiment considered. Hence mutual inductions can be found or compared by any method previously described ( 205 onward). Similar remarks apply to self-induction, which is only the mutual induction between the coil and itself. But every different method will give a different value to the induction coefficients measured, and the same method will give different values if currents of different magnitudes IH? employed. a precise value to Scientifically, one ought never to give any of the induction coefficients of coils with iron cores
: ;

two determinations give results which are not even of the same order of magnitude.

and no surprise should be

felt if

Ex. 1. If the cores of Examples 1, 2, a, wound with 10000 turns forming a .secondary
the primary of tion, treating
OK
5(K) turns.

(>,

~7),

!>

evenly

iron

Find " as ,\ simply

'1

circuit, in addition t< the coefficients of mutual indue "

paramagnetic
it

substawe

200).

If the

primary current be

ampere,

is

10

absolute units.

246

PERMEABILITY.

The flux due to this current, in the first example, is 196 lines. But each line passes 10 4 times through the secondary, so we must 6 2 = 1-96 x 108 therefore put 8f = 1-96 x 10 when 5 c = 10"
,

absolute units.

and the result is '196. To reduce to henries we divide by 10 The result (on the false supposition made about iron) may be regarded as a constant for the coils. The answers for Examples 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 are (in the same way) got by dividing the fluxes by 1000. The result '00098 for Example 2 is accurate for all currents, since no iron was used.
9
;

Ex. 2. If a primary have n turns, and secondary turns, and the reluctance of the largest magnetic circuit which penetrates both coils be R, show that the coefficient of mutual induction is 4-irNn/R. TheM.M.F. due to current c for n turns is 4irnc. The flux in the circuit is 4-irnc/R. This penetrates times, therefore the flux = f/c, therefore But in. the secondary is f = farNncjR.

M M = 4tirNn/R in absolute

units.

Ex. 3. In a certain sample of iron I/p = '0025 -f '0001 H. If a ring have the same dimensions as before (radius of ring = 8, radius of section = 1 / 2 ) and a primary and secondary of 500 and 10000 turns, calculate the apparent coefficient of mutual induction when the primary current is suddenly altered from to "01, '1 and
ampere respectively. Taking c = '01 amp. = '001 absolute 4?r x 500c = 2?r and the circumference is Hence
I//*

unit,
16?r,

the

M.M.F. =

hence

H=

1/8.

'0025

1/80000.

The reluctance would be 64

is

for a

wooden

core

its

actual value

therefore

64 {-0025

1/80000}

-16

8/10000

'1608.

Hence

in absolute units

M=

47r

x 500 x 10000/-1608.

9 Reducing to henries by dividing by 10 we have

M=
If c

-38

henry.

'I

amp., the reluctance

R=
hence
If c
\

64 { -0025
-37.

1/8000}

'168,

M
amp.,
.-.

R=
3/=

64 {'0025
-26

1/800}

'24,

PERMEABILITY.
Ex. 4.

247

In the same example what would the coefficients of mutual induction become for the same currents if the primary and the secondary were interchanged ? For the same currents, the fields // are 20 times as large as before. The reluctances work out to '176, "32, 1 "76. Consequently the values of Mare -36, -196, '036 henries.

Ex.
form
flux

5.

1/fL

=
a

/ is

sions for

M.

If the permeability /* be given by an equation of the a + /3/f,* as in Examples 3 and 4, show that the total simple function of the primary current. Obtain

expres-

Consider the case of a core of length /, wound with n and as before, and of radius a. Then the magnetising field is

N turns

H = 4TMC/J.
Therefore the total flux

is/=
a

ftlf.

+ pH

(a

4rtt/9c*

It is therefore expressed as a function of c. If be measured by a make and break experiment,

ir

/./

JTMi
But
if

M be measured

for very small current changes,

47n?

M=V =
dc

*/
.

^'
(la

dx

by methods
It
is

of differential calculus.

is smaller in the second case, and for easily seen that large values of c it can be very small indeed. The formula !/(/* - 1) = a + pff can be treated similarly.

Ex. 6. The primary consists of w, turns of a considerable radius a the secondary is n.2 turns wound in the same coil but insulated from the primary. Around this coil is wound insulated iron wire, binding the primary and secondary together and forming a reenIf there trant helix of length '2irn and area of cross section *7>-. are turns, and the ends of the iron wire are joined, calculate the mutual induction.
;

Ex.
a

7.

+ %b,
=

An iron tube, length /, external and internal radii has the primary wire looped //, times through it, and the
accurate formula
is infinite,
is

*A more
1

l/(/i

1)

-f /J//.

Tli

when //

which agrees with

'2"2~i.

248
secondary wire

PERMEABILITY.
mutual induction.
Find

?i Calculate the 2 times. also the self-inductance of each wire.

Ex. 8. If a self-inductance is to be made of a flat coil of turns of copper wire, bound into the appearance of an anchor ring by n turns of insulated iron wire forming a reentrant helix with its ends connected, show that the self -inductance has the same value as if the iron, wire formed n turns of a flat coil and the copper made a helix of turns around it.

Ex. 9. Find the self-inductance if the electrical circuit forms a coil of 100 turns of radius 5 cm., and the iron wire is 1000 turns of iron wire of radius '5 cm. wound tightly as a helix round the strands. The radius of the iron wire is '02 cm., and permeability
200.

231. Energy of Magnetic Field, if ft be constant. Let a uniformly wound ring, as described in 227, Ex. 2, have mean circumference Z, area of cross section A, and

number
will

of turns n.

If the current

is c,

the field inside

be

H=
The Induction
is

irnc/L

B=

4*ncfi./l,

therefore the total flux in core

This passes n times through the circuit, consequently the total flux through circuit is

F = iT
therefore the coefficient of self-induction
is

The

total electromagnetic energy

203, 228)

is, if /*

be constant,

Consequently the energy per unit volume

is

PERMEABILITY.

249

Comparing with the values of that the energy per unit volume is
In
air,

H and

above,

we

find

B = H,

so the result

is

/8ir.

232. Energy of a Ferromagnetic System. When is the field, let B and I be the induction and intensity. They are supposed all to be in the same direction or,

if

not,

we

the common direction OX say. Consider an element of a shell of area A, perpendicular to the direction of 7, and so that the magnetic moment is 7^47, and thickness. / If 7 alters by 57, this is 211). pole strength AI (cf. equivalent to a change A&I of pole strength and therefore we can regard A8I units of N. magnetism to be moved a distance I from the S. border of the shell to the
;

use these letters to denote their components in

N.

As
I,

is

the

field,

the force
is

HA8I acts

through a

dis-

tance

and the work done

Since Al
is

77.4/57.
is

the volume, the work done per unit volume

5

W=

7/57.

Consequently the whole work expended in magnetising a system is W = J//57,

the limits of integration representing the initial and final states of the system. This can be put in another form. Since

B=

H+

4irl,

= (B 77-/8ir.

//)/47r,

7/)/47r

the energy that would exist in an air H-/STT Hence the whole space, which is entirely unmagnetised.
is

Now

energy can be taken

H'

//-/"

250
If

PERMEABILITY.

we put

B = pH,

this integral

becomes

(if

ju,

is

con-

stant)
,

as in 227.

233. Graphical Methods. Construct a graph in and ordinates which abscissae represent values of

.a

values of I. The point denotes state in which the field and the intensity I

OM = NP MP = ON.

H=

Fig. 121.

to

quence of changes from state P in magnetising is represented by the whole area N^P^^N^ enclosed between the straight 'lines P.N,, N,N2J ? P2 and the graph y If a graph were drawn in which the abscissae represented and the ordinates B, an area similarly described

If the state alters to that represented by P', supposed very near 81 hence HSI P, NN' x NN' which, in the limit when SI is indefinitely small, can be rearea NPP'N'. garded as Adding for a continuous se-

= NP

2,

we

find that the

work done

Pf

would represent

iHdB
which
body.

= 4:r

x charge

in the energy given to the magnetised

The energy given exceeds the work done in magnetising by the quantity H^/Sir (taken between proper limits), which represents the energy which would have been given to a body which cannot be magnetised.
234. Cyclic Processes. Let a sample of iron be subjected to a field which gradually increases from to + then diminishes from to lt v then increases

PERMEABILITY.

251

again as before, and so on repeatedly. After a while, the intensity I will alter cyclically, the curve descril>ed being similar to that shown. In 'the change Q^P the work done will area Q^JV,. In the change P,Q (as the field

diminished) the work done is area Q P negative and so the algebraic sum for half the cycle is QoPjQiSimilarly the total work provided in the other
is

half cycle

is

Q,P2 Q

The work

provided in each complete cycle is the area of the closed curve

Everything has been restored

to its original state, consequently

no mechanical or electric energy remains, and the above work must be entirely expended in
producing heat.
It may be remarked that the area of the closed curve is expressed analytically by $HdI taken all round and this is IHH, or $IdH simply. For IH has equal to IH the same initial and final value when we consider a com;

plete cycle.

235. Coercive Power. Demagnetising Field. Hysteresis. If the iron has been magnetised to state P,, and is then made zero, the path P Q is described and the iron is left permanently magnetised to an intensity measured by OQ This is called its Coercive Power. If the field is reversed to such a magnitude as just to

destroy the magnetisation, this field is called the l)emagThe magnetisation is zero at l\ r consenetisiug Field. quently OR measures the demagnetising force or field. The general property of which these are effects is called Hysteresis ( 2*25). It can l>e measured in practice by the area of the closed curve P,P_>, th.it is. by the heat produced per cycle, when the cycle is detined by a iriven
{

maximum

field

ON,.

252

PERMEABILITY.

236.

Transformers and Alternate

E.M.F.

transformer consists of a primary and secondary coil wound on a soft iron core. An alternating E.M.F. is supplied to the primary and the induced secondary current
;

is

utilised for

some purpose.

be the currents in primary and secondary, r and I and L self-inductions. Let be the 2 LI in most cases. mutual induction, then is nearly We are supposing that L, I, can be treated as constants. Let the E.M.F. supplied to primary be v as it is alternat-

Let

c,

resistances,

ing

we may put v = V Q sin nt.. Then the equations for the two coils are v = lc + MC+rc, o = Me + LC + RC.
periodic with

(1)
(2)

We assume C is
.*.

same period as
;

e,

G= C C = nC

sin nt

+a
+

and
cos nt
a.

By

(2),
c,

.'.

= (Ln = -(Ln

cos nt

s'mnt

+ a + R sin nt + a) G /M, + a - R cos wM^a) G /Mn. +

Substitute in (1)
v

(Ln cos nt
cos

+
?i

+
a

J? sin

?i

a)lGQ fM

- (Ln

sin nt

+ a - 7? cos
+

?^

But y =

v sin nt

VQ {sin

?i

a cos a - cos nt

a sin a

}.

Hence, equating coefficients of cos nt + a and sin nt -f a, nLlG /M - nMC - firC /Mn = v sin a (3)

- BICJM - rLGJM = v

cos

a.

(4)

These give C and a. Let the secondary have k times as many turns as the primary, then the flux through the secondary can be taken as Jc times that in primary, for the two coils have a com-

PERMEABILITY.

253

mon

core.

Hence the

charge of
therefore

M=

c is

rate of charge of flux per unit k times as great in secondary as in primary,

kM; therefore LI Similarly L Using these relations, (3) and (4) give
(/?//;

Id.

=M

2
.

RrCJMn = - r sin a. + ?-&)<7 = - v6 cos a. CQ =- v /V {&>'"- /MW +

'

(>)

()
(K/k

t)

rk)*}

and
cot a

= Mn{l/rk +

k/R}.

237.

Transformers

and Constant
t

equations are (1) and (2) as above, but v stant. we have Assuming M.'l

= L/M=k
l(c

E.M.F. The is now a con-

v
o
.

-.

= = =

+ kO) + re lk(c + kC) + RC.

re

RGjk.
finally c

Since initially

=o

and

r/r,

we assume

Hence
ItC'/k

= /(c

re

~ K>
/rC)

and
re

X'

~
l\{re

Xf

/r

ki-e

.-.

\=

IKljr

kljR)

and
In an ordinary Rulimkorff, i2 is so large that it can IH. taken infinite, and .R/& is also large, but C is indefinitely small and RC is finite. Also RC is the K.M.F. indiu-ed at make. Its value is therefore kv. At break, we have a current c v r already established and the " break " only means replacing r very suddenly Hence c r,, initially. by a much larger resistance r'.

and

= ?// := c r/r'

finally

so

we assume

254

PERMEABILITY.
before,
v

As
and

=
=

l(c

kU)

+
=

r'c

o
. .

lk(c

+
-

kC)
v)

<7.

EG =
= =

k(r'c

k(r'c

- rcj =

kc

(>

(r'

r)

And

this

-lk(c
\lkc e

fcd)

~M

{(r'-r)/r'

k(r'

r)/B}.

The initial value of EC is A:c (r' and is therefore very much larger than
is

r)

= ^(r'

r)/r,
r'

at

make, since

always great.

238. Dynamos. The motion of a moving coil produces a periodic change of flux through it. assume this change harmonic, and write F A sin nt. The resistance and inductance of the circuit are L and R hence the equation for the current is

We

/ = LG
Assume
C= C
Then

-|-

RC.

sin

(nt

a).

An cos nt = C
But

{Ln cos rU

+ * -f 5 sin
+
sin

?tf

a}.

An cos
.*.

.*.

= -4?i {cos nt + = An GOB a, (7 ^ = An sin a, tan a = JR/.Ln, O = An/

C"OJ

w Lw

a cos a

a sin a},

VW
=

The zero current is the zero E.M.F. when

when
nt

nt

+a=
etc.

o, TT, 2?r, etc.

and

F=o,
The
7T/2

-|",

zero current
a,

is

= i^~ \LnlE)

later in

phase than the zero E.M.F. by

PERMEABILITY.

