A BRIEF LIST OF MATLAB COMMANDS Some Basic Commands (Note command syntax is case-sensitive!

) matlab quit exit who whos clear clear x ... save load save save load ! loads the program matlab into your workspace. quits matlab, returning you to the operating system. same as quit. lists all of the variables in your matlab workspace. list the variables and describes their matrix size. deletes all matrices from active workspace. deletes the matrix x from active workspace. the ellipsis defining a line continuation is three successive periods. saves all the matrices defined in the current session into the file, matlab.mat. loads contents of matlab.mat into current workspace. filename saves the contents of workspace into filename.mat filename x y z saves the matrices x, y and z into the file titled filename.mat. filename loads the contents of filename into current workspace; the file can be a binary (.mat) file or an ASCII file. the ! preceding any unix command causes the unix command to be executed from matlab.

Commands Useful in Plotting. plot(x,y) creates an Cartesian plot of the vectors x & y. plot(y) creates a plot of y vs. the numerical values of the elements in the y-vector. semilogx(x,y) plots log(x) vs y. semilogy(x,y) plots x vs log(y) loglog(x,y) plots log(x) vs log(y). grid creates a grid on the graphics plot. title('text') places a title at top of graphics plot. xlabel('text') writes 'text' beneath the x-axis of a plot. ylabel('text') writes 'text' beside the y-axis of a plot. text(x,y,'text') writes 'text' at the location (x,y) . text(x,y,'text','sc') writes 'text' at point x,y assuming lower left corner is (0,0) and upper right corner is (1,1). gtext('text') writes text according to placement of mouse hold on maintains the current plot in the graphics window while executing subsequent plotting commands. hold off turns OFF the 'hold on' option. polar(theta,r) creates a polar plot of the vectors r & theta where theta is in radians. bar(x) creates a bar graph of the vector x. (Note also the command stairs(y).) bar(x,y) hist(x) creates a bar-graph of the elements of the vector y, locating the bars according to the vector elements of 'x'. (Note also the command stairs(x,y).) creates a histogram. This differs from the bargraph in that frequency is plotted on the vertical axis.

mesh(z)

creates a surface in xyz space where z is a matrix of the values of the function z(x,y). z can be interpreted to be the height of the surface above some xy reference plane. surf(z) similar to mesh(z), only surface elements depict the surface rather than a mesh grid. contour(z) draws a contour map in xy space of the function or surface z. meshc(z) draws the surface z with a contour plot beneath it. meshgrid [X,Y]=meshgrid(x,y) transforms the domain specified by vectors x and y into arrays X and Y that can be used in evaluating functions for 3D mesh/surf plots. print sends the contents of graphics window to printer. print filename -dps writes the contents of current graphics to 'filename' in postscript format. Equation Fitting polyfit(x,y,n) returns the coefficients of the n-degree polynomial for the vectors x and y. n must be at least 1 larger than the length of the vectors x and y. If n+1 = length(x) the result is an interpolating polynomial. If n+1 > length(x) the result is a least-squares polynomial fit. The coefficients are stored in order with that of the highest order term first and the lowest order last. polyval(c,x) calculates the values of the polynomial whose coefficients are stored in c, calculating for every value of the vector x. Data Analysis Commands max(x) returns the maximum value of the elements in a vector or if x is a matrix, returns a row vector whose elements are the maximum values from each respective column of the matrix. min (x) returns the minimum of x (see max(x) for details). mean(x) returns the mean value of the elements of a vector or if x is a matrix, returns a row vector whose elements are the mean value of the elements from each column of the matrix. median(x) same as mean(x), only returns the median value. sum(x) returns the sum of the elements of a vector or if x is a matrix, returns the sum of the elements from each respective column of the matrix. prod(x) same as sum(x), only returns the product of elements. std(x) returns the standard deviation of the elements of a vector or if x is a matrix, a row vector whose elements are the standard deviations of each column of the matrix. sort(x) sorts the values in the vector x or the columns of a matrix and places them in ascending order. Note that this command will destroy any association that may exist between the elements in a row of matrix x. hist(x) plots a histogram of the elements of vector, x. Ten bins are scaled based on the max and min values.

