Classification of Living Organisms Paper- I Genetics COP- Diploma in Bioinformatics

Important Terms:
Evolution, Adaptation, Extinction

Diversity:

Biodiversity, Chemodiversity, Phytodiversity, Faunal Diversity, Floral diversity, trophodiveristy, habitat diversity

Classification & Identification Producers, Consumers, Decomposers Taxonomy & Phylogeny

History of Taxonomy

Charaka 200 animal species and 340 plant species

Aristotle - also classified many plant as well as animal species John Ray - introduced the term species and listed and collected various plant species across Europe.

Contributions of Carlous Linnaeus (1707-1778)

Binomial nomenclature (2-word Latin name) An artificial sexual system of classification Based on morphological & reproductive characteristics

Species plantarum & Systema Naturae cataloguing around 5900 plant species and 4200 animal species

Work of Carlous Linnaeus

Biological species concept

Modern biological species concept described by Mayr:

Species consist of populations

Have reality An internal genetic programme

Taxonomic Hierarchy

Linneal system had only two kingdoms

Plants and Animals

He did not consider.

Bacteria and Viruses Prokaryotes and Eucaryotes

Whittaker (1869) gave a five kingdom system

Complexity of cell structure Complexity of the organisms body Mode of obtaining nutrition

Monera Protista Plantae (plants) Fungi Animalia (animals)

Monera- The kingdom of prokaryotes

Monos- single cell: includes prokaryotes like bacteria, actinomycetes cyanobacteria They are microscopic and possess genetic material. Their cell wall is generally rigid. and

Nutritional diversity: They decompose and absorb organic matter in solution. They are either Heterotrophs or autotrophs. They are also seen to be extremophilic and also known as Archae bacteria They are important decomposers and mineralizers.

Protista- The kingdom of unicellular Eucaryotes

Protisto- primary. These include diverse kinds of unicellular and primarily aquatic eucaryotes.

They contain all the eucaryotic organelles and also possess flagella or cilia for locomotion.

Nutritional diversity: They are photoauthotrophs, chief producers in the oceans. The most common ones are collectively known as Phytoplanktons which are microscopic, floating photosynthetic organisms. Some protests are predatory, feeding on other protests. They are Protozoa (First animals) and lack the cell wall. The absence of cell wall helps in the ingestion of other protests. Protozoans are parasites in other animals or are inhabitant in other animals like in the digestive tract.

Plantae- the kingdom of multicellular producers

Coloured, multicellular photosynthetic plants which we see around.

Plant cells possess a rigid cellulose cell wall, cannot contract and relax like animal cells can. They are therefore, immobile and exhibit no locomotion as seen by many animals. Plants are photosynthetic in nature and generate their own food. There are certain paratisitc plants which have evolved to thus become heterotrophic.

Fungi- the kingdom of multicellular decomposers

Diverse eucaryotic heterotrophic organisms.

They absorb organic matter made soluble by decay and also known as saprotrophs.

They liberate various enzymes in the surrounding, which helps in solublization and decaying of the surrounding, resulting into absorptive organic matter.

Animalia- The kingdom of multicellular consumers

Also called Metazoa. Their mode of nutrition is pursuit and ingestion of food. They are very mobile and can transmit impulse through nerve cells. Sponges are the primitive metazoas which lack nerve cells. They are parasitic or symbiotic. This kingdom has the highest number of species and thus exceeds all the other classes of living organisms. They are placed as the consumers in the food chain.

Few points of general importance: A generic name always begins with a capital and the species name never begins with a capital. These latin/ scientific names should always be written or printed in Italics while the name of the Taxonomists should be in normal fonts. And while writing the scientific name should be underlined.

Some guidelines for classification: There are certain set principles and criteria to determine the position of an organism in a natural system of classification. The characteristics include: Morphology study of form Anatomy- Internal structure Cytology- Cell structure Life processes- Physiology Development- Ontogeny Reporduction, behaviour and Biochemistry

Kingdom Phylum (p: phyla) Class Order Family Genus (p: genera) Species

Kingdom- which has been discussed in detail earlier. Phylum/ Division - and orders having common are classified into phylum or division. The zoologists use the work Phylum while the Botanists use the term Division. Order- Families having common characteristics are classified into order. Family- The way genera are the group of species having common characteristics, genera having common characteristics are then classified into a family. Genus- It is a group of related species. The genus has a special importance in classification as no species can be named unless it can be associated with a genus. The species put under the same genus generally share lot many things in common- features and characteristics and have correlated phenotypic and genotypic characteristics.