255

The zero E.M.F. is later with an iron core than with a Consimply paramagnetic core owing to hysteresis. sequently the zero current is later than we should expect,
owing
to If the

two causes, namely hysteresis and

self-induction.

circuit,

dynamo be simply connected to the external we have an alternating current given by the above

equations. If a direct current is wanted, sliding contacts (brushes) are arranged to reverse the connections, and therefore alter the sign of C in the external circuit, at the instants when C vanishes. The brushes should be adjustable, because C is made later in phase by hysteresis and self-induction as The correction for self-induction is ta,n~ (Ln/R), before. and obviously increases with n. The correction for hysteresis does so also. The angle through which the brushes are moved is called the Angle of Lead.
l

CHAPTER

XIII.

THEKMOELECTKICITY.
239. Peltier Effect. If a current flows across a junction of two metals A and B, heat is absorbed or given out. This heat is proportional to the first power of the current c (thereby differing from the Joule Effect, 107, which is proportional to c 2 ) and to the time t. Measuring everything in absolute units we may say that the heat absorbed (in ergs) when a current c flows for time t from

to

H=q

t.

If heat be given out, the multiplier q is negative. Its value depends on the two metals and on the absolute temIt is usually positive for a range of values of perature 6. and negative for another range, vanishing for a temperature (6) called the Neutral Point for the metals. If the current be reversed, flowing from B to A, the sign of the effect changes. Hence q the energy reversibly supplied per unit current per second it may therefore be called the E.M.F. at the junction ( 102).

AB

240. Second Law of Thermodynamics. Consider a circuit of the two metals A and B, with junctions at temperatures 6 and & (Q > 0'). Let the current flow from A to B at 6, so that the warmer junction absorbs qct. The current flows from B to A at 0', and the colder junction gives out q'ct. shall assume that all other heat reversibly taken in or given out is negligible in comparison. As we shall see

H=

We

256

THERMOELECTRICITY.
later, this is true if 6
0' be small enough. whole energy reversibly supplied is - H' = (q - q')ct

257

Hence the

E.M.F. of value q <{ in the circuit. The existence of such an E.M.F. was proved by Seebeck.

so that there exists a resultant

The Thermal
as

Efficiency
)

is is

=(H-H')/HHence
(6

and
-

defined, in thermodynamics, equal to (0 B')/B if the

temperatures are reckoned on the absolute

8')/0

scale.

= (H - H')/H = (q- ?')/?

6

is

Or, taking the limit small,

when

&

(and therefore q

q')

This quantity, or -f u dB will be called the Thermoelectric Height of A over B, and will be denoted by h. It has two physical definitions 1. Since h H/Bct, the Thermoelectric Height of q/B A over B the quotient of the heat reversibly absorbed by unit current flowing from A to B for one second by the Thermodynamic Absolute Temperature. 2. Since h limit of (q - q')l(B - B"), and dq/dB cf is the E.M.F. of the circuit, the Thermoelectric q the E.M.F. at mean temperature B, Height of A over B per unit temperature difference (1 absolute), if the resulting current flows from A to B at the hotter junction. It is found by experiment that the effects described are the same whether the metals A and B be simply pressed together or united by solder or a thin layer of some other metal at the junction. If this third metal be L, and current c pass from A through L to B, let h and h., bo the Then the luait thermoelectric heights of A and B over L. but the h.st at LB absorbed is li^ct at junction AL, and
,
:

241. Thermoelectric Height.

total is hct.

Hence
h

hl

/<,.

M. PH.

I.

1"

258

THERMOELECTRICITY.

Fig. 123.

AbsoluteTempepatupes

Fig, 124.

THERMOELECTRICITY.

259

tabulated thermoelectric heights are zero. The reason of the choice is given later ( 245). extract from Lupton's Numerical Tables the following formulae [t the centigrade temperature] for the thermoelectric height in microvolts of certain metals. The values given represent an ideal for a certain standard of purity and texture.
all

For convenience,

reckoned from lead, taken as

We

Iron

17-34

German Silver 12 "07 - 2 "24 Magnesium

+ + +

-0487<
'05l'2t

Copper Tin

-36

-43

'0095^

Aluminium

+
416

'77

-009.^ -OO.M/ -0039/

These data are true from

18

to

except for

German Silver. The graphs of h

as in Fig. 123.

against 6 are obviously straight lines

Some text-books draw

the figures as here, and others draw them

with the sign of h everywhere reversed. In thermodynamics the indicator diagrams are described clockwise when heat is taken in

Hence the ordinate for the higher temperature should be described downwards in that case.
at the higher temperature.

242. E.M.F. of a Thermal Circuit.

Let the tem-

peratures of junctions be ft, and 6.,, ft, being larger. The Fig. 124 is drawn for copper and iron, the temperatures centigrade. being 473 and 273 absolute 200 and Divide the considerable difference of temperature ft, ft, into small portions of which one is ft ff, where ft and 0' are represented by 017 and OU' in Fig. 124. The thermoelectric and P'Q' heights of the first metal over the second are ft' be small enough and they are ultimately equal if ft therefore the E.M.F. of a circuit with junctions at ft and ft
;

PQ

would be

= =

(0

0')

PQ = VU.PQ
,

area

PQ<J P'

ultimately.

temperatures

finite range of equal to the algebraic sum of the E.M.F. 's for the ultimately vanishing portions IT IT into which the range is divided. But the sum of such areas as PQQ'P' is the whole area
ft

We

assume that the E.M.F. for the

2

to

ft,

is

260

THERMOELECTRICITY.

Hence the E.M.F. between two given temperatures is Q represented by the area bounded by the two ordinates and 2 Q2 corresponding to the temperatures, and the and Q Q2 for the metals conthermoelectric diagrams Z

PP

cerned.

243. Direction of the E.M.F. If in Fig. 124 the and 200 C.), temperatures be 273 and 473 absolute (or the E.M.F. is represented by area P^Q^P^ and the current flows from copper to iron (P to QJ at hot junction, so that the diagram is described clockwise. and 400 C., 273 and If the temperatures had been 673 absolute, the figure P2 P3 Q3 Q2 crosses itself at 8. If we start the cycle at 8, we can describe it in the order SP3 Q.3 SQ^P2 S and it clearly is the algebraic sum of two triangles, SP Z Q 3 described counterclockwise and therefore taken negative, and 8Q 2P2 clockwise and positive the sum of these triangles happens to be positive because the positive Hence if the junctions were heated triangle is the larger. to these temperatures a current would actually be produced in the clockwise direction P2 P3 Q 3 Q2 and it is obvious that heat would be given out at both junctions, and can be taken in only along the wires (see 244, 245). If the temperatures were 200 and 400 C. (473 and 673) the total area P P3 Q3 Q will be negative, because the negative triangle is numerically larger than the positive one. Hence the current would not flow in this direction but the contrary one, P^P^Q.^, and heat would be taken in at-both junctions. With temperatures 300 and 400 C. (573 and 673) the current would describe the clockwise circuit P 3 P4 Q 4 Q r Similar statements apply to other metals at other temperatures, whether the thermoelectric lines are straight or
l
;

not.

Ex. 1. From the tables given, find and 100 C. circuit for temperatures The height of the copper over iron is
h

E.M.F.

of a copper iron

(1-36

-00950

(17-34 -f -0487*,

15'98

-0582*.

At

and

100 the heights are 15-98 and 10 -16.

The area

THERMOELECTRICITY.
of the

201
distance between 1*307 millivolts.

trapezium

^(15-98

10-16)
:

= mean of parallel sides x x 100 = 1307 microvolts ==

The height
-0582 x
.">()

Otherwise thus hence the area

at the average temperature

= LV98 =
Ex.
2.
?

13-07,

13-07 x 100

=
is

1307 microvolts.

-At

what temperature
15-98

the height of copper over iron

zero

-0582^,

.:t

278.

Ex.

3.

What would

be theE.M.F. for temperatures

is

and 556

This

found to be

zero.
;

Ex. 4. One copper iron junction is kept at 25 the other is to 600. State generally what currents gradually raised from
would be observed.

A current is observed at 0. This diminishes till 253 is reached, then vanishes. It changes sign and increases till 278 is reached then it diminishes as the temperature rises, until it vanishes at 521. It then takes the original signs and increases to 600.
Ex.
Ex.
5. 6.

What

is

the neutral point for iron and

of a copper tin circuit,

German

silver

Find E.M.F.

from 100 to 200 C.

Ex. 7. of a copper absolute.

Assuming the diagrams

German

silver circuit

to be straight lines, find E.M.F. between zero centigrade and zeio

244. Thomson Effect. Imagine unit current to flow round the circuit P,Q,Q 2 P, for unit time. We have seen that the heat taken in at the hot junction = //! = thermoelectric height and temperature = P Q x Ot\ = area P^X^f^
l l

The heat given out at the cold junction = //, = Po^o x Or, - area P.^..X.,M...

And

the heat converted into work

is

the E.M.F.

ir

= p,Vi<?,p

We
//,

might

have expected that

//,

7r==

Jf,

If..;

lut

obviously this is not the case in general.

By

figure,

jr

- P^^Mt - PM&P. - P^X,.}/: = P Q X M\ - P,V,V-V.JA:/', = - P,J7 ,.!/..,/', - V,</;^Vv

}

i-

262

THERMOELECTRICITY.

Hence the heat utilised and given out ( exceeds 2) the heat taken in (Jffj) therefore other heat must be taken in at some other place. But if it be not absorbed at the junctions, it must be absorbed in one wire or the other, or in both. If the current were reversed, this absorption would be changed into production of heat. The reversible production or disappearance of heat in a wire, whose ends are not at the same temperature, when it is traversed by an electric current, was deduced by Sir
;

W+ H

William Thomson from thermodynamic

afterwards verified by experiment.

principles,

and

245. Graphic Representation of Peltier and Thomson Effects. If the first metal be lead, its thermal diagram is the axis of coordinates OU2 Ur Hence the heat
absorbed in the wires of a lead-copper circuit (per unit current per second) area Q Q.,N2 r By experiment, no reversible production or emission of heat has been detected in a lead wire. This is the reason why the lead thermoelectric diagram is chosen as the coordinate axis. Then the area heat absorbed per second in a copper wire when Q Q2 2 a unit current flows from the hotter to the colder end. Returning to the iron- copper circuit, we see that the heat absorbed (per unit current per MJPZ second) when a current flows in an iron wire from the colder to the hotter end. Heat is given out if a current flows in iron from the hotter to the colder end. have now interpreted all the areas in the figure. is the Peltier Effect at the hot junction (per unit current per second), i.e. the heat taken in. JV 2 Jtf2 2 Q2 is the Peltier Effect at the second junction. 2 Z and Q are the Thomson effects in the two wires. 2 Q2 Each of these areas represents heat taken in when it lies on the right hand side of the current, as in the portions PP of "the circuit described clockwise. 2 is the total heat taken in (per unit current per second) and is therefore the E.M.F. due to the temperature It is positive if the area be surrounded in a difference. clockwise direction.

NN

PM
1

We

PjQ^Mi
1

NN
1

P P MMP
1 1

PQ,

THERMOELECTRICITY.

2G3

246. Thermoelectric Formulae: E.M.P. Take the usual case in which the diagrams are straight lines. Then the thermoelectric heights 7t, and h., of the metals over lead are given by
A!
.'.

= =

rti

b^t
A.,

h.,

a., a.,

k^

= a

+ +

b..t

(f>i

!>.,)(.

If

we have two temperatures

.'.
,

be the neutral point, then h

(centigrade), = o at temperature T.
?

and

t'

and

/.

a.,
/t

= - (&, - b.,)T = (6 3 -6 )(7 -0.

1

The E.M.F. is represented by a trapesium whose parallel and h' corresponding to temperatures t and /'. Then h' = (b, -6 )(7 -O and E.M.F.
sides are h
T
1
,

Hence the E.M.F.

Difference of temperatures x difference between the mean temperature and the temperature T of the neutral point x a constant for the metals which is the dif-

ference of their gradients.

a's

All these formulae involve the coefficients 6, b'. The do not appear except in calculating the neutral point.

247. Formulae for Peltier and

Thomson

Effects.

The

Peltier effect at

h(t

273

C
)

absolute temperature x difference of temperature and neutral point x a constant which is the difference of gradients for the metals considered.

This gives the heat per unit current (absolute"! in eri^s. The Thomson effect in the first metal (say iron, Fig. 124)

= =

area

I\M\^,r,
(J/,/',

M^f,

J/./V).

264

THERMOELECTRICITY.

Now
t
v

MM
l

difference of heights at the temperatures

and
(a
t

and
z ).

Also, for iron, heat is absorbed as the current runs from colder to hotter. Reversing the sign, so as to get the standard case where heat is absorbed as the current flows from the hotter end,

we

= Gradient
X mean
.

find the

Thomson

effect

=b

(t,

(273

+ -|^ -f

* ) 2

of the metal

x Difference of temperatures

absolute temperature.

Ex. 1 Wires of three metals are joined in series, and the three junctions are at different temperatures. Show how to find the E. M. F. be the Let AB, CD, thermal diagrams of the

EF

metals ; and BC, DE, FA the ordinates corresponding to absolute temperatures, l

2 3 as in Fig. 125. Imagine a unit charge to flow round the circuit. The Peltier effect at 6 l is that heat is taken in ; and the quantity of heat is
,

Fig. 125.

FAaf,

Thomson effects are DEed, + EFfa, algebraic sum is the total heat provided per unit current, and is evidently the area of the hexagon ABCDEF. This energy is provided reversibly and is therefore equal to the
the other Peltier and

per unit charge) in metal CD with junctions at 0] and 2 is = + area CDdc. Similarly

BC. 6 = + area <?<:&. The Thomson effect (heat taken in

1

+ ABba.

The

E.M.F.