hist(x,n) plots a histogram with 'n' bins scaled between the max and min values of the elements. hist((x(:,2)) plots a histogram of the elements of the 2nd column from the matrix x. fliplr(x) reverses the order of a vector. If x is a matrix, this reverse the order of the columns in the matrix. flipud(x) reverses the order of a matrix in the sense of exchanging or reversing the order of the matrix rows. This will not reverse a row vector! reshape(A,m,n) reshapes the matrix A into an mxn matrix from element (1,1) working column-wise. SPECIAL MATRICES zeros(n) creates an nxn matrix whose elements are zero. zeros(m,n) creates a m-row, n-column matrix of zeros. ones(n) creates a n x n square matrix whose elements are 1's ones(m,n)' creates a mxn matrix whose elements are 1's. ones(A) creates an m x n matrix of 1's, where m and n are based on the size of an existing matrix, A. zeros(A) creates an mxn matrix of 0's, where m and n are based on the size of the existing matrix, A. eye(n) creates the nxn identity matrix with 1's on the diagonal. Miscellaneous Commands length(x) size(x) rand randn rand(A) returns the number elements in a vector. returns the size m(rows) and n(columns) of matrix x. returns a random number between 0 and 1. returns a random number selected from a normal distribution with a mean of 0 and variance of 1. returns a matrix of size A of random numbers.

ALGEBRAIC OPERATIONS IN MATLAB Scalar Calculations. + * / \ ^ addition subtraction multiplication right division (a/b means a b) left division (a\b means b a) exponentiation

The precedence or order of the calculations included in a single line of code follows the below order: Precedence Operation 1 parentheses

2 3 4

exponentiation, left to right multiplication and division, left right addition and subtraction, left right

MATRIX ALGEBRA In matrix multiplication, the elements of the product, C, of two matrices A*B is calculated from Cij = (Aik * Bkj) {summation over the double index k}

To form this sum, the number of columns of the first or left matrix (A) must be equal to the number of rows in the second or right matrix (B). The resulting product, matrix C, has an order for which the number of rows equals the number of rows of the first (left) matrix (A) and the product (C) has a number of columns equal to the number of columns in the second (right) matrix (B). It is clear that A*B IS NOT NECESSARILY EQUAL TO B*A! The PRODUCT OF A SCALAR AND A MATRIX is a matrix in which every element of the matrix has been multiplied by the scalar. ARRAY PRODUCTS Sometimes it is desired to simply multiply or divide each element of an matrix by the corresponding element of another matrix. These are called 'array operations" in 'matlab'. Array or element-by-element operations are executed when the operator is preceded by a '.' (period). Thus a .* b a ./ b a .\ b a .^ b multiplies each element element of b divides each element of of b divides each element of of a raise each element of a of a by the respective a by the respective element b by the respective element by the respective b element

TRANSPOSE OF A MATRIX x' The transpose of a matrix is obtained by interchanging the rows and columns. The 'matlab' operator that creates the transpose is the single quotation mark, '.

INNER PRODUCT OF TWO VECTORS The inner product of two row vectors G1 and G2 is G1*G2'. The inner product of two column vectors H and J is H'*J. OUTER PRODUCT OF TWO VECTORS If two row vectors exist, G1 and G2, the outer product is simply G1' * G2 {Note G1' is nx1 and G2 is 1xn}

and the result is a square matrix in contrast to the scalar result for the inner product. DON'T CONFUSE THE OUTER PRODUCT WITH THE VECTOR PRODUCT IN MECHANICS! If the two vectors are column vectors, the outer product must be formed by the product of one vector times the transpose of the second!

SOLUTION TO SIMULTANEOUS EQUATIONS Using the Matrix Inverse inv(a) returns the inverse of the matrix a. If ax=b is a matrix equation and a is the coefficient matrix, the solution x is x=inv(a)*b.

Using Back Substitution a\b b/a returns a equation returns a equation column vector solution for the matrix ax=b where a is a coefficient matrix. row vector solution for the matrix xa=b where a is a coefficient matrix.

Some basic commands you will need: matlab quit exit who whos loads the program matlab into your workspace quits matlab, returning you to the operating system same as quit lists all of the variables in your matlab workspace list the variables and describes their matrix size