Species- species is that specific organism which is somewhat related to many others but has still some unique characteristics and thus deserve a different name from the rest of the members of the same genus. Sub species- In some animals especially (however, is also now seen in many plants also), the taxonomists identify sub species and thus the name becomes trinomial instead of binomial.

Growth and Cell Division

Growth
Cell size Cell population

Prokaryotes
Binary fission 1. DNA consist of single loop 2. Make copy of DNA 3. cell begins to divide 4. 2 identical daughter cells Bacteria can divide every 20-30 minutes

Stages in Cell Growth Mitosis (division of nucleus) Cytokinesis (division of cytoplasm) Apoptosis (cell death) decreases the number of cells. Both cell increase and apoptosis occur during normal development and growth.

The Cell Cycle

The cell cycle is an orderly sequence of events that occurs from the time when a cell is first formed until it divides into two new cells. Most of the cell cycle is spent in interphase. Following interphase, the mitotic stage of cell division occurs.

The stages of interphase

G1 stage cell growth, cell doubles its organelles, accumulates materials for DNA synthesis S stage DNA synthesis occurs, and DNA replication results in duplicated chromosomes G2 stage cell synthesizes proteins needed for cell division

The cell cycle

The Mitotic Stage

Following interphase is the M stage, including mitosis and cytokinesis. During mitosis, sister chromatids of each chromosome separate, and become the nuclei of the two daughter cells. The cell cycle ends when cytokinesis, the cleaving of the cytoplasm, is complete.

Control of the cell cycle

The cell cycle is controlled at three checkpoints: During G1 prior to the S stage During G2 prior to the M stage During the M stage prior to the end of mitosis DNA damage can also stop the cell cycle at the G1 checkpoint.

Maintaining the Chromosome Number

When a eukaryotic cell is not dividing, the DNA and associated proteins is a tangled mass of thin threads called chromatin. At the time of cell division, the chromatin condenses to form highly compacted structures called chromosomes. Each species has a characteristic number of chromosomes.

The Eukaryotic Cell Cycle

Cytokinesis

The basic point of cytokinesis is to

Divide the cytoplasm of the original cell

So that each of the nuclei from mitosis gets roughly equal amounts of cytoplasm and the
organelles.

Overview of meiosis

Overview of Meiosis
Meiosis requires two nuclear divisions and four haploid nuclei result. Humans have 23 pairs of homologous chromosomes, or 46 chromosomes total. Prior to meiosis I, DNA replication occurs. During meiosis I, synapsis occurs.

Meiosis I separates homologous pairs of chromosomes. Daughter cells are haploid, but chromosomes are still in duplicated condition. No replication of DNA occurs between the two divisions.

Meiosis II separates sister chromatids. In many life cycles, haploid daughter cells mature into gametes. Fertilization restores the diploid number of chromosomes during sexual reproduction.

Genetic Recombination & Meiosis

There are two sources of genetic recombination during meiosis: crossing-over of nonsister chromatids and Independent assortment of homologous chromosomes.

Synapsis and crossing-over

Independent assortment

Meiosis compared to mitosis

Cytokinesis

Mitosis

Histologic picture of Mitosis

Cell division

The binding of growth factors to specific receptors on the plasma membrane is usually necessary for cell division

Cell Cycle Regulation

Cyclins
G1 cyclin (cyclin D) S-phase cyclins (cyclins E and A) mitotic cyclins (cyclins B and A)

Cyclin-dependent kinases (Cdks)

G1 Cdk (Cdk4) S-phase Cdk ((Cdk2) M-phase Cdk (Cdk1)

The anaphase-promoting complex (APC)

Also called the cyclosome and so often designated as the APC/C. Triggers the events leading to destruction of the cohesins thus allowing the chromatids to separate Degrades the mitotic cyclin B. sister

Summary: Mitosis & Meiosis

Mitosis Daughter cells Type of cells produced Function of cells Somatic cells Growth/repair Asexual reproduction Same as parent cell Identical to parent cell Meiosis Daughter cells Gametes Sexual reproduction

Chromosome number Genetic material

Reduce to haploid
Half of genetic material in new gene combinations Gametes not identical to parents