Ex. 2. copper wire and a German silver wire are connected to a galvanometer at the temperature of the room (16C.). The other ends are soldered together and put in boiling water. If the total resistance be 1 ohm find the current in the galvanometer, the heat absorbed per second at the hot junction, and the heat absorbed per second in each wire. Compare the total heat taken in reversibly (algebraic sum of Peltier and Thomson effects) with the heat given out irreversibly (Joule effect). Use the data in 241. The equation to find the neutral point of copper and German
silver is

1-36

-0095

T=

12-07

'05127

7
,

T= -

221.

THERMOELECTRICITY.

265

The two wires are connected to one another directly at 100, and, through the galvanometer, at 16. An intermediate metal makes no difference if there is no temperature change. So the E.M.F. is that of a circuit with terminals at 100 and 16. The difference is 84 the difference between mean temperature and neutral point is 58 + 221 The E. M. F. 279.
;

=
The

-0512

-0095)
is 1

x 84 x 279 = 1400 microvolts nearly.

1*4 milliamperes.

resistance

ohm, therefore the current is

In the complete diagram the current flows clockwise. This shows that it goes from German silver to copper at 100 C. The Peltier heat absorbed at 100 per ampere second is
373 x (100

221)

x (-0512

"0095) lO'

"00727 joule.

get the actual heat absorbed per second, multiply by '0014, 5 the current in amperes. get 1'02 x 10~ joules = 102 ergs. Similarly the heat given out at the two cold junctions with the galvanometer = 58 ergs. In the German silver wire, the temperature difference is 84 and the mean absolute temperature is 273 + 58 = 331. The heat 6 given out per ampere second = '0512 x 84 x 331 x 10~ joules 3 = 1 -42 x 10~ ; and the heat per '0014 amp. = 2 x 10" 6 joules = 20 ergs. In the copper wire the heat given out is 4 ergs. As no other work is done in the circuit except the irreversible production of heat, the total heat absorbed per second = the joule heat produced. Of course this heat =-- RC 3 = 1 x ('0014)- = 2 x 10~ 6 joules = 20 ergs, which = 102 - 58 - 20 - 4.

To

We

Ex. 3. Find the two Peltier effects and the two Thomson effects per unit current for a copper-iron circuit, (1) with terminals at and 100 C., (2) with terminals at 200 and 300 C.
Ex. 4. A copper and an iron wire eacli 5 cm. long are joined is together to form a rectangle 4 by 1 cm. Their joint resistance 012 ohm. If the rectangle is at a temperature near 15, but the difference of temperatures of junctions is '1, calculate the magnetic moment of the rectangle.

Ex. 5. A ring of 1 cm. radius is half of copper and half of German silver. Its resistance is '003. Calculate the magnetic Held produced at its centre when there is a difference of temperature
of
1

between
6.
If

its

terminals, at about the temperature of the room.

the E.M.F. of a bismuth-platinum circuit with the and 100 be given as G5(H) microvolts, the current show that the flowing from the bismuth at the hotter junction, thermoelectric height of bismuth over platinum at 50* is (M. be 12300, determine another the E.M.F. between - 190 and

Ex.

terminals at

266

THERMOELECTRICITY.

thermoelectric height, and express the height for bismuth by a

graph and formula as in

241.
of

a platinum and a platinum-iridium with one junction at zero centigrade, is given as 737 and 1571 microvolts respectively when the other junction is at 500 and 1000. Deduce a formula (linear) for the relative thermoelectric height, and a formula for the E.M.F. between and t C.
7.
circuit,

Ex.

The E.M.F.

The graph for nickel is the diagram. It has three nearly straight Other magnetic metals portions, joined by short curves. have the same kind of graph. But in the case of iron, the
shown
in

248. Abnormal Metals.

THERMOELECTRICITY.

2G7

one being at a uniform thermoelectric height h above the other. Then the E.M.F. of a circuit of these metals, with and 0', will have E.M.F. junctions at temperatures h(0 &} proportional to the temperature difference. Such circuits are very exact and convenient measurers of temperature, within the limits for which the lines are straight. Alloys have often a low melting point and

when melting begins

the physical properties alter. But a thermal couple of platinum and a platinum iridium alloy can be used up to the melting point of platinum. It is a question for experiment whether the usual formulae hold
at such high temperatures.

25O. Compound Wires. Let the thermoelectric heights two metals P and Q over a third metal L be given by + &^> a + Vt- Suppose wires of P and Q of resistances p and q to be joined in parallel, and this compound wire connected to a wire of L of resistance L Let c and c' lie c + c' m L. the currents in P and Q and C Then, by Kirclioff's laws, IC.+ pc = E.M.F. in the L and P circuit = E say
of a
'
;

and

IC+qc = E.M.F. in the L and Q circuit = E' s&\

1

.*.

{Hp
I

+ q)+pq}O= Eq +

E'p.

by the single L wire and the parallel P and Q Hence the apparent E.M.F. in this circuit

But

+ pq/(p
=
{i

4- q)

resistance of the circuit formed wires.

PQ!(P

Q)}

c=

E(i

+ E 'v)l(p +

f rt-

Now
and
*
,

if

and /, be the temperatures of the junctions, t, and L, Q and L. then the neutral points for

P
-

E=
and
jfiT

(t

(,} (/

-*f,

>,)

//(/,

/,)(/'

- Mi +

'-)i-

268
Hence
where

THERMOELECTRICITY

Eg + E'p = b^Vp_ _ ~ ~ p+ q p + q ti W-* T = (g + P*o)/(^ + q).

f
-

h + hb

So that the gradient of the compound wire, relative to any metal L, is (bq + b'q)/(p + q) where j? q has any Hence given two metals we can combine positive value. them to get what is practically another metal of any chosen intermediate slope. It is naturally easier to get a compound wire whose line is parallel to the lead line or copper line than it is to prepare a reliable alloy of perfectly
:

standard quality.

251. Thermometry. We have seen ( 249) that if two wires (natural or artificial) have parallel thermoelectric diagrams, the E.M.F. of a circuit is strictly proportional (within the limits of application of the formulae) to the difference of temperature.
the two wires have their thermoelectric diagrams not parallel, little more difficulty. For, assuming the metals not abnormal, the E.M.F. is a quadratic function of either temperature ( 245). Keep one junction at a and the observed E.M.F. will give a fixed temperature, say 0C. quadratic equation for the other temperature, of which one of the
If

we can measure temperatures with a

roots

is often inadmissible. Thermal couples of highly refractory metals, as platinum, and iridium -platinum alloys, are used for temperatures of furnaces. C. The E.M.F., in arbitrary Example. One junction is kept at units, is 30 and 45 when .the other junction is at 100 and 200. It is 35 when the junction is heated in a flame. Find the temperature. Let be the E.M.F., 6 the varying temperature of the junction. = when 6 = 0, we have = Ad + B&~. To find A and Since = 30, 45 so that put 6 = 100, 200 and

E E

30 45

= =

100

A +

10000

J3,

200.4
-375,

whence
Solving for

A =

+400005, B = - -00075.

the equation 35 = -3750

-000750 3
is

we have
point,

773. The other root and obviously negligible.

between freezing and boiling

Instead of solving this quadratic, we could have constructed a graph from the given data, with E and 6 as ordinate and abscissa. Such a graph would rapidly give the temperature for every E.M.F.

CHAPTER
THEORY OF

XIV.

UNITS.

252. Units. Every physical quantity has its value expressed by a numeric and a unit. A Numeric is a number,* positive or negative, integral or fractional, rational or irrational. Unit is a selected standard quantity of the same kind as the physical quantity whose value is expressed. Thus, if a charge be given as 5 coulombs, 5 is a numeric and coulomb is the name of a unit of charge. The operations of multiplication, involuWhen tion, etc., can only be performed with numerics. we write the dynamical equation

Space

= Velocity

x Time,

this is only a contracted way of expressing that the number of space units in the space traversed the product of the

of velocity units in the velocity, of time units in the time.

number

and the number

253. Systems of Units. There is no necessary conIt is even possible nection between units of different kind. Thus a gallon to have different units of the same kind. and a cubic foot are both units of volume; a coulomb and an electrostatic unit of charge are both units of
quantity of electricity. But in order to simplify formulae superfluous units are abolished where possible, and the units retained are denned in terms of one another by the simplest possible
* Angles and Absolute Temperatures are also numerics. They are definable as ratios, and are the same in all systems of units.

269

270
relations.
is

THEORY OF UNITS.

set of units called a System.

which

satisfies

these conditions

In all systems, condensing the definitions, we have area of a square of unit side Unit area = volume of a cube of unit side volume = such a density that there is unit mass density in unit volume

velocity

= such
is

a velocity that described in unit time

unit

space

is

acceleration

= such an

acceleration that unit velocity

gained in unit time

and

so on.

254. Fundamental Units. In dynamics, the units chosen as fundamental are those of length, mass and time.
In physics, other fundamental units are adopted if necessary, such as units of electric charge, free magnetism, New units that have dielectric power or permeability. seemed fundamental drop out of use when they can be expressed in terms of other units thus the calorie is not regarded as a fundamental heat unit, because it can be
;

expressed as a simple multiple of the erg, the systematic unit of energy.

255. Change of Units.

units, in such a

Let us

alter the

fundamental

way that the new units of length, mass and T times the old units. and time are L, The new unit velocity has to be new unit length per new

( 253), so in terms of the old units it is that velocity with which a distance L is described in time T. l It therefore is LT~ old units of velocity. The new unit acceleration produces a velocity LT~ old 2 units in a time T hence it is LT~ old units. The new unit area is the area of a square of side L, it 2 old units of area. therefore is Similarly the new unit volume is L* old units.

unit time

is the mass (in old The new unit density is such that 3 so it is a density M/L S in terms of units) of a volume L the old unit.
;

THEORY OF
In the same a expressed as L

UNITS.

271
be

way c every new dynamical h

unit can old units of the same kind.

256. Dimensions. In the above formula, the indices are called the Dimensions of the unit considered in terms of the fundamental units of length, mass and time.
a, b, c

definition is as follows If one only of the fundamental units be altered, by multiplying it by x and the definition of the derived unit involves that it shall be multiplied by x r then r is the dimension of the derived unit in terms of the fundamental unit considered. b If the new unit be L" Tc old units, and we multiply the length unit by x leaving the mass and time units only x, Jf unaltered, then L 1, T 1; hence the new unit a is multiplied by x therefore a is its dimension in terms of The same definition applies length, similarly for b and c. to any other fundamental units that have to be adopted.
:

The

=
,

M =

257. Dimensions of Force. Let us define the unit of force as that which gives unit acceleration to unit mass. and T, If the fundamental units be multiplied by L, then the unit of acceleration is multiplied by LT~\ The new unit force is that force which (in old units) gives It therefore LMT~" old acceleration LT~' to mass M. 2. Hence the dimensions of force are 1, 1 and units. If we had defined unit force as the weight, in Paris, of unit mass, the new unit force would be the weight of old units of old units of muss, and therefore would be The dimensions of force would therefore be 0, 1,0 force. This system is preferred on the in length, mass and time. continent. It illustrates the fact that the dimensions of a quantity do not depend on the nature of the quantity,

but on the way

its

unit

is

defined.

258. Unit of Electric Charge. In any medium, the force / between two point -changes q and q' is given by

272

THEORY OF UNITS.
is

where r
constant.

the

distance

apart,

and

Jc

the

dielectric

/=

shall define the units of charge and of dielectric constant in terms of one another, by the condition that

We

in every consistent system of units. * by the system of values /, q, q', k, r 1. Let the units of length, mass, time, charge, and dielectric constant be L, M, T, Q, in terms of the correThen the equation sponding units of another system. must be satisfied when these other units are used, and 2 therefore when / L. Q, 1c K, r q q'

This each

qq'/lcr* is

clearly satisfied

= ML/T

Hence MLJT- = Q*/KL 2

,

259. Unit of Field, Induction and Flux. Field is defined as force per unit charge. Hence the dimensions of field are symbolically represented by dividing those of force by those of charge thus, using square brackets to denote a unit,
;

[Field]

= \MLT~* I M

L T~

Induction hence

is

the product of field by dielectric constant,

[Induction]

= \M L~ T~

The surface integral of the Induction is got by adding together a number of products each of which is an induction multiplied by an area. Hence its dimensions are
[Flux of Induction]

[Jlfi

L"\ T~ K$ x
l

L"-]

Its dimensions are therefore the

same as the dimensions This agrees with the fact that the surface of charge. integral of the induction over any closed surface is equal to the charge within it.
* This agrees

with

if

Jc

for air.

THEORY OF UNITS.
more
.

260. Other Units. briefly. Current

[Current]
[Potential]

= charge per
l

Other units may be considered

unit time,
[3/a

= = = =

[JIT*

L$ T~ K$/T] =

L$ T

A'-

\.

[Energy per unit Current]

[Capacity]
[Resistance]

[Charge /Potential]
[Potential/Current]

= [L K]

= [L~

TK~

],

etc,

261. Unit KT. Pole. Let m be the strength of a pole, then 4/irm lines of force originate from it. Pole strength is not therefore analogous to point charge, since 4?r</ lines of induction, or 4<Trq k lines of force, originate from a
charge
q.

lines of force, or the pressure perpH 2/87r. So when the pendicular to them, is Hit/Sir pole strengths of a system are given, and therefore the lines of force are determined, all the forces exerted are proportional to the value of p. for the medium. Therefore the force exerted by m on m' at a distance r is pmm'/r*. Hence unit pole is that which exerts on an equal similar pole at unit distance a force I//*. For the present, we leave undefined. for the unit of permeability we deduce as in Using

The tension along

/u,

253 (replacing

K by P'

[Magnetic Pole]

- M* fJ

T~>

r~

From a pole /w, 47ri lines of force hence the number of lines' per unit area of a diverge, m V\ concentric sphere of radius r is 4iwi/4irr 2 Hence Field Pole strength /(Distance)
262. Other Units.

/.

[Field]- J/l A-i

7'-' /'-*.

Similarly Induction
.-.

