Georg Ohm

Georg Simon Ohm (16 March 1789 6 July 1854) was a Bavarian (German) physicist and mathematician. As a high school teacher, Ohm began his research with the new electrochemical cell, invented by Italian scientist Alessandro Volta. Using equipment of his own creation, Ohm found that there is a direct proportionality between the potential difference (voltage) applied across a conductor and the resultant electric current. This relationship is known as Ohm's law. In electrical circuit elements the resistance in ohms, potential difference in volts, and current in amps are related by Ohm's law. Georg Simon Ohm (1789 - 1854) first investigated the relationship between the current in an electric circuit element and the electrical potential difference, often called voltage, across the circuit element. Some sources list his birth year as 1787. Ohm was born in Erlanger, Bavaria, now part of Germany. Though not formally educated himself, Ohm's father, a locksmith, encouraged his son to get the best possible education. While working as a teacher Georg Ohm investigated electric currents and discovered the law now bearing his name. He published his work in an 1827 book, Die galvanische Kette, mathematisch bearbeitet (The Galvanic Circuit Investigated Mathematically), which was poorly regarded at the time. Modern physicists regard Ohm's work as important to our understanding of electric circuits.

Ohm's law
Ohm's law states that the current through a conductor between two points is directly proportional to the potential difference across the two points. Introducing the constant of proportionality, the resistance, one arrives at the usual mathematical equation that describes this relationship: where I is the current through the conductor in units of amperes, V is the potential difference measured across the conductor in units of volts, and R is the resistance of the conductor in units of ohms. More specifically, Ohm's law states that the R in this relation is constant, independent of the current. The law was named after the German physicist Georg Ohm, who, in a treatise published in 1827, described measurements of applied voltage and current through simple electrical circuits containing various lengths of wire. He presented a slightly more complex equation than the one above (see History section below) to explain his experimental results. The above equation is the modern form of Ohm's law. In physics, the term Ohm's law is also used to refer to various generalizations of the law originally formulated by Ohm. The simplest example of this is: where J is the current density at a given location in a resistive material, E is the electric field at that location, and is a material dependent parameter called the conductivity. This reformulation of Ohm's law is due to Gustav Kirchhoff.

The discovery of Ohm's law

Ohm's law first appeared in the famous book Die galvanische Kette, mathematisch bearbeitet (tr., The Galvanic Circuit Investigated Mathematically) (1827) in which he gave his complete theory of electricity. In this work, he stated his law for electromotive force acting between the extremities of any part of a circuit is the product of the strength of

the current, and the resistance of that part of the circuit. The book begins with the mathematical background necessary for an understanding of the rest of the work. While his work greatly influenced the theory and applications of current electricity, it was coldly received at that time. It is interesting that Ohm presents his theory as one of contiguous action, a theory which opposed the concept of action at a distance. Ohm believed that the communication of electricity occurred between "contiguous particles" which is the term Ohm himself used. The paper is concerned with this idea, and in particular with illustrating the differences in this scientific approach of Ohm's and the approaches of Joseph Fourier and Claude-Louis Navier. A detailed study of the conceptual framework used by Ohm in producing Ohm's law has been presented by Archibald.The work of Ohm marked the early beginning of the subject of circuit theory, although this did not become an important field until the end of the century.

Ohm's Law
For a circuit or circuit element, Ohm's law mathematically relates the current, the voltage, and the electrical resistance. The voltage is more properly called the electrical potential difference, but voltage is often used because it is less of a mouthful. Ohm found that in a circuit the voltage and current are directly proportional to each other. That means if the current, I, in a circuit is plotted along the horizontal, or x, axis and the voltage, V, is plotted along the vertical, or y, axis, then the result will be a straight line. The slope of this line is the resistance, R, of the circuit. The mathematical equation for Ohm's law is:

V=IR

the voltage or electrical potential difference, V, is measured in volts. The electrical current, I, is measured in amperes, commonly called amps. The resistance, R, is measured in ohms, which are volts per amp.