NOTE - When using the workstations, clicking on UP ARROW will recall previous commands. If you make a mistake, the DELETE key OR the backspace key may be used to correct the error; however, one of these two keys may be inoperable on particular systems. 'matlab' uses variables that are defined to be matrices. A matrix is a collection of numerical values that are organized into a specific configuration of rows and columns. The number of rows and columns can be any number, for example, 3 rows and 4 columns define a 3 x 4 matrix which has 12 elements in total. A scalar is represented by a 1 x 1 matrix in matlab. A vector of n dimensions or elements can be represented by a n x 1 matrix, in which case it is called a column vector, or a vector can be represented by a 1 x n matrix, in which case it is called a row vector of n elements. The matrix name can be any group of letters and numbers up to 19, but always beginning with a letter. Thus 'x1' can be a variable name, but '1x' is illegal. 'supercalafragilesticexpealladotious' can be a variable name; however, only the first 19 characters will be stored! Understand that 'matlab' is "case sensitive", that is, it treats the name 'C' and 'c' as two different variables. Similarly, 'MID' and 'Mid' are treated as two different variables. Here are examples of matrices that could be defined in 'matlab'. Note that the set of numerical values or elements of the matrix are bounded by brackets ......[ ].

c = 5.66

or

c = [5.66]

c is a scalar or a 1 x 1 matrix x is a row vector or 1 x 3 matrix x1 is column vector or 4 x 1 matrix

x = [ 3.5, 33.22, 24.5 ] x1 = [ 2 5 3 -1] A = [ 1 2 2 -2 0 3 5 4 4 2 5 9 ]

A is a 4 x 3 matrix

An individual element of a matrix can be specified with the notation A(i,j) or Ai,j for the generalized element, or by A(4,1)=5 for a specific element. When 'matlab' prints a matrix on the monitor, it will be organized according to the size specification of the matrix, with each row appearing on a unique row of the monitor screen and with each column aligned vertically and right-justified. The numerical values that are assigned to the individual elements of a matrix can be entered into the variable assignment in a number of ways. The simplest way is by direct keyboard entry; however, large data sets may be more conveniently entered through the use of stored files or by generating the element values using matlab expressions. First, we will look at the use of the keyboard for direct entry. KEYBOARD DEFINITION OR ENTRY FOR A MATRIX A matrix can be defined by a number of matlab expressions. Examples are listed below for a 1 x 3 row vector, x, whose elements are x(1) = 2, x(2) = 4 and x(3) = -1. x = [ 2 4 -1 ] or x=[2 4 -1] or x = [ 2,4,-1 ]

(A keystroke 'enter' follows each of the above matlab statements.) Notice that brackets must be used to open and close the set of numbers, and notice that commas or blanks may be used as delimiters between the fields defining the elements of the matrix. Blanks used around the = sign and the brackets are superfluous; however, they sometimes make the statement more readable. A 2x4 matrix, y, whose elements are y(1,1)=0, y(1,2) = y(1,3) = 2, y(1,4) = 3, y(2,1) = 5, y(2,2) = -3, y(2,3) = 6 and y(2,4) = 4 can be defined y = [ 0 2 2 3 5 -3 6 4 ] or y = [ 0 2 2 3 ; 5 -3 6 4 ]

The semicolon ";" is used to differentiate the matrix rows when they appear on a single line for data entry. The elements of a matrix can be defined with algebraic expressions placed at the appropriate location of the element. Thus a = [ sin(pi/2) sqrt(2) 3+4 6/3 exp(2) ] defines the matrix a = [ 1.0000 1.4142 7.0000 2.0000 7.3891 ]

A matrix can be defined by augmenting previously defined matrices. Recalling the matrix, x, defined earlier x1 = [ x 5 8 ] creates the result x1 = [ 2 The expression x(5) = 8 creates x = [ 2 4 -1 0 8 ] Notice that the value "0" is substituted for x(4) which has not been explicitly defined. Recalling the definition of matrix, y, above, the expressions c = [ 4 5 6 z = [ y;c ] creates z = [ 0 2 5 -3 4 5 2 6 6 3 4 3 ] 3 ] 4 -1 5 8 ]

Note that every time a matrix is defined and an 'enter' keystroke is executed, matlab echoes back the result. TO CANCEL THIS ECHO, THE MATLAB COMMAND LINE CAN INCLUDE A SEMICOLON AT THE END OF THE LINE BEFORE THE KEYSTROKE 'ENTER'. z = [ y ; c ] ; LINE CONTINUATION Occasionally, a line is so long that it can not be expressed in the 80 spaces available on a line, in which case a line continuation is needed. In matlab, the ellipsis defining a line continuation is three successive periods, as in "...". Thus 4 + 5 + 3 ...