= Field
=

/A

[Induction]

J/i L'l T~* /'

Flux = Induction x area =

M. PH.
I.

M$L*T~

/'-.
1 '^

274
Evidently also

THEORY

otf

UNITS.

[Magnetic Moment]

[Pole x Length]

M% L% T~
-j-

P~*-

[Strength of Magnetic Shell]

[Magnetic

Moment

Area]

263. Current, and Belated Units. The current in a circuit is equal to the strength of the equivalent shell, hence its dimensions are the same, therefore
[Current]

[Charge]
[Potential]

= M% L$ T~ P~i = [Current] x T = M* L* P~i = [Energy Charge]

l

-f-

or
[Potential]

[Capacity]
[Resistance]

[Inductance]

= = = = =

[E.M.F.]
[J/

=
7

[Flux/7

if

-2

Pj]

as before.

[Charge/Potential]

[E.M.F. /Current]

= [T 2 L~ P= [L T~ P].
l l

].

[E.M.F. /Rate of Change of Current]. [E.M.F. x Time/Current] = [LP] etc.

definitions

264. Comparison of the Systems. Using different of unit charge, we have reached different

258, 263. expressions for its dimensions in For a really scientific system the units are identical.

Hence, equating them,

.-.

PK

when we change from one system to another, we cannot alter the units of permeability and dielectric power independently, for they are connected by an equation.
So that
265. Electrostatic and Electromagnetic Systems. Let k be the dielectric power of air, and p the permeability of air, in our standard system of units.

THEORY OF
If

UNITS.

275

to another system by multiplying these units dielectric power of air becomes k'K, and the permeability of air becomes /i/P.

by

K and P, the

we pass

Suppose the units of mass, length, and time to be the centimetre, gram, and second. If we alter to the electrostatic system (defined by the fact that the permeability of air is 1) k/K and the units of length, l, mass, time are unaltered. Hence the electrostatic unit charge

K-k;

J/i

L\ T~* K\ = /Fold

units.

In the same way if we change to electromagnetic units, defined by the convention that the permeability of air is 1,
hence the electromagnetic unit charge

= M$L* T~ P-* =
l

l/v//Tokl units.

Hence
Electrostatic Unit Charge
/

--

Electromagnetic Unit Charge

266. Velocity of Light. By many experiments it has been shown that the electromagnetic unit charge (absolute) U x electrostatic unit charge, where U = 3 X 10 !0

velocity of light,

either exactly or to a very close approximation.

Hence
That is, the units of charge only agree if we adopt such units of Tc and that the product of permeability and dielectric power of the standard medium air (or nit her
JJL

vacuum)

-r-

square of the velocity of

light.

be taken to represent the number of times an Ex. 1. If electromagnetic unit charge contains an electrostatic one, show that for I*>UMIthe ratio Electromagnetic unit/ Electrostatic unit is 1 /

tial

and

or E.M.F., U- tor capacity, for inductance.

(.'

for current, I/

U-

for resistance

276

THEORY OF

UNITS.

Using E.S. units throughout, the E.M. unit charge is the charge The E.M. unit potential is the potential to which the E.M. U. unit charge, i.e. the charge U, must be raised to do unit work ; it therefore is a potential l/U. The E. M. unit capacity is the capacity of a condenser in which a charge 7 has potential 1/C/"; it therefore is 2 The E.M. unit current is a flow of units of charge per The E.M. unit resistance is a second, it therefore is a current U. resistance in which a potential difference l/U" gives a current U; it is l/U"-. The E.M. unit inductance is the mutual inductance of two coils such that a change of current per second of units in primary produces an E.M.E. of l/U in secondary; it therefore is

= I and = 1] the E.S. unit of that [taking a slowness and the E.M. unit is a velocity. The dimensions are [L~ l TK~^ and [LT~ l P]. Neglecting and P these are [1 -7- LT~ l ] and [LT~ l ] as required.
Ex. 2. resistance

Show

is

Ex.

3.

Show
is

E.M. unit

that the E.S. unity of capacity the reciprocal of an acceleration.

is

a length and the

Ex. 4. A long stream of bullets is sent from a machine gun, with velocity v at the rate of n bullets per sec. If e be the charge
of each in electrostatic units, find

the

equivalent

current

in

is nev electrostatic units. electromagnetic units = 10 nev/U coulombs. as above.

coulombs. The current

It therefore is

Of course

U=

nevjU

3 x 10 10

CHAPTER XV
CORPUSCULAR THEORY.
267. Units Employed. Iii this chapter we shall always imply the electrostatic system of units for charges, etc. Consequently the electromagnetic unit of charge will be called a charge of magnitude U (U=3 X 10', see 265), the E.M. unit of potential is a potential 1/U, a coulomb is U/1Q, a volt is 10s / U If E be the charge carried in electrolysis by 1 gm. of hydrogen, its value is given in 80 as 96500 coulombs. We* shall therefore have

= ^.

E=
=
There
is

96500 U/10 2-90 x 10 14

no need for greater accuracy, since the corpuscular data have not, as yet, been found certainly within
1

per cent.

268.

The Discharge

in Rarefied Gases.

At moder-

ately low pressures, of the order of a centimetre of merAt cury, the discharge (if any) is a column of light.

lower pressures, below a millimetre, the column is seen to consist of alternate bright shells and dark spaces. Beginning from the kathode, each shell is of lower potential than the next one. Each can be regarded as a kathode in relation to the shell that follows it, or as an anode to the

one that precedes it. The first dark space, extending from the kathode to Tlio in'xt, the first shell, is called the Crookes Space. extending from tho first bright shell to the noxt, is
Faraday's. As the rarefaction
is

increased,
277

the Crookes space

278

CORPUSCULAR THEORY.

extends until, with sufficient exhaustion, it reaches to the walls of the bulb. Such a bulb is called a Crookes Bulb. The glass bounding the Crookes space is rendered incandescent.

Crookes

Faraday

Striated

Column

Kathode

Anode

Fig. 128.

A
"

shadow

small object (a mica cross) within the bulb casts a " on the glass, within which there is much less

converge to its centre of curvature. A solid placed at this point shows the most intense phosphorescence.

phosphorescence, precisely as though rays proceed from the kathode in straight lines. These rays must be partly If the kathode be a (or wholly) stopped by the object. considerably extended surface, the rays proceed from it normally. If therefore the kathode be concave, the rays

Kathode Rays.

The

properties

of

be exhibited by a bulb as in Fig. 129.

the rays may is the kathode

Anodel
Fig. 129.

and B are two screens with narrow slits at E and F. These determine a narrow pencil of kathode rays EOF.

CORPUSCULAR THEORY.

279
is

C and are parallel metal plates whose purpose scribed later.

de-

The ray EFO is impinging along its whole length on molecules of gas in the tube and therefore produces a certain amount of phosphorescence enabling it to be photoThus its straightness, under graphed from the side. normal conditions, can be verified. shall show that the properties of the kathode rays can be explained by supposing them to consist of small particles negatively charged and travelling with a very high

We

velocity.

269.

The

j8

Corpuscles.

The
/3

the kathode rays will be called

to carry a charge (negative) q electrostatic units. If there be n such corpuscles per unit length of a pencil of rays (produced as in 268), the charge per unit length is nq, the charge which passes in one second any section of the pencil (say the screen B) is The pencil nqv. carries, therefore, a current nqv (electrostatic units) towards the kathode.
v,

which appear later. mass m, and velocity

of

We

shall

particles which form corpuscles, for reasons suppose them to have

and

270. Effect of Electric Field.

Let

C and

in

Fig. 129 be two parallel plates and let them be charged to a given potential difference so that there may lie an electrostatic field acting upwards in figure, from C to D. As each corpuscle is negatively charged, the force on it will be

Xq downwards.
As
the force

Xq

is

path will no longer be a straight line, but with a radius of curvature r p such that
wi
//-,

perpendicular to the velocity, the will be curved

= Xq.

(1)

need here only consider the case where the path is If nearly straight, and r is therefore large and uniform. this limitation be abandoned the orbit would bo a parabola, for we should have a particle moving (like a projecin magnitude and direction. tile) under a force constant
l

We

280

CORPUSCULAR THEORY.

271. Effect of Magnetic Field. Let the magnetic perpendicular to the rays, and suppose it perpendicular to the plane of Fig. 129 and away from the reader. in electrostatic units, and thereLet its magnitude be
field act

fore

H/ U electromagnetic

units.

pencil is equivalent to a current nqv E.S. units Its direction is OE. ( 269), or nqv/U^ E.M. units. Hence the force acting on unit length is in direction and of magnitude Hnqv/U 2 The force per corpuscle 2 It would bend a ray, originally is therefore Hqv/U straight, into a curve whose radius of curvature is rz
. .

The

DC
,

given by
mv"'/r z

= Hqv/U*.

(2)

If is large and constant, the orbit is a curve whose curvature is everywhere the same. If plane, it is an arc of a circle. If not plane, it is a helix, i.e. the curve of a corkscrew.

(1)

272. Values of m/q and we have

v.

Dividing equation (2) by

(3)

whence v is found if r and r2 be observed and and X be known. The values of v are different in different tubes and different intensity of discharge, but v is of the order 9 Z7/10, ranging up to 3Z7/10 or 9 x 10 cm. per sec. The value of q/m can be got from (1) and (2) by elimil

nating

v.

of the methods employed by J. J. Thomson was to measure the deflection 00' x produced by the magnetic field, and then to adjust the electric field until the spot of

One

phosphorescence produced on the glass was brought back to 0. Then the forces due to and are equal and r2 and r say. contrary, hence r Equation (3)
}

H
=

becomes

= X IP I II.
If the length

FO

be

s,

evidently
s-/2r,
(4)

OO' = x =

CORPUSCULAR THEORY.
hence r
gives
is

281
U,
(5)
17
.

found; and equation

1,

substituting for

q/m = v*/rX = XU*/rH*.

An
Ex.
light,

approximate value of q/m

17

is 5*3

x 10

1. If q/m = 6 x 10 , and r = one-tenth the of velocity find the electrostatic field, and the electromagnetic field, necessary to deflect a pencil 10 cm. long through a millimetre.

Here

S =
hence
r

10,

x =

1/10
500.

8-/2.C

Byd),
1
'

9 (3x 10

2
)

03

6 x 10 17

500

By

(2),

H=
q

U = ^
r

L6 x 10 17

27 X- 10 " 500

9 x

10".

The electric field is therefore '03. which can l>e reduced to volts per cm. by multiplying by 300, and therefore it could be produced between two plates a cm. apart by a potential difference of volts. The magnetic field is 9 x 10 9 electrostatic units. Reducing to the we get more familiar electromagnetic units by dividing by 3 x 10 This is about two thirds the earth's resultant magnetic '3.
l

field.

Ex.

2.

If-'-

<>

x 10 17

and

3 x

10",

calculate

how much

kinetic energy per sec. is carried by a current of 1()~ 5 amperes. the Let C be the current, in absolute E.S. units and let n
;

number of corpuscles which pass per The kinetic energy is E = |nwr-. Hence

sec.

Then C =

</.

E
G"

~ =

l
'2

m r- =
'

{) ti

<]

x 1Q 8 = x 10 17
'

->
fi

Now
=
ergs.

10- 5 amp. = 10~ E.M. units of current = 10~ 3 x 10' and K Hence C 3 x 10 4 E.S. units.
fi

x 3 x

10'

3 x 1O show tliat the ditlVrEx. 3. If q/m = 6 x 10 17 and cnce of potential between the kathode and the greater part of the bulb is about 2250 volts. Let the potential ditt'erenre U- I" absolute
;I

282

CORPUSCULAR THEORY.

units (electrostatic). The work done on this should = the kinetic energy gained

each corpuscle
%mv-.

is

Vq,

and

Hence

V=
To reduce
Ex. 4.
field

1
2

19

1018

2 6 x 10 17
300,

7-5

to volts

we multiply by

and we get 2250.

= 5 '3 x 10 17 and v = 27 x 10 9 find the magnetic If qjm which will make the corpuscle describe a circular path of

radius 5 cm.

Ex. 5. With the data of Ex. 4 find the electric field which would produce a curved path of radius 5 at the place where the field is normal to the path.
Ex. 6. Corpuscles in a Crooks tube are incident perpendicularly are perpendicular at on a plane XOY, in which and The corpuscles are then deflected simultaneously coordinate axes. by a strong electric and a magnetic field, both parallel to the same direction show that the electric deflection is parallel to ; and the magnetic is parallel to OY. If they be called x and y, find the locus of the point (x, y} reached by the corpuscles for different values of v, assuming q/m constant.

OX

OY

XO

OX

273. Identical Nature of all ft Corpuscles. The preceding paragraph, and the examples in it, suggest methods by which qjm can be found with more or less exactness. Professor J. J. Thomson and others have made most careful experiments on these lines, but the practical
very great and at first were nearly insuperwas comparatively easy to study the effect of magnetic fields ( 271), but electric fields ( 270) seemed to produce no effect. This was because the rarefied gas in the bulb was a fairly good conductor. It was early established that the /3 corpuscles are all of the same kind, independent of the nature of the gas, the material of the electrodes, and the intensity of the current. Hence q and m are constants [but see 289-291].
difficulties are

able.

It

274. Atomic and Corpuscular Charge.

It

was

re-

garded as practically certain that q would turn out to be identical in magnitude to the charges e carried by an atom of or Cl, or by any monovalent ion, in electrolysis.

CORPUSCULAR THEORY.

283

Now 1 gin. of hydrogen carries a charge of 96500 coulombs, which is 9650 absolute E.M. units, or 9650 X 3 x 10 10 E.S. units. If mass of a hydrogen atom, it

M=

follows that

e/M = 9650 x

3 x 10 10

2-90 x

10'*.

For the corpuscle, taking the value q/m and putting q e,

5 '3

x 10 17

e/m

5-3 x 10 17

Whence by division M/m = 5300/2-9 =

1800.
is

Hence the mass of a corpuscle the lightest atom known.