Ohm's Law is Not a Fundamental Law Many laws of physics, such as Conservation of Energy, are fundamental laws that always apply without exception. Ohm's law is not one of these laws. It is an empirical law, found by experiment that works pretty well most of the time. There are times however where Ohm's law does not work. One example is an incandescent light bulb. The tungsten filament in the bulb does not follow Ohm's law. As the voltage in the wire filament increases it heats up. The resistance of a wire changes as its temperature changes. Hence the graph of the current and voltage in the wire will curve. The light bulb filament violates Ohm's law. Often if extreme currents are applied to wires, they heat up, change their resistances, and violate Ohm's law. Ohm's Law and Short Circuits When a short circuit occurs in an electrical appliance, most of the circuit for the appliance is bypassed. Hence the resistance becomes very low. The appliance may have a high electrical resistance, but the wire leading to the appliance does not. By Ohm's law, the very low resistance in a short circuit causes a very high current. This high current blows the circuit breaker or fuse. If circuits did not have fuses or circuit breakers, high currents in the circuits could heat the wires to the point of starting a fire. Fuses and circuit breakers are therefore protective devices.

Ohms law is a useful relationship between the voltage, current, and resistance in an electrical circuit. Ohm's Law is given by:

V=IR

where V is the potential difference between two points which include a resistance R. I is the current flowing through the resistance. For biological work, it is often preferable to use the conductance, g = 1/R; In this form Ohm's Law is: I=gV 2. Material that obeys Ohm's Law is called "ohmic" or "linear" because the potential difference across it varies linearly with the current. 3. Ohm's Law can be used to solve simple circuits. A complete circuit is one which is a closed loop. It contains at least one source of voltage (thus providing an increase of potential energy), and at least one potential drop i.e., a place where potential energy decreases. The sum of the voltages around a complete circuit is zero. 4. An increase of potential energy in a circuit causes a charge to move from a lower to a higher potential (ie. voltage). Note the difference between potential energy and potential. Because of the electrostatic force, which tries to move a positive charge from a higher to a lower potential, there must be another 'force' to move charge from a lower potential to a higher inside the battery. This so-called force is called the electromotive force, or emf. The SI unit for the emf is a volt (and thus this is not really a force, despite its name). We will use a script E, the symbol , to represent the emf.

A decrease of potential energy can occur by various means. For example, heat lost in a circuit due to some electrical resistance could be one source of energy drop. Because energy is conserved, the potential difference across an emf must be equal to the potential difference across the rest of the circuit. How voltage, current, and resistance relate An electric circuit is formed when a conductive path is created to allow free electrons to continuously move. This continuous movement of free electrons through the conductors of a circuit is called a current, and it is often referred to in terms of "flow," just like the flow of a liquid through a hollow pipe. The force motivating electrons to "flow" in a circuit is called voltage. Voltage is a specific measure of potential energy that is always relative between two points. When we speak of a certain amount of voltage being present in a circuit, we are referring to the measurement of how much potential energy exists to move electrons from one particular point in that circuit to another particular point. Without reference to two particular points, the term "voltage" has no meaning. Free electrons tend to move through conductors with some degree of friction, or opposition to motion. This opposition to motion is more properly called resistance. The amount of current in a circuit depends on the amount of voltage available to motivate the electrons, and also the amount of resistance in the circuit to oppose electron flow. Just like voltage, resistance is a quantity relative between two points. For this reason, the quantities of voltage and resistance are often stated as being "between" or "across" two points in a circuit. To be able to make meaningful statements about these quantities in circuits, we need to be able to describe their quantities in the same way that we might quantify mass, temperature, volume, length, or any other kind of physical quantity. For mass we might use the units of "kilogram" or "gram." For temperature we might use degrees Fahrenheit or degrees Celsius. Here are the standard units of measurement for electrical current, voltage, and resistance:

The "symbol" given for each quantity is the standard alphabetical letter used to represent that quantity in an algebraic equation. Standardized letters like these are common in the disciplines of physics and engineering, and are internationally recognized. The "unit abbreviation" for each quantity represents the alphabetical symbol used as a shorthand notation for its particular unit of measurement. And, yes, that strange-looking "horseshoe" symbol is the capital Greek letter , just a character in a foreign alphabet (apologies to any Greek readers here). Each unit of measurement is named after a famous experimenter in electricity: The amp after the Frenchman Andre M. Ampere, the volt after the Italian Alessandro Volta, and the ohm after the German Georg Simon Ohm. The mathematical symbol for each quantity is meaningful as well. The "R" for resistance and the "V" for voltage are both self-explanatory, whereas "I" for current seems a bit weird. The "I" is thought to have been meant to represent "Intensity" (of electron flow), and the other symbol for voltage, "E," stands for "Electromotive force." From what research I've been able to do, there seems to be some dispute over the meaning of "I." The symbols "E" and "V" are interchangeable for the most part, although some texts reserve "E" to represent voltage across a source (such as a battery or generator) and "V" to represent voltage across anything else. All of these symbols are expressed using capital letters, except in cases where a quantity (especially voltage or current) is described in terms of a brief period of time (called an "instantaneous" value). For example, the voltage of a battery, which is stable over a long period of time, will be symbolized with a capital letter "E," while the voltage peak of a lightning strike at the very instant it hits a power line would most likely be symbolized with a lower-case letter "e" (or lower-case "v") to designate that value as being at a single moment in time. This same lower-case convention holds true for current as well, the lower-case letter "i" representing current at some instant in time. Most direct-current (DC) measurements, however, being stable over time, will be symbolized with capital letters. One foundational unit of electrical measurement, often taught in the beginnings of electronics courses but used infrequently afterwards, is the unit of thecoulomb, which is a measure of electric charge proportional to the number of electrons in an imbalanced state. One coulomb of charge is equal to 6,250,000,000,000,000,000 electrons. The symbol for electric charge quantity is the capital letter "Q," with the unit of coulombs abbreviated by the capital letter "C." It so happens that the unit for electron flow, the amp, is equal to 1 coulomb of electrons passing by a given point in a circuit in 1 second of time. Cast in these terms, current is the rate of electric charge motion through a conductor. As stated before, voltage is the measure of potential energy per unit charge available to motivate electrons from one point to another. Before we can precisely define what a "volt" is, we must understand how to measure this quantity we call "potential energy." The general metric unit for energy of any kind is the joule, equal to the amount of work performed by a force of 1 newton exerted through a motion of 1 meter (in the same direction). In British units, this is slightly less than 3/4 pound of force exerted over a distance of 1 foot. Put in common terms, it takes about 1 joule of energy to lift a 3/4 pound weight 1 foot off the ground, or to drag something a distance of 1 foot using a parallel pulling force of 3/4 pound. Defined in these scientific terms, 1 volt is equal to 1 joule of electric potential energy per (divided by) 1 coulomb of charge. Thus, a 9 volt battery releases 9 joules of energy for every coulomb of electrons moved through a circuit.

These units and symbols for electrical quantities will become very important to know as we begin to explore the relationships between them in circuits. The first, and perhaps most important, relationship between current, voltage, and resistance is called Ohm's Law, discovered by Georg Simon Ohm and published in his 1827 paper, The Galvanic Circuit Investigated Mathematically. Ohm's principal discovery was that the amount of electric current through a metal conductor in a circuit is directly proportional to the voltage impressed across it, for any given temperature. Ohm expressed his discovery in the form of a simple equation, describing how voltage, current, and resistance interrelate:

In this algebraic expression, voltage (E) is equal to current (I) multiplied by resistance (R). Using algebra techniques, we can manipulate this equation into two variations, solving for I and for R, respectively:

Let's see how these equations might work to help us analyze simple circuits:

In the above circuit, there is only one source of voltage (the battery, on the left) and only one source of resistance to current (the lamp, on the right). This makes it very easy to apply Ohm's Law. If we know the values of any two of the three quantities (voltage, current, and resistance) in this circuit, we can use Ohm's Law to determine the third. In this first example, we will calculate the amount of current (I) in a circuit, given values of voltage (E) and resistance (R):

What is the amount of current (I) in this circuit?