1 + 5

10

2 ...

gives the result ans = 30 Notice that in this simple arithmetic operation, no matrix was defined. When such an operation is executed in matlab, the result is assigned to the matrix titled "ans". A subsequent operation without an assignment to a specific matrix name will replace the results in 'ans' by the result of the next operation. In the above, 'ans' is a 1x1 matrix, but it need not be so in general. BEFORE YOU QUIT THIS SESSION !!!!! If this is your first lesson using matlab, execute the matlab commands 'who' and whos' before you 'quit'. Note that each of these commands lists the matrices you have defined in this session on the computer. The command 'whos' also tells you the properties of each matrix, including the number of elements, the row and column size (row x column) and whether the elements are complex or real. IMPORTANT! If you execute the matlab command 'save' before you quit, all of the matrices that have been defined will be saved in a file titled matlab.mat stored in your workspace. Should you desire to save specific matrices during any session, the command 'save' followed by the name of the matrix can be executed. More detail on how to save and recall your matrices is discussed in Lesson 2. PRACTICE PROBLEMS Determine the size and result for the following matrices. Subsequently, carry out the operations on matlab that define the matrices, and check your results using the 'whos' statement. 1. 2. 3. 4. a = [1,0,0,0,0,1] b = [2;4;6;10] c = [5 d= [3 5 9 e = [3 4 7 10 ] 5 0 6. 7. 10 3; 0; 3 0 9 0 ... 9 8 ] 3 5; 6 2 -3]

5.

t = [4 24 9] q = [t 0 t] x = [ 3 6 ] y = [d;x] z = [x;d]

8. 9. 10.

r = [ c; x,5] v = [ c(2,1); b ]

a(2,1) = -3 (NOTE: Recall matrix "a" was defined in (1) above.) New commands in this lesson: save saves all the matrices defined in the current session into the file, matlab.mat, located in the directory from which you executed matlab. loads contents of matlab.mat into current workspace

load

save filename x y z save the matrices x, y and z into the file titled filename.mat. load filename loads the contents of filename into current workspace; the file can be a binary (.mat) file or an ASCII file.

clear x clear

erases the matrix 'x' from your workspace erases ALL matrices from your workspace

NOTE - When using PROMATLAB on a workstation, files are stored in the directory from which you invoked the 'matlab' command. When using the workstation, create a matlab subdirectory titled 'matlab' or some similar name. Thereafter, store all files and conduct all matlab sessions in that subdirectory. ASCII FILES An ASCII file is a file containing characters in ASCII format, a format that is independent of 'matlab' or any other executable program. Using ASCII format, you can build a file using a screen editor or a wordprocessing program, for example, that can be read and understood by 'matlab'. The file can be read into 'matlab' using the "load" command described above. Using a text editor or using a wordprocessor that is capable of writing a file in ASCII format, you simply prepare a matrix file for which EACH ROW OF THE MATRIX IS A UNIQUE LINE IN THE FILE, with the elements in the row separated by blanks. An example is the 3 x 3 matrix 2 3 6 3 -1 0 7 0 -2 If these elements are formatted as described above and stored in a filename titled, for example, x.dat, the 3 x 3 matrix 'x' can be loaded into 'matlab' by the command load x.dat

Open the Text Editor window on your workstation. Build a 3x3 matrix in the editor that follows the format explained above. Store this in your matlab directory using the command save ~/matlab/x.dat The suffix, .dat, is not necessary; however, it is strongly recommended here to distinguish the file from other data files, such as the .mat files which will be described below. Of course if you define the file with the .dat or any other suffix, you must use that suffix when downloading the file to 'matlab' with the 'load' command. Remember, the file must be stored in the directory in which you are executing matlab. In the above example, it is assumed that this directory is titled 'matlab'. Now go to a window in which matlab is opened. We desire to load the matrix x into matlab. We might wonder if the file x.dat is actually stored in our matlab directory. To review what files are stored therein, the unix command 'ls' can be evoked in matlab by preceding the command with an exclamation mark, ! . Type the command ! ls Matlab will list all of the files in your directory. find one titled "x.dat". Now, type the command load x.dat The 3x3 matrix defined above is now down-loaded into your working space in matlab. To ensure that is so, check your variables by typing 'who' or 'whos'. FILES BUILT BY MATLAB....THE .mat FILE If at any time during a matlab session you wish to store a matrix that has been defined in the workspace, the command save filename will create a file in your directory that is titled filename.mat. The file will be in binary format, understandable only by the 'matlab' program. Note that 'matlab' appends the .mat suffix and this can be omitted by the user when describing the filename. If the matrix 'x' has been defined in the workspace, it can be stored in your directory in binary matlab format with the command save x The filename need not be the same as the matrix name. The file named, for example, 'stuff' can be a file that contains the matrix 'x'. Any number of matrices can be stored under the filename. Thus the command string You should