;

about

1800 of that of

The first determination of e/m (J. J. Thomson in 1897) was 2'3 x 10 17 but nearly every later experiment has The value in Kaye and Laby, given a higher result. Physical and Chemical Constants (1911), is equivalent to
5-316

x 10 17

estimates that the Ex. 1. Meyer (Kinetic Theory of Case number of molecules per cubic cm. of a gas at normal temperature and pressure is 6'1 X 10 19 Calculate from this the mass of a
ft)
.

hydrogen atom, and of a corpuscle. A c.cm. of hydrogen at normal conditions (0 C. and 1 atmo5 sphere pressure) weighs 9 '0 x 10~ gm. Hence a molecule weighs
9-0 x 10-YG-l x 10 19

1-48

x 10--* gm.
is

An atom

is

half this,

and the mass

of a corpuscle
4-1

1-4S x

10--V2 x 1800 =

1<)-

2K

gm.

Ex. The
(

2-61 x 10 10

cubic cm. weighs 9 x Hr gm., hence its charge is The cubic cm. contains 2 x O'l x 10 atoms, hence the charge on each r i i r\\ n 2-61 x 10" = 2-14 x 102 x 0-1 x
274).

2. With same data, find the electronic charge. total charge for 1 gm. of hydrogen is 29 x 10" E.S. units

:>

'

Ex.
that

3.

it is

4'7

Taking a more recent estimate of the electronic charge, X 10" ", calculate the number of molecules per c.cm. <t
1

normal gas. The answer

is

2-01 x 10 "/2 x 4'7 x 10-"

l

2'8 x 10 |;>

284
Ex. 4. show that
If
e,

CORPUSCULAR THEORY.
the P. D. between the anode and kathode
is

m and v are connected by the approximate relation

eV =
15Qmv~.

V volts,

Find v if V is 2500 volts. Note that nearly the whole change

the kathode.

done on
gained
Since

of potential takes place near in absolute units is F/300, hence the work each corpuscle is e F/300. This = the kinetic energy

The P.D.

ir-,

whence the
e/m ISO* 3

result.

= =

5 '3 x 10 7
1-3

V=
,

2500,

x 10 M v

3 x 10 9

Ex. 5. By using a magnet to divert the kathode stream to fall on a small thermopile it is found that h absolute units of heat (ergs) are conveyed per second. The current is c electrostatic units. Show this gives a relation between v and e/m. If corpuscles impinge per second, their kinetic energy is h = %Nmv*. The current is c = Ne. Hence dividing,

h'c

= mvz /2e.
of
t-

The result, combined with equation (1), gives a value The result of Ex. 4 could be used the same way.

and

e/c.

give reasons later for supposing that a ft If it corpuscle is enormously smaller than an atom. strikes an atom it usually penetrates it without much loss of kinetic energy. The corpuscles can therefore penetrate matter, even in its solid form, by passing between and through the atoms of which it is composed. Of course the penetration gradually destroys their energy. Different forms of matter oppose a resistance to the motion which is more or less, but not exactly, proportional to their
shall
t

We

275. Penetration of Matter by

ft

Corpuscles.

A moderate thickness of lead is almost impermeable but aluminium is very permeable indeed. The energy destroyed in a collision is transformed partly into visible forms of light, i.e. the phosphorescence observed on the walls of the bulb and along the path of the kathode rays ( 268), largely into invisible light, and
;

density.

partly into

Rontgen rays

283).

CORPUSCULAR THEORY.

>:,

276. Lenard Bays. Lenard detected rays outside Crookes bulb which were prolongations of the Crookes rays inside. These represent the relatively few To study them corpuscles which pass through unstopped. one should use a glass bulb with an aluminium end for they get through aluminium fairly easily. These rays do
the
;

not extend many centimetres in the atmospheric air outside the tube for the velocity of the corpuscles is gradual Iv diminished by collision with air molecules.
;

277. Drifting Electrons.

When

/3

corpuscle has

lost its excessive velocity through collisions with molecules, or through electric fields opposing its motion, it behaves

almost like an ordinary gaseous molecule. The differences are only that it is very much smaller and that it carries a It diffuses, like any other gas, but can negative charge. be collected in any region of space by a feeble electric
field.

Free /3 corpuscles of small velocity can be produced in any gas, outside a vacuum bulb, by various stimuli (such as the incidence of ultra violet light on a metallic surface). Other free bodies positively charged, which we shall call a corpuscles, must also be produced for it is obvious that whenever a negative corpuscle separates from an uncharged molecule, it must leave an equal positive charge somewhere
;

or other.

The nature

of the a corpuscles

is

considered

later.

These corpuscles may be said to drift, because they have not the enormous directed velocities met with in Crookes tubes. But they are by no means inert even an uncharged hydrogen molecule has an average velocity of about 2 x 1C 5 cm. per sec. if at normal temperature. Apparently, however, a charged electron can attract and
;

number of uncharged molecules. It then becomes a charged complex, which is heavier than an ordinary molecule and diffuses slower, but still has reasonably high velocity and can be sorted out rapidly
attach to itself a
;i

enough. Gases loaded with electrons can have them entirely This is not, filtered out by passing through cotton-wool. of course, because the electrons are too large to go through

286
a
filter,

CORPUSCULAR THEORY.
but because their charge makes them drift to the any narrow channel, and adhere.

sides of

278. Conduction of Electricity. In electrolytes we have seen that conduction is due to the transport of ve ve and -f charges by atoms or molecular aggregates
called irons.
fields.

These drift under the influence of electric In an electrolyte (e.g. dilute HC1) which is not exposed to an electric field, the ions (H+ and 01 -) move aimlessly like ordinary molecules and exert an osmotic
pressure of exactly the same. kind.

In gases in their normal state there are hardly any charged ions, and consequently gases hardly conduct at all. But certain agencies (see 277) ionise gases, and they then show conductivity. The conduction is due to the
transport of -f and
corpuscles, molecules.
ft

charges by carriers, which are a and free or loaded, as above, with uncharged
believed that electricity
is

In metals

it is

carried almost

entirely by ft corpuscles (negative), ously in all directions if there be

electric field slightly assists

which travel promiscuno electric field. An

motion contrary to its direction,

ve electricity flows conto the field. There is evidence, however, that positive trary travelling ions may exist.

and therefore a small excess of

279. Loss of Conductivity of Gases. The positive and negative carriers or ions, drifting with considerable velocity and attracting one another, have a tendency to seek each other out and coalesce into neutral bodies, i.e. into ordinary gaseous molecules. Thus a gas, made conducting and then left to itself, loses its conductivity at a rate proportional to the number of ions present, and therefore proportional to the conductivity itself.

280. Measurement of Conduction in Gases.

The

conductivity is so small in a normal gas, even when fully ionised, that none of the usual electromagnetic methods are of any use. The current will not affect a galvanometer. But one can find the leakage between a metal disc con-

CORPUSCULAR THEORY.

287

nected with an electrometer, and a parallel plate earthed, or kept at a different potential. For method see Ex. 1 below. be the number of ions produced per second, by Let 277 half of them are any of the agencies described in ve ve and half are If the field be exceedingly strong, -}the ions can reach one plate or the other in a time too short for them to be appreciably diminished in number so that -|JV reach each plate per second, and a charge -f- \Ne reaches the kathode while ^Ne reaches the anode. Thus the current is ^Ne, independent of the area of the Thus the greatest current plates or their distance apart. possible depends only on the ionising power of the agent.

by a

sensitive electroscope consists of a gold leaf repelled 1. The position of fixed metal plate to which it is connected. the leaf is read by a microscope on a scale calibrated in volts. The disc of the electroscope leaks across an air gap to another disc which is earthed. If the electrostatic capacity of the electroscope be six and the fall of potential be one volt per minute, calculate the current carried by the air.

Ex.

The potential falls one volt, i.e. 1/300 E.S. units," .per minute, and the capacity is six hence the charge that escapes per minute is 6/300 = 1/50, and the current is 1/3000 E.S. units per second. An E.S. unit is 1/3 x 10 10 E.M. units; or 1/3 x 10 y coulombs. can therefore describe the current as 1/9 x 10 E.M. units, or 12 = 1-1 x 10- 13 amperes. 1/9 x 10
;

We

1:t

Ex. 2. If, in the above example, the air be continuously kept ionised to the same extent, and the electroscope were originally charged to 500 volts, how would the current alter with the time? As the current carried does not depend on the potential difference and only depends on the carriers available, (if it be considerable), the current would remain sensibly constant for nearly 500 minutes,
and the electroscope would then be nearly uncharged. However, a limit would be reached when the potential difference reached For the time taken by the carriers to certain degree of weakness. travel across is inversely proportional to the Held which urges them. If this time exceeds the lifetime of a carrier, i.e. the time which it lasts before it combines with one of the opposite kind, and becomes inert, then no current is carried.

Ex. 3. What would happen if, in Ex. 1, the gas were ionised at start, but not kept ionised ? The carriers would be destroyed both by acting as conductors ami by coalescing with the opposite kind. Hence conduction would cease after a time.

288
281. The

CORPUSCULAR THEORY.

Number of Corpuscles in a Given Space.

If perfectly dust-free air be left in a closed vessel in contact with pure water at any temperature, it becomes saturated with water vapour. If the air space be suddenly increased

by lowering the water

level,

the vapour pressure

is

dimin-

ished, but the temperature also falls (because the is adiabatic) to such an extent that the diminished

pressure is too great for saturation. There is formed, since there is nothing to deposit water on. have clear super- saturated water vapour, which only very slowly deposits on the water surface and the sides of the

change vapour no cloud

We

vessel.

But if the dust- free air contain ions, a sufficient supersaturation causes deposition to take place on the negative corpuscles, and a more extreme super- saturation causes deposition on the positive particles likewise. Let the super- saturation be controlled so that only the of condensed The mass negative corpuscles are affected. water vapour per cubic cm. can be calculated from the degree of super- saturation permitted, or can be directly found by weighing the cloud. Let a radius of each 3 water drop, volume or mass of the drop, and f Tra M/m number of corpuscles per c.cm. By a formula due to Stokes, if ft be the coefficient of viscosity of air, the drops will fall with a sensibly uniform The rate of fall w is not velocity w 981]. 2ga?/9/3 [g hard to measure, and thus a is found. Now the volume of each drop in c.cm., or its mass in 3 But the whole mass of the water formed grams, is f ira into drops can be determined, either by simply weighing the cloud or, if it be produced within a closed space, by calculating from the change of vapour pressure the amount of water which must have been precipitated.

m=

282. The Absolute Charge and Mass of a Corpuscle. Let the positive corpuscles be separated from Let water the negative ones by means of an electric field. have been deposited on the negative ones, as in the previous
paragraph

Apply

and their velocity of fall w be observed. to the descending cloud an electric field of magni;

CORPUSCULAR THEORY.
tude

289

Each drop (E.S. units), directed downwards. contains a negative corpuscle of charge e* Hence an upward force Xe acts on each drop, and the cloud is the weight of the drop suspended quite stationary if Xe The cloud can be made to rise or fall by increas%Tra?g. ing or diminishing X. we then By observing w we find a and by observing find e. If be the mass of a corpuscle, is found from 5*3 X 10 17 the equation e/m Assuming that the corpuscular charge e is also the charge of a monavalent atom in electrolysis, and knowing the charge carried by a gram of hydrogen, we get the mass of a hydrogen atom. J. J. Thomson gave the earliest reliable measurements. mean derived from the latest results (Kaye and Laby) is

4-7

x lO" 10 E.S.
ft

units.

Hence the mass

of the

10 4-7 x 10- /5-3

corpuscle is x 10 17 = 8-9 x 10~ 2S

gram

of

hydrogen

carries
e.

while a hydrogen atom carries hydrogen atoms in a gram is

the charge 2 '90 x 10 U Hence the number of

,

10 2-90 x 10 14 /4'7 x 1C-

6-16 x 10- 3 .

The mass

of a

hydrogen atom
1/6-16

is

x 10 23

1-62 x 10~ 24 .

Ex. 1. If the coefficient of viscosity of air be -00017, find the radius and mass of a water drop which descends at the rate of "04 cm. per second. 2 Here w = -04, |8 = '00017 but w = 2</a /9/3. Hence a- = 3 -O4 = -000177. The mass = *ira = x 9 x -00017/2 x 981 giving a 2-3 X 10-".
; ;

Ex. 2. If the cloud was rendered stationary by an electric field of 74 units (E.S.), find e, the negative charge per corpuscle.
Evidently
e

x 74 = 2-3 x 10" 11 x
e

g,

hence

2-3 x 10-'

x 981/74 = 3-05 x

10-'".

It

corpuscles

was found that a few drops contained two, and these behaved rather differently.
;

or even three,

M. PH.

I,

290

CORPUSCULAR THEORY.

of

Ex. 3. Estimate the number of molecules per cubic centimetre any gas at normal pressure and temperature from data of 282. The number is the same as for hydrogen. The mass of a cubic cm. of hydrogen is 9 x 10~ 5 gm. The number of atoms of hydrogen is got by dividing by the mass of an atom, and is
9 x l<r 6 /l-62 x 1CT 24

5-6

x 10 iy

The number

of molecules is half this,

2-8

x 10 19

Ex. 4. With data as in Ex. 1, 2, find the mass of a globe of water which descends at the rate of 1 cm. per min. in air and the electric field which will make it" ascend at this rate.
;

Ex.

5.

Find the number

of molecules of a gas in a mol.

,

Ex. 6. Assuming that the radius of a gaseous molecule is 10~ 8 compare the volume of the molecule itself to the volume per molecule in a gas at normal temperature and pressure.
Ex. 7. Find p, the "mean free path" of a gaseous molecule between encounters with other molecules assuming that ira~p = v where a is radius of molecule, and v is the volume per molecule. Find also p', the mean free path of a corpuscle between encounters with the molecules of a gas, assuming ira~p' = v. Take the gas at normal temperature and pressure.
;

already been alluded

/3

283. Bontgen Bays. X-rays. 7 Bays. These have to. They are given off whenever a corpuscle, moving with a sufficiently high velocity,

strikes matter.