In this second example, we will calculate the amount of resistance (R) in a circuit, given values of voltage (E) and current (I):

What is the amount of resistance (R) offered by the lamp?

In the last example, we will calculate the amount of voltage supplied by a battery, given values of current (I) and resistance (R):

What is the amount of voltage provided by the battery?

Ohm's Law is a very simple and useful tool for analyzing electric circuits. It is used so often in the study of electricity and electronics that it needs to be committed to memory by the serious student. For those who are not yet comfortable with algebra, there's a trick to remembering how to solve for any one quantity, given the other two. First, arrange the letters E, I, and R in a triangle like this:

If you know E and I, and wish to determine R, just eliminate R from the picture and see what's left:

If you know E and R, and wish to determine I, eliminate I and see what's left:

Lastly, if you know I and R, and wish to determine E, eliminate E and see what's left:

Eventually, you'll have to be familiar with algebra to seriously study electricity and electronics, but this tip can make your first calculations a little easier to remember. If you are comfortable with algebra, all you need to do is commit E=IR to memory and derive the other two formulae from that when you need them!

REVIEW: Voltage measured in volts, symbolized by the letters "E" or "V". Current measured in amps, symbolized by the letter "I". Resistance measured in ohms, symbolized by the letter "R". Ohm's Law: E = IR ; I = E/R ; R = E/I

Pictures of Ohms Law

Electricity Electricity is a term used to describe a physical process involving subatomic particles in materials. A battery does not hold electricity, but it is a store of energy that is used to make electrical processes work. Electricity involves the charged particles (electrons and protons) that make up ordinary matter. What we call 'static electricity' is a buildup or lack of electrons which are a negatively charged particle. If there is an excess of electrons on an object then it will have an overall negative charge, if electrons are removed then the object will have an overall positive charge due to the remaining protons. Notice that it is the electrons that are doing the moving around and that the protons stay where they are, fixed in the nucleus of atoms.

When the electrons are moving from one place to another we call this an electric current. In a metal the outer electrons of the atoms are 'free' to move around therefore if it is connected to a battery or another source of e.m.f. the electrons will be repelled from the negative terminal and attracted to the positive terminal constituting an electric current. e.m.f. (ElectroMotive Force) This is the force applied to charged particles such as electrons that will cause them to move. Sources of e.m.f. include chemical reactions (like in batteries) where energy is released allowing electrons to be moved around, or generators where mechanical energy is converted by using magnetic fields to influence the movement of electrons in metal wires. E.m.f. is measured in Volts (V) which is a measure of the amount of energy per unit of charge (Joules per Coulomb). Voltage - Volts (V) Voltage is the measure of potential energy per unit ofcharge, and is measured in Volts. A voltage measurement is taken between two points separated by a dielectric or partly conductive material. A voltage can be measured even when no electrons are moving between the points as it is a measure of potential energy and will not be released until the electrons begin to flow. Because the measurement is taken between two points the voltage is also known as a potential difference (p.d.). This is because it is the difference of potential energy between the two points. For example; A measurement with a voltmeter is taken between the two points of a battery and shows a reading of 12V. Now this just means that one terminal is 12V higher than the other. It could be that one terminal is 0V and the other is +12V, or it could mean that one terminal is -6V and the other is +6V. For this situation it does not matter which it is, as either case has a voltage of 12V between the two battery terminals. This is often useful when designing a circuit where we need a +V and a -V. Two batteries connected in sequence can be considered to have three terminals. One end is +V, the middle where they join is 0V, and the other end is considered -V. You can also use a combination of resistors with a single battery to do the same thing which is known as a voltage divider.