save stuff x

will store the matrices x, y and z in the file titled 'stuff'. The file will automatically have the suffix .mat added to the filename. If, during a session, you type the command 'save' with no other string, all of the current matrices defined in your workspace will be stored in the file 'matlab.mat'. The load command when applied to .mat files follows the same format as discussed above for ASCII files; however, you can omit the file suffix '.mat' when loading .mat files to your workspace. COLON OPERATOR The colon operator ' : ' is understood by 'matlab' to perform special and useful operations. If two integer numbers are separated by a colon, 'matlab' will generate all of the integers between these two integers. a = 1:8 generates the row vector, a = [ 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 ].

If three numbers, integer or non-integer, are separated by two colons, the middle number is interpreted to be a "range" and the first and third are interpreted to be "limits". Thus b = 0.0 : .2 : 1.0 generates the row vector b = [ 0.0 .2 .4 .6 .8 1.0 ]

The colon operator can be used to create a vector from a matrix. Thus if x = [ 2 0 -2 The command y = x(:,1) creates the column vector y = [ 2 0 -2 6 8 1 7 5 -6 ]

] yy = x(:,2)

and creates yy = [ 6 1 5 ]

The command z = x(1,:) creates the row vector z = [ 2 6 8 ]

The colon operator is useful in extracting smaller matrices from larger matrices. If the 4 x 3 matrix c is defined by c = [ -1 0 1 1 1 -1 0 0 Then d1 = c(:,2:3) creates a matrix for which all elements of the rows from the 2nd and third columns are used. The result is a 4 x 2 matrix d1 = [ 0 1 -1 0 0 0 0 2 ] 0 0 0 2 ]

The command d2 = c(3:4,1:2) creates a 2 x 2 matrix in which the rows are defined by the 3rd and 4th row of c and the columns are defined by the 1st and 2nd columns of the matrix, c. d2 = [ 1 0 -1 0 ]

USING THE CLEAR COMMANDS Before quitting this session of 'matlab', note the use of the commands 'clear' and 'clc'. Note that 'clc' simply clears the screen, but does not clear or erase any matrices that have been defined. The command 'clear' erase or removes matrices from your workspace. Use this command with care. NOTE THE COMMAND 'CLEAR' WITHOUT ANY MODIFYING STRING WILL ERASE ALL MATRICES IN YOUR WORKSPACE. PROBLEMS Define the 5 x 4 matrix, g. g = [ 0.6 8.2 5.7 0.5 1.5 2.3 -0.5 0.5 -0.1 -2.0 8.2 9.0 1.5 0.5 2.4 0.5

1.2 -2.3 -4.5

0.5 ]

Determine the content and size of the following matrices and check your results for content and size using 'matlab'. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. a = g(:,2) b = g(4,:) c = [10:15] d = [4:9;1:6] e = [-5,5] f= [1.0:-.2:0.0] t1 = g(4:5,1:3)

8. t2 = g(1:2:5,:) New commands in this lesson: plot(x,y) creates a Cartesian plot of the vectors x & y plot(y) creates a plot of y vs. the numerical values of the elements in the y-vector.

semilogx(x,y) plots log(x) vs y semilogy(x,y) loglog(x,y) grid plots x vs log(y) plots log(x) vs log(y)

creates a grid on the graphics plot places a title at top of graphics plot

title('text')

xlabel('text') writes 'text' beneath the x-axis of a plot ylabel('text') writes 'text' beside the y-axis of a plot text(x,y,'text') writes 'text' at the location (x,y)

text(x,y,'text','sc') writes 'text' at point x,y assuming lower left corner is (0,0) and upper right corner is (1,1). polar(theta,r) creates a polar plot of the vectors r & theta where theta is in radians. bar(x) bar(x,y) creates a bar graph of the vector x. (Note also the command stairs(x).) creates a bar-graph of the elements of the vector y, locating the bars according to the vector elements of 'x'. (Note also the command stairs(x,y).)

CARTESIAN OR X-Y PLOTS One of 'matlab' most powerful features is the ability to create graphic plots. Here we introduce the elementary ideas for simply presenting a graphic plot of two vectors. More complicated and powerful ideas with graphics can be found in the 'matlab' documentation. A Cartesian or orthogonal x,y plot is based