They are not deflected by any electric or magnetic field, and are therefore not supposed to consist of travelling charged particles. The natural hypothesis is that they are disturbances in the ether, similar to light waves. But
while light travels in a long series of similar waves, the Rontgen rays appear to be either very short trains of waves or, more likely, isolated disturbances. They originate from every portion of a Crookes or Lenard stream, being caused by the corpuscle striking gaseous molecules but they originate most abundantly in Fig. 129) where the rays strike a from the point (as solid. They are not regularly reflected or refracted, owing to the shortness of the wave-series. As is well known,
;

CORPUSCULAR THEORY.

291

they affect photographic plates, and phosphorescent screens. They easily traverse a considerable thickness of matter, being much more penetrative than B corpuscles. Hence they can be used in surgery to examine the bones and viscera of a living person.

284. Canal Rays, or a Rays. These are harder to detect in vacuum, tubes than Crookes radiation, though they occur as universally. They consist of positive elecIf the kathode trons, which travel towards the kathode. be a short metal hollow cylinder, many of these will rush

down the cylindrical canal, and stream backwards behind the kathode. Their velocities and ratio m/e can be observed in the same way as for the /3 rays but with more diffiThe velocities are much smaller (about 108 cm. per culty. and m/e, in various cases, is either the same as for sec.) a hydrogen atom or twice or four times as great. In fact, people have spoken of three types of a electrons as hydrogen atoms, hydrogen molecules, and helium atoms.* But, likely as this may be, none can yet say that it is fully The a corpuscles of radium are probably helium justified. atoms with charge 2e so that m/e is twice that for hydrogen.
;

Ex. 1. If an a corpuscle be a charged hydrogen atom, what velocity is given to it by a P.D. of 2500 volts ? 274, Precisely as in Ex. 4, But
for

eV = 150 Mir 2 = 2'9 x 10 14 hydrogen e/m 150*?- = 2-9 X 2500 x 10" .-.
.

7 7 x 10 .

Ex.

5-3

U r = 10*, for a 2. Taking e'm = 2'9 x 10 x 10 17 v = 3 x 10 9 for rays, calculate which

,

rays,
is

and most affected

-,

by a magnetic
The radius

field.

of curvature of path
is

produced by a
r

field of // (electro-

magnetic) units

given by

mv-/r

Jfei'/i

".

Hence U-jHr = 'e/mv =

t

|8

rays.

Consequently

for a rays, and 1 -S x 10- for the curvature of path is 60 times as jjrent in

2'9

10

The atomic weight

of

Helium

is 4.

The molecule

of helium

is

single atom.

292

CORPUSCULAR THEORY.

the latter case. This explains why it is so much harder to make experiments on the magnetic deflection of canal rays than on that of kathode rays. [For the other rays in which e/m is half or quarter as large, the curvature is still smaller.]

Ex. 3. Are a or rays more affected by electric fields ? Here the curvature is proportional to e/mv z = 2 '9 x 10~ 2 for a, and 5 '5 x 10~ 2 for j8. The p rays are more affected but the difference
is

not very great.

285. Function of the a Corpuscles.

tube the
ft

In a Crookes

corpuscles are much more obvious than the a ones, and carry practically the whole discharge in virtue of their greater velocity. But the ft corpuscles appear to owe their existence to the violent impact of the much more massive a corpuscles against the kathode. If part of the kathode be screened, 110 Crookes radiation originates from the screened portion.

286. Radioactivity.
of the three kinds called

Ordinary radium sends out rays a, ft, y which have since been with Canal, identified
Crookes,
rays.

and

If a little

be put at a narrow fissure in a block of lead (see Fig.

130), the radiation is hindered in all directions

Eontgen radium the bottom of

but one, and the emerged stream can be analysed by a powerful magnetic
to ( perpendicular plane of figure, and toThis wards observer). stream deflects the posiFig. 130. tive current, or a rays, the negative cur284) very slightly to left (see Ex. 2, rent, or ft rays, considerably more to the right, and leaves the 7 rays undeflected.
field
;

CORPUSCULAR THEORY.

203

The names /?, y rays were properties of radium.*

,

first

used in describing the

287. Mass and Inertia. Mass is generally defined as Quantity of Matter. It is therefore axiomatic that two identical objects have double the mass of one of them, and
that the mass of an object is the same whether it be at rest or in motion with any It is not practicable velocity.
to compare masses of different objects by dividing them into identical parts which can be counted. Hence masses are compared either by weighing, or by testing their

The first process, utilising the fact that the earth attracts equal masses equally at the same place, cannot l>e applied to corpuscles. The second process depends on the
inertia.

fundamental principles of mechanics, which lead to the

equation,
Acceleration

Force/Mass.

If therefore equal forces be applied to different masses, the effects of these forces (measured by the accelerations produced) are inversely as the masses, and do not depend

on anything else. In particular, the effects do not depend on the velocity already possessed by the mass acted upon.
.

tions.

288. Apparent Failing Case of Dynamical EquaIf we have a body moving in a medium, e.ij. ;i bullet travelling in air, any motion of the body moves the
as well.

medium
will

Hence a

produce rather

less acceleration

force applied to a bullet in air than if it acted on tho

bullet in vacuo. If the bullet is travelling at an

more

air

with

it,

and

its effective

enormous speed, it mass is increased.

carries

There are, of course, many differences between the motion of a bullet in the air and of a corpuscle through the ether. Air is a compressible gas, ether appears to U* Its state of chemical composition or mechanical The phase immateiial. Radium bromide is generally used. "ordinary radium" signifies the usual aggregate of radium proper, It is distinguished the first emanation, and Radium A, tt, C, D. from true radium, from which the emanations have been removed
is

(see

295).

294

CORPUSCULAR THEORY.

quite incompressible, and the vibrations which it transmits are transverse, while sound waves in gases and liquids are But there is this resemblance, that the longitudinal. apparent mass of a corpuscle increases at high speeds. Theory shows that the apparent mass ought to become infinite when the velocity v that of light.

tions of the ether, about

289. Electric Inertia. Instead of considering mowhich we know nothing definite, consider the electrical phenomena to which they are

equivalent. e and mass M, moving with j3 corpuscle, of charge velocity v, is equivalent to a portion of an electric current ev. This has a certain self -inductance L, and therefore has kinetic energy -JL(ey) 2 whilst its- mechanical kinetic 2 Hence the total kinetic energy is energy is Mv

where m' Le z and can be called the apparent extra mass due to the charge, or simply the electric inertia. The total inertia is the sum of the mechanical and electric inertia. Call it m, then m -f m'.
,

=M

29O. Calculations of the Electrical Inertia. On the supposition that the corpuscle is a small sphere of radius a, its charge being in a superficial layer of uniform surface density, J. J. Thomson calculated the electrical
inertia, at

low speeds, to be

>

e2

"TOT*

Thomson, and others later, have given formulae suitable for high speeds. These formulae agree qualitatively, and their difference is m' becoming infinite when v due to different assumptions made and the different meaning attached to m'. Suppose a corpuscle to have mechanical mass or inertia is independent M, and electrical inertia m', so that m' we of the speed. The apparent inertia defined by the dynamical equation suppose

= U

m=

M+

Force

acceleration

x m.

CORPUSCULAR THEORY.
;

295

We have seen how to find v and mle ( 272, 274) and can be considered constant. The ft corpuscles emitted by radium can have very high speeds, approaching U or 3 X 10 10 The value of m/e for any speed v can be expressed as a multiple of the sensibly constant value of m/e for such low speeds as are found in a Crookes tul>e (about Z7/10).
e
.

291. Ratio of Mechanical to Electrical Mass. investigated the values of e/m for radium fl Of course e is an corpuscles of different high velocities. absolute constant, and the m observed is constant at low The observed m at higher speeds was speeds call it mQ expressed as a multiple of m thus m/m was tabulated as

Kaufmann

a function of

v.

For comparison, he calculated the electrical mass m' according to one of the formulae which expressed it as a function of v. It was found that and m' altered in the same ratio It is inferred that the (within small experimental errors). mechanical mass is either zero or at least very small. Assuming it zero, we should conclude that the mass of a

corpuscle

is

altogether electrical.
entirely to the If this be true
;

Hence the phenomenon of mass is due electrical phenomenon of self-induction.

(as is probable), it represents a great scientific advance for two apparently different properties are reduced to one.

is electric,

If the whole mass (3 Corpuscle. '27*2 the value given for m'e in then m'je 17 for slow speeds. 1/5-3 x 10 But assuming Thomson's formula ( 290)

292. Radius of the

Hence
fylaU-

1/5-3

x 10 17
l

Putting
and

r=
e

3 x 10

",

=
=

4-7 x 10-"',
l-sr,

we

get

x l(r

3
.

296

CORPUSCULAR THEORY.
of a hydrogen

The radius

atom

is

about 10~ 8

so

evidently the corpuscle is very much smaller. The density of the corpuscle, got by dividing the mass
(8-9

10- 28 see
,

282) by f

3-4

x 10 10

Of course this makes the unverified assumption that the mass belongs to the portion within the radius a. But, as Oliver Lodge has pointed out, this calculation gives an idea of the order of magnitude of the density of the He obtains a larger result by using luminiferous ether. a different value of a (The Ether of Space, App. 2). Since ether pervades everything (and in fact is everything), and
since it is incompressible, its density cannot be less than that of the densest thing known.

293. Provisional Idea of the Nature of an Atom.

Practically the whole inertia or mass of the atom is supposed to belong to its negative corpuscles. Of these, there are roughly 1800 in the case of a hydrogen atom ( 274) and more for other atoms in the ratio of their molecular weights. The positive electricity of an uncharged atom it is not concentrated is equal in quantity to the negative on corpuscles but diffused uniformly over a more or less Within spherical positive cloud, of practically no mass. this cloud, the attraction on a corpuscle is towards the centre and proportional to the radius; consequently the corpuscles have constant periods independent of ampliThe corpuscles are assumed not to travel separately tude. (like the different planets of the solar system) but to form a set of chains or series, the particles in each chain following one another in an orbit that can be regarded as circular. The distances between corpuscles are enormous compared to the corpuscles themselves in fact the cor" bees in a puscles within an atom have been likened to cathedral." The estimates given ( 292) of radii of atom and corpuscle are in ratio of the order 10 5 1 (one and a half miles to an inch a kilometre to a centimetre) These ideas must not be regarded as facts. If they should ever be confirmed they are sure to be also very
; ;

CORPUSCULAR THEORY.

297

much modified. It is exceedingly difficult to deduce from these theories any mathematical consequences which can be experimentally tested. Some of the experimental evidence that exists belongs to Optics [e.g. the Zeeinan Effect of a magnetic field on the spectrum of an element]. Of the corpuscles, the great majority are stable but a few (supposed not to exceed 8) are more loosely connected and may be temporarily lost. An atom liable to lose one (3 corpuscle can obviously act as a monovalent An atom liable to annex a corpuscle is positive element. monovalent negative. Chemical relationships are thus governed by the number of disposable corpuscles. Chlorine can annex a corpuscle and is the negative monovaleut element in HC1, and chlorides generally. But it can part with five or perhaps seven corpuscles and is the positive element, with valency 5 or perhaps 7 as a maximum, in the compounds of chlorine and oxygen.
;

294. Unstable Atoms. We have seen that even a hydrogen atom is a very complex structure. The atoms of elements of great atomic weight [Uranium, Radium, Thorium] so nearly approach instability that they occasionally break into simpler forms. An atom so altering may, or may not, detach a ft corSlow puscle, or an a corpuscle, travelling at a high speed. moving corpuscles, if produced, would probably not be
detected. If rapid /3 corpuscles are liberated, there must also be y imrays for these originate wherever swift ft corpuscles
;

pinge on matter. " have seen that " ordinary radium gives both a and ft corpuscles, and therefore y rays.

We

295. Transformations of Radium. An atom of radium can spontaneously give off an a corpuscle: it then
Lot alters into a substance called Radium Emanation. seconds be the average lifetime of a radium atom as

radium atoms, in every this means that, of such second N/T will turn into emanation, and AT/T a-corpusoles are emitted. The quantity of radium present is multiplied
;

298

CORPUSCULAR THEORY.
1

by

\JT

ill

each second

log (1 1/T) halved in a time

which a quantity from observation,

so

T= 1200/-693 =
than T.

The emanation
less

give off an a corpuscle.

fore

Its average lifetime Tl is much Its quantity halves itself in 3'8 days, there5'5 days. The emanation produced 3'8/'693

its logarithm decreases by 1/T; and the quantity of radium is '693T. The time in log2 -r (I/ T) of radium halves itself has deduced and is about 1200 years [Rutherford], 1700 years roughly. is a gas. Its atom can spontaneously
;

within the radium salt does not readily escape consequently ordinary radium consists of radium with emanation and later derivatives. For equilibrium, the emanation
;

is

destroyed as fast as

it is

produced

therefore

Quantity of emanation

Quantity of radium proper

~T7~
Quantity of emanation Quantity of radium

~~
3'8

_ T _ "
l

i~200Tx~365

110000*

The emanation is only occluded. It can be separated by dissolving and heating the radium salt. The emanation atom, losing an a-corpuscle, becomes
halves its quantity in 3 minutes. Radium A, losing an a-corpuscle, becomes Radium B with a time constant 21 minutes. The changes are tabulated [from Rutherford, Radioactivity^ as under
:

Radium A. This

Product.

Time

to be half transformed.

Rays.

Radium
Emanation

Radium

CORPUSCULAR THEORY.