Current - Amps (I) A current is the flow of charged particles (usually electrons) which is normally produced when a source of e.m.f. is applied to a conductor. The current is akin to the actual number of electrons flowing in the same direction. The amount of current flowing in a conductor is proportional to the applied voltage and the resistance of the material. For example; if a light bulb is connected to a source of e.m.f. such as a battery the current flowing through it would be calculated using I = V / R. Where I is the current, V is the voltage of the battery, and R is the resistance of the light bulb. This relationship is known as Ohms Law. You can see from this example that to double the current flowing in the bulb you would need to double the voltage applied to it. In a conductor the electrons are flowing from the negative terminal towards the positive, but just to confuse things when talking about electrical currents we say that the current flows from positive to negative Direct Current (DC) This is where the current is flowing in one direction at a constant rate. A Battery causes DC to flow in circuits. Alternating Current (AC) This is where the current is changing with time or oscillating back and forth. A typical mains outlet causes AC to flow in a circuit. In the UK the frequency at which this current oscillates is 50Hz. Resistance - Ohms (R) Resistance is a measure of the restriction of the flow of current through a material. All materials except superconductors have a resistance above zero and the value is measured in Ohms (). Metals have lots of 'free' electrons therefore they have a low resistance. In an electrical circuit it is important to use cables with a low enough resistance so that they can adequately carry the necessary current for the application. In high power applications thick wires are used because thicker wires have lower resistance. Ohms law determines the relationship between Voltage (V), Current (I), and resistance (R). The simple formula can be used to determine one unknown variable if the other two variables are known. Related to this is Watt's Law which includes calculations for power (energy per second). For example; If a 12V battery were connected to a 100 ohm load such as a light bulb, the current flowing in the circuit could be calulated using ohms law. I = V/R = 12/100 = 0.12 A (120mA) Another example would be to calculate the power drawn in the circuit. P = V x I = 12 x 0.12 = 1.44 W or P = V2/R = 122/100 = 1.44 W Power - Watts (P) Power is a measure of the overall amount of work being done in a system in relation to time (energy used per second). In an electrical system power can be calculated by using the formula P = V I. From this you can see how the voltage and current in a system relate to the overall amount of power used. The unit of a Watt (W) is equivalent to joules per second , therefore one Watt is equal to one joule per second.

Energy - Joules (E) Energy is a fundamental quantity that every physical system possesses. The quantity of energy available allows us to predict how much work a system could be made to do, or how much heat it can produce or absorb. For any sort of physical change energy is involved. The change can be anything such as temperature, movement, voltage, etc. Reactance - Ohms (X) Reactance is the measure of opposition to alternating current flow in a circuit. The opposition is caused by the effect of an inductor orcapacitor. In a coil of wire (inductor) in an AC circuit the changing magnetic field produced by the current has the effect of inducing a voltage of opposite polarity to the polarity at that moment in time. This is known as back e.m.f. Impedance - Ohms (Z) Impedance is similar to resistance but it is used to describe the total amount of opposition a circuit offers to the flow of alternating current. It is simply a combination of the resistance and the reactance of a circuit. With inductors (wire coils) the impedance is higher at higer frequencies whereas with capacitors the impedance is lower at higher frequencies. Inductance - Henries (L) Inductance is the measure of how well a coil (inductor) or conductor is able to produce a magnetic field from a given current. Inductance is equivalent to the magnetic flux divided by the electrical current. A Coil of wire having a high value of inductance would typically be made from a large number of turns of wire. The effect of the magnetic field produced by the inductor has the effect of making a reactance to the change of current flowing in the coil. If a DC current is passing through a coil there will be a stable magnetic field around it. If the source of e.m.f. is suddenly removed the magnetic filed will collapse inducing a current back into the coil. In an AC circuit this has the effect of altering the phase relationship between the voltage and current. Self Inductance is simply the property of a coil or inductor. It's called self inductance because each turn of wire in the same solenoid will induce a current in its self (and the nearby ones) as the field around it changes. Mutual Inductance is the total inductance produce by the interaction of two or more inductors. As the field around one coil or inductor changes, it effects other nearby inductors. The the strength of the effect the coils have on each other is known as coupling. The formulae below are used to calculate the mutual inductance produced between two solenoids that are magnetically coupled. M = 0N1N2lr2= (L1L2)1/2 M = k(L1L2)1/2

Albert O. Dela Cruz