299

In old radium, each constituent is produced as fast as destroyed and therefore every product is present in quanBut if the emanatity proportional to its time constant. tion, etc., be removed and we start with radium proper, it will be a few days before the emanation and A, B, C, D are in steady quantity, and one would have to wait many years before the quantity of E, and therefore F and G, stopped sensibly increasing. It is suspected that Radium

is lead.

296. Other Radioactive Substances. Uranium, Thorium, Actinium, Polonium show properties like Radium. The radioactive substance Polonium is possibly not a member of a distinct series, but the same as Radium F. The time constant and the nature of the rays are the same
for both.

inferred [Rutherford] that Radium is a transformation product of Uranium, and that the average lifetime of Uranium is about 220 times that of Radium, or 400,000 years. If Radium were not a product of some body with a much longer life, it would be hard to account for its presence on the earth in measurable quantities. mass of radium equal to that of the earth would reduce, in about 150,000 years, to a practically equal muss This time is of Radium Gr, and a single gram of radium. a mere trifle compared to the age of the earth, and a fortiori to that of the universe. But it is It is possible that all atoms are unstable. quite certain, in most cases, that their average life is very long compared even with that of Uranium.
:

As Radium (so far) is only in a nearly fixed ratio 1 220,

found in Uranium
it

ores,

and

is

Ex. 1. If the quantity of radium is halved in 1*200 years, in how long time would a ton of radium become a gram ? A ton almost = a tonne, or a thousand kilograms = 1U' gin. It" the time be t years, the quantity is halved f/ 1*200 times.
;

Hence
1

-""

(1/-2)'/
t

=
=

1/10

6
,

1200 log 10 /log

!:

_>

-241 MIO.

300

CORPUSCULAR THEORY.
x
10' 1

Ex. 2. If the earth's mass be 6 this take to reduce to a ton ?

Evidently
t

tons,

how

long would

1200 {log 6

21}/log 2

87,000.

Ex. 3. How long would it take for a ton of pure uranium to diminish to a gram ? How much radium would be present in the ton of remaining matter ?
If the atomic weight of radium is 226, and the a corpuscle 4. double the hydrogen atom, find the loss of weight per year of a gram of ordinary radium as a result of emission of a corpuscles. Note, of course, that the resultant of all the changes is that radium * proper becomes radium D, and four positive corpuscles.
is

Ex.

Ex. 5. If a gram of ordinary radium is enclosed in lead so thick as to prevent the escape of a corpuscles, but not of ft, show that the radium accumulates a positive charge. Find the rate at which charge is accumulated per year.
It is found that ordinary radium (practically free from 6. E, F, G) produces heat energy at the rate of 100 calories (nearly) per gram per hour. Assuming that each atom gives ultimately 4 a corpuscles, and that the average lifetime of a radium atom is 1700 years, find the average energy given to each corpuscle as a multiple of the corpuscular mass. If we suppose energy = Jmv2 show this 9 implies an average velocity of about 2 x 10 cm. per second.
Z>,
,

Ex.

* Later changes, up to G, are neglected because alters so slowly that they would not be apparent for several years.

ANSWERS.
3.

Ex. Ex.
Ex.

3.
1.

v'3

1,

or

373

1.

25/16,

1 56.

5.

145\

2.

24, 130.
OA.
2. '566 at centre:

9.

0142, '0436 at

mid

1. 4 v'3 perpendicular to points.

13.

Ex.
Ex.

3. 0,

0,

{2/5

2/5 V5}

"221.

34.
quantities.

7. Proportional to bc/(br 8. Charges are 9/10.

cr

fee)

and two similar

2 2 - 1/196 = 1O. 1/lOr = 10/343 35/24 + 3S/74 'OSSl'dyne. 0318; 1/6407T = '0005. 11. With figure of Ex! 3 the potentials at A and B are each V = the mutual energy 2, hence 1/4 = In F at B = - 5 24 E = v 2 = - -177

1. 1/16 dyne. 3. 3/32 dynes, nearly 25| to normal. 6. - l/5?r = - '06438, - 1/14-tOr '0415, -0291. 7. '0621 dyne. 9. Densities in 6 would -00044; -0608 dyne. "00023 "0322 dyne. be altered by In 7, the force 1/1407T or

47.

Ex.

5.

=-

'0407,

0;

is

\-

|2QF and Q = 1,

'104. The charge on the earthed 5/48 sphere is neglected, for the potential is zero. In 7, Tat B or (.' = - {5/24 + 5/74 - 1/14! and E - '204. In 8, E = 5/24 - 5/74 +114 = -212. In 9, E = '053, '184, '212. In 10, E = 3/32 - '094.
.'.

E =

1/4

ergs.

6,

56. Ex. 3. 139. 4. 46-2. 5. Of course the logarithm The result logarithm X 2'303. Napierian, and = common = 40/log I'l = 420. *7. 4 log {(fie ax)/bx}, where .r is given the quadratic in 45. This

is is

l>y

= 4
63. 89.

log

{c-

a2
-24.

2
fe

V(c*

Ex.

2.

3. 217.
5. 2-1.

Ex.4.

1-46.

301

302

ANSWERS.

94. Ex. 4. Molecular wt. = 111, hence molecular con= '143. This is enormous compared ductivity = '0643 X 111 -f- 50 to data in previous questions ; we infer it is in practical units and must be reduced to absolute units by multiplying by 10~ 9 Hence the = 1430 X 10~ 13 This = 2 X 10~ 3 X q(u n v }/F, specific conductivity 5. '218 (practical unit). Divide by atomic .: MO + ^O = "00074. weight of NaCl we get '0037.
.

105.

Ex.

6. 2'5 volts.
28-6.

7. 1'14 volts.

110. Ex. 9. 12. '445 amp.

124. 131.

1O. 171 ohms.

11.

amp.

Ex. 4.

6'29

ohms

95'9 microhms.

Ex.4.
Ex.

1-62 volts, 3f

ohms.
5. 10,000 ohms.

132. 138.
140. 143.

4. 11-7 ohms, 16-2 c.cm.

1-59 cm.

Ex.2.
Ex.

3. 7*999 gm.-wt.,
1-13, '29
;

7847 dynes.

2. Fields
1. 37*2

Potentials

= 0,

2-21.

Ex.
Ex.

cm. dynes, 87*6 cm. dynes.

145.

17-32.

150. Ex. 1O. X = 2M cos 6/CO*. 11. If = 2.F cos 8f(H + F sin 6). If If formula is tan can = 90. 14. 14'4. At nearly 42 40' to meridian.
</>

F=

> JP,

M/C&,

the never

15. 1840.

157.
53 amp. 12 turns.

15.

Ex. 12. -0080 amp. 13. '00012 amp. 14. 3 amp., '31 amp. 16. 10 turns. 17. 1'32. 18. '145,

167.

Ex.
; .

3. Potential
.

angle = 2?r/3 a = each side, r

c

current.

potential = 2?rc/3. 6. Let n = distance of point considered Then the potential

2irc (1

z/

Vz*

= number

r 2 ).

4. Solid
of sides,

from each corner,

173.

2c

TT

- ncos~

V rz '

ia?jr cos

Ex.

7. 18-1, (1) 10-1, (2) 5-0, (3) -0015, -00073.

175.
6. '074

Ex.

4.

-0111

amp.

5.

fourth

as

great, -00283.

amp.

ANSWERS.
178.

303

Ex. 493 cm. dynes.

Ex.
-159
:

185.
187.
initial

1.

Ex. 5. -154 per sec., "308 per period. 8| sec. from disturbance. 1T3. 6. Period multiplied by 1013.

188.

Ex.

6. "86 M.F.

190. Ex. 7. Divided by 57. 9. Nearly 1,500,000. 197.

198. 10. '0314

8. Kicks

would

be euual

Ex.
Ex.

5. '227 volt.
6. 1-12

x 10- 3 3-95 x
,

KT

7
.

9. -12 volt

volt, '020 volt, "0222 volt.

201.
204.
6-34

Ex. Ex.
.

7. 3-17

x 10- 4

x 10- 4
211. 227. 230.

3. 1-6 x 10coulombs. 5. Multiplied by 195.

;<

4.

3'17 x

l(r\

Ex.

5. -00025 Joule, -00006 calorie.

Ex. Ex.

9.

2Trcr-fjL/(i.

iron wire 8. 1-05 X 10~ 5 Henries.

6. 2irn^n.z Nr'n;b, if r be radius of the section of 7. 2/xMw w 2 /a, 2/j.bln^/n, 2/j.bln.,~/a. (absolute units).
1

247. Ex. 3. If unit current be an ampere, the heats produced per second in ergs are 37900, - 43600, 3100, 157<X>. 5. -00301. 6. <>47 at - 95 64 9 f -<X)2f. 4. 5-0 x 10~ 3
. ;

7. 1-377

-0003887.

272.
6. x

ir y

Ex. a v

4. 306 E.M. units

'

9'2

x 10'- E.S.
parabolic.

units.

5. 27>>.

./

y-,

and locus

is

282.
5.

Ex.3. Mass -

As

to 870.

6'11 x 10- |a field - 9'S. 4. 12'6 x 10 H 6. 3-15 x K)-'

, ;

ij-iii

x 1(-'.

296. Ex. 3. 530,000 yr. 1/220 jrm. = 2'9 x 10". This 5. 5E/22G x 1700 where 10 units per year. calories per sec.. 6. 6'4 x 10
;

4.

= =

1/3SOIX).
1

3-9 x !<)-' K.S. " 2'7 x lo crftrs

1(V.

per

sec.,

per

1 gin.

The mean

velocity

is

about 2'3 x

INDEX.
a Corpuscles, 285 a Rays, 291

Abnormal metals, 266 Absolute charge and mass

corpuscle, 288 electrometer, 52

of a

Atom, structure of, 296 Average square, 178 Ayrton and Perry, 61 Ayrton-Mather galvanometer,
Azimuth, 150

temperatures, 269
unit,
5,

89,

270

(see
)3

Units) unit of current, 152 ,, resistance, 94

Corpuscles, 279, 282, 295

B.A. unit ohm, 227

Actinium, 299 Aepinus condenser, 50 Alloys, 266 Alternate E.M.F., 224, 252 Alternating current dynamos, 255 Aluminium, 284 Ammeters, 99, 172

Back electromotive force, 88 Ballistic constant by condenser

discharge, 187

Ampere, 77
hours, 78 turns, 165 Ampere's law, 151
,,
,,

galvanometer, 182 Battery resistance, 117 Bifilar suspension, 129 Bismuth, 231 B. O. T., 89 Board of Trade unit, 89 Bosscha net, 113
,,

Boundary conditions
trics,
, ,

of dielec-

43

theorem, 160 Amplitude, correction for decrement, 183 Anchor ring wound uniformly,
,,

169

Angle of lead, 255 Anode, anions, 74 Apparent contact potential

ference, 60
,, ,,

an equipotential surface, 21 Bridge wire, 105 British Association method for standardising the ohm, 227 "Broadside on," 134
of conductor

Brush discharge, 65
dif-

Bunsen, 92

extra mass, 294 permeability and susceptibility, 234

Cadmium

cell,

92

Arc, 65

Calibration of electrometer, 111 of galvanometer, 111 ,,

Armatures, 44 Arrhenius, 93
304

Callendar, 120
,,

and

Griffiths, 118

INDKX.
Calorie, 270

305
wires, 267

Canal rays, 291 Candle power, 95

Capacity, 44, 46
,,

Compound

Condenser keys, 186

condenser
Condensers, 44, 185 ,, comparison, 190 in parallel, 44, 49 ,, in series, 49 ,, Condensing electroscope, 55 Conduction in solutions, 74 of electricity, 286 ,, Conductivity, 100 of a solution, 79 ,, Conductors, 21. in parallel, 99 ,, Constants of galvanometers, 152 Contact electrification, 59 Convection discharge, 67 Conversion of energy, 87 Copper electrolytic cell, 87 Corpuscles, 279, 283 Corpuscular charge, 282, 289 Corrected amplitude, 183 Corrections of magnetometers, 144 Coulomb, 77, 89
,

found
of of of of

by

discharge, 187

accumulator, 78 simple bodies, ,, telegraph wire, 48 the earth, 195 Carey Foster, 106 Cavendish experiment, 24
,,

,,

,,

proof of Coulomb's

Law, 24

Change
,,

of flux, 198 resistance units,

with tem-

perature, 118
,,

270

Charge and mass

of p corpuscles, 280, 282, 288

ion,

of monovalent ,, Charged complex, 285

282

Charges,
,,

on electrophorus, 63 Chlorine valency, 297 Choking coil, 225 Chrystal, 65

Circuit of finite size, 160

Coulomb's Law,
,,
,,

2-6, 18

,,
,,

magnetism, 121 proof by magstrict

Clark
,,

cell,
,,

92
standardised, 227

,,

Clark Maxwell, 24
Coefficient of
,,
,,

,,

mutual induction, 207 self-induction, 210

netometer, 136 proof for electricity, 24 torsion balance: electric, 3 magnetic, 132
,,
, ;

Crookes, 292
,, space, 277 Cross section of tubes of force, 18 Current balances, 173 ,,
,

Coercive power, 238, 251 Coil constant, 152 Commercial units, 77 Common cells, E.M.F., 92 Commutators, rotating, 193 Comparison of condensers, 190,
,,
,,

gradual 211

rise at

make,

194 E.iM. and

E.S.

units, 72, 274

,,

,,

inductances. 2 14-

217

Cyclic constants, 163 ,, magnetisation, 250 Cylinder transversely magnetised, 234 Cylinder uniformly electrified, 30 Cylindrical condenser. 4S

Compass, 149 Composition of

,, ,,

fields, 7 potentials, 10

Daniell, 92
cell, 91,

Compound magnet,
M. PH.
I.

120

96

306
Deflection magnetometers, 143

INDEX.
142,

Electric field, 6
,,
, ,

flatiron,

97

Delezenne

circle,

203

Demagnetising force, 244, 251 Density of the corpuscle, 296

,,
,,

luminiferous

ether, 296 Depletion of solution, 84 Deposition of water on corpuscles, 288 Determination of magnetic moment, 127 Deviation, 149 Diamagnetism, 231 molecular expla,, nation, 236 Dielectric power or constant. 41
,

heating by Daniell cells, 96 inertia, 294 ,, ,, wind, 65 Electrical machines, 68, 70 Electrification by friction, 62 Electrodynamometer, 175 Electrolytes, 286 Electrolytic cell, 74 reactions, 75 ,, Electromagnetic energy, 248
,,

fundamental

units, 72 Electrometer, to calibrate, 111

Difference between ances, 106

two

resist-

Dimensions

of units, 271

Dip needle, 148 Direct current dynamos, 255

Discharge
,,

in

rarefied

gases,
resist-

277 through large

ance, 187 Displacement, 15, 42 Disposable corpuscles, 297 Dissociation factor, 82 Distribution, induced, 22 Disturbance of balance of Wheatstone net, 108 Doublets, 34, 141 Drifting electrons, 285 Dynamical units, 270 Dynamometer, 173 Dynamos, 204, 254 Dyne, 5

Electrometers, 52 Electromotive force, 88, 89 ,, impulse, 201 Electronic charge, 283 Electrophorus, 62 Electroscopes, 55 Electrostatic and electromagnetic units, 274 unit charge, 6 E.M. units, 72 Emanation, 298 E.M.F., 88 found by condenser dis,, charge, 187 of a Daniell cell, 91 of a silver chloride cell, ,,
, ,

,,

of

,,

92 thermal circuit, 259, 263 to decompose water,

etc., 91

E.M.I., 201

"End
,,

on," 135
of

Energy, 87
a

Earth inductor, 203 Earthed conductors,

condenser, 46 ,

44,

30, 31,

35

,, ,,

current, 211

Earth's capacity, 78 local field, 124

Electric displacement, 15, 42 distribution on a con,,

ferromagnetic sys-

ductor

is

entirely

superficial, 21

tem, 249 magnetic field, 248 two circuits, 222 ,, per unit volume, electrostatic, 46
,,

INDEX.
Energy per unit volume, mag248 Equation of the lines of force of a short magnet, 137 Equipotential lines of simple magnet, 139
netic,
j

307

Free oscillations, 180

Friction, 61 Frictional machines, 70, 182 Function of the a corpuscles, 292

Fundamental
i

units,

270

surfaces and lines, 10, 124 Equi potentials for parallel cylinders, 39 Equivalents, 76
,,

7 rays, 290 Galvanometer, ballistic constant,

182

Erg,

5,

88

Ether of space, density, 296 Eudiometer, 67 Extensions of Ohm's Law, 98,

100

Galvanometer coil, section of, 170 Galvanometer constant, 152 Galvanometer, direct reading.
172

Galvanometer, moving coil, 170 Galvanometer of variable sensitiveness, 153

F=

47nr, 23 Farad, 77, 185 Faraday condenser, 48 ,, lines, 42 ,, space, 277

Galvanometer resistance, 117 153 Galvanometer, tangent,

Helmholtz, 154 Gases, conduction in, 286 Gauss, 134, 135, 241
Gauss's theorems, 15 Geometrical construction

tubes, 14 Faraday's law, 198 Ferromagnetic substances, 244 Field, 6, 7, 272 = the number of Maxwell ,, lines per unit area, 18
,,

for

equipotentials of magnet, 139 Geometrical construction for lines of force of magnet, 140 Gilbert, 241

Gold

leaf electroscope,

55

,,
,,

and induction, 229 and induction, definition

of,

Gram

230
137,

,,

due to short magnet,

141

molecule, 76 of representation Graphical magnetic energy, 250 of Graphical representation Peltier and Thomson effects,

,,
,.,

due to simple magnet, 134

energy, electrostatic, 46 in a solenoid, 166, 168 ,, ,, just outside conductor, 23 ,, magnetic, 123, 228 of a point charge, 7 ,, of an infinite plane disc, 26 ,, zero within conductor, 21 ,, Filtering out electrons, 28") Flux, 198 of force, 13, 14 ,, of induction, 272 ,, Fluxional notation, 177 Force, 7 Forces on conducting surface, 51

262 Graphs, thermoelectric height, 258, 259 Gravitation constant (</), 5 Greatest current possible, 287 Grove cell, 92

Cl,

75
t ,

H,SO

75, 76

Heat produced per second portional to the sqimn

90, 91

pro-

<>t"

the

current, 93 Heats of formation nnd reaction,

308

INDEX.
Joule,
,, ,,

Height, thermoelectric, 257 Helical coil, 165 Helium atoms, 291 Helmholtz galvanometer, 154 Heterostatic use of electrometer, 53 Hydrogen atom, 283, 289, 296 Hysteresis, 238, 251

5, 77, 88, 175 current balance, 175 effect, 256

k,

42 Kathode, 74
,,

rays, 278

Rations, 74

Kaufmann, 294
Ideal simple magnet, 125 Idiostatic use of electrometer,

53 Images, 28, SQseq. Impedance, 225

Impulsive E.M.F., 201 Incandescent light, 95

Inch, 5

Kelvin current balance, 175 Kelvin, Lord, 89, 103, 175 Kew magnetometer, 145 Kilowatt, 89 ,, hour, 89 Kinetic energy of kathode stream, 281
Kirchoff, 100, 101

Induced charge on hollow conductors, 23 Induced currents, 244 Induced distribution, 22, 30,
seq.

Induced E.M.F., 198, 208 Induced magnetisation, 230 Inductance, 208, 210 Inductance and capacity, comparison, 220
Inductances, comparison, 217 Induction, 42, 272 Induction, magnetic, 228 Inductive machines, 68 Inductor, earth, 203
,,

214-

Lag, 225 Lane, 66 Lead, angle, 255 Lead, Pb., 259, 284 Leakage, 57 of condensers, 189 ,, ,, through gases, 286 Leclanche, 92 Leibig, 65 Lenard rays, 285 Lenz's law, 198 Leyden jar, 44 Lightning, 66

magnetic, 202

Inertia, 293-295

Insulated sphere, 33, 34 Insulating media, 41 Insulation of electroscope, 195

Intensity, 7 Intrinsic pressure, 59 Ionic velocities, 80, 84, 85
lonisation, 73 Ions, 74

Limit of potential difference, 70 Lines of force, electrostatic, 12, 17, 22, 42 ,, ,, magnetic, 140 Lodge, 85, 296 Logarithmic decrement, 178, 180 Logarithmic decrement due to induced currents, 205 Loss of conductivity of gases,286 Lumsden net, 113
,

Iron ring, 242

Irrationality
of

magnetisation,

Magnet in uniform field, 125, 126 Magnetic "bearing," 150

,,

238
Irreversible processes, 87, 93

circuit, 241
field,

123-125

INDEX.
Magnetic
,, ,,

309
;

field,

action on

/3 corpuscles, 280

,, ,,

energy
160

of,

248
151,

Napierian logarithms t<> deduce from common logarithms, 17U] Nature of an atom, 296

of currents,

Network

of conductors, 100

Neutral point, 138, 256

,,

,,
,,

inductor, 202 matter, 121

Newton's fluxional notation, 177

Nickel, 266 Nitrogen, 231

moment and axis, compound magnet,

127
126,

North magnetism,

Number
of a solenoid,
,,

.,

moment
169

121 of corpuscles in a given space, 288

,,

228 Magnetisation induced on bar,

shells, 161,

molecules per given space of a gas, 283, 289 269 Numeric,

Magnetometers, 142 Magnetomotive force, 165,241 Mance, 103

Mass, 293
, ,

Oersted, 241

Ohm,
current

94,

227

of j8 corpuscle, absolute, 288

Ohm's law, 94
Oscillation magnetometers, 142 Oscillation of magnet in a magnetic field, 128

Masson, 85

Maximum

with

given
14,

number of cells, 113 Maxwell lines and tubes,

42
in

Ozone, 67

Maxwell's method, currents network, 101

Mean square, 178 Mesh currents, 101

Metal filament lamps, 94
Metals, conduction in, 286 Method of mixture, 194 Mho, 100 Microammeter, 173 Microfarads, 77, 186 Microvoltmeter, 173 Milliammeter, 173 Mi Hi voltmeter, 173 M.M.F., 165, 241

Parallel cylinders, 37 ,, plates, 45 Paramagnetism, 231, 242

,,

molecular explanation, 237

P.D.,

8,

44

Peltier effect, 256, 262, 263

Penetration of matter by fi corpuscles, 284 Period of galvanometer altered

by

viscosity, 183

Period of simple harmonic motion, 178

Mol, 76, 90 Molecular conductivity, 81

,,

currents, 230, 237. 23S

Moment, 34 Moments of inertia, 128, 129 Moving coil galvanometers, 170 Mutual energy, 40, 197
,,

inductance former, netic, 245

of

trans-

ferromag-

,,

induction, 207, 208

Permeability, 231, 242 Phosphorescence, 278, 279 Pith ball electroscope, ~>5 thermoresistance Platinum meter, 118 Poggendorff net, HH> Point charge, potential. )> Point charges, 1 Point pole, 12( Points, 65,67, 149

310

INDEX.
Recording magnetometers, 131,
148

Polonium, 299 Polygon of magnetic moments,

126
Post-office box, 105

Rectangular array, 112

cannot be a maximum,
or a

Potential, 8
, ,

minimum, at any point in empty

space, 19

Rectilinear current, field, 155, 157, 162 Refraction of lines, 43 Regions of constant potential, 20

Reluctance, 240 Reluctances in

parallel,

series

or

in

, ,

T,

constant throughout every conductor, 21 difference = current x resistance, 98

difference of zinc and copper, 61 drop at kathode, 281 due to a point charge,

240 Resistance, measurement, 99, 103, 206 of a conductor, 94 ,,

of platinum, 118 ,, Resistances in series, 94 Resisted harmonic motion, 179 Resolute of field, 7 Resultant electromotive force, 88 Reversibility, 87 Reversible production or disappearance of heat in a wire,

,,

9 gradient, 19
of of of of

magnetic, 123 a circular coil, 163 a uniform shell, 161

doublet, 141

uniformly charged sphere, 25 Potentiometer, 109, 111

262 Robison's magnets, 125

Rontgen, 292
rays, 284, 290, 292 Rotating magnetic field, 207 Ruhmkorff coil, 253 Rutherford, 298

Pound, 5 Power, 89
Practical units, 77

Pressure

perpendicular to the
Saturation, 238

lines of force, 52 Primary circuit, 207

Prismatic compass, 150 Production of current, 211 Proof ball, 56

Second law of thermodynamics,

92, 256 Secondary
circuit,

Self -inductances,

207 comparison,

217

Quadrant electrometer, 52
Radioactive substances, 299 Radioactivity, 292 Radium, 292, 297 A, B, G, 298 Radius of a hydrogen atom, 296 of the ft corpuscle, 295 ,, Rate of change, 177 Ratio of mechanical to electrical mass, 295

Self-induction,
,,

direct measureof

,,

ment, 218 a solenoid,

221

Shadow

of cross, 278

Short magnet, 137

Silver chloride cell, 92 ,, deposition, 227

Simple harmonic motion, 178 ,, magnet, 125 Sine magnetometers, 143

Solenoids, 165

INDEX.
Source of the field energy, 223 South magnetism, 121 Sparks, 64-66 Specific conductivity and resistance, 79
,,

311

Torsion balance, 3
,,

balance

,,

experiments, magnetic, 133, 134 wire, 129

inductive capacity, 41,

46
,,

reluctance, 240

Sphere,

uniformly magnetised,

Total flux, 240 Transformations of radium, 297 Transformer, 245, 252, 253 Transient currents, 181

231, 233

Splashing, 62

Standard
,,

cells, E.M.F., 92 inductances, 209, 210

Ultra violet light, 285

shell, 161 Stress in electric field, 51

Stokes, 288 Strength of magnetic

Uniform shell, 161 Uniformly charged sphere,

25
,,

23,

Supermagnetising
Surface films, 58

force,

244

magnetised
231
72, 192,

sphere,

,, integral, 15 Susceptibility, 231 Suspension of horizontal magnet,

Unit capacity,

273

charge, 6 current, 152, 273

field, 7,

130

Systems of

units, 269

flux, 241,
jar,

272 272

66

M.M.F., 241
Tangent galvanometer, 153
,,

magnetic induction, 241

pole, 122
81,

magnetometers, 143
coefficients,

Temperature
118

power, 89
reluctance, 241 Unitary lines, 13

Tension along the lines of force,

51

Units, 269
,,

Theory Thermal

of units, 269

of

capacity,

E. S.

and

circuit, E.M.F., 259 ,, efficiency, 257 Thermodynamics, second law, 256 Thermoelectric diagrams, 258 formulae, 263 ,, ,, height, 257

E.M., 192 Unstable atoms, 297 Uranium, 297

Valency, 74, 297 Vector addition, 126

Velocities of ions,
8(1

Thermometry by thermoelectric
currents, 268 Thickness of surface films, 58

Thomson

261-263 89 Sir William (Lord Kel,, vin), 89, 262 Thorium, 299 Time constant of radioactive substances, 298
effect,

rule,

Velocity of corpuscles, 2SO. 291 ,, light, 275 Very small resistance. 115, 117 Viscosity, SO * of air, 2SS ,,
Volt, 54, 55, 77. S Voltu, 61. SS
cell,

90

Voltmeters,

W,

172

312
Water dropper,
89 Wattage,. 174
71

INDEX.
Wind, 65

Watt,

5,

Work expended

in magnetising a system, ferromagnetic, 249

Wattmeters, 174, 176 Weber, 165, 241

Weber electro-dynamometer,
Wheatstone bridge,
,,

174

X-rays, 290

102, 105

net, 102, 104

Whetham, 86
Wimshurst machine,
68, 87
.

Zeeman

effect, 297 Zinc chloride, 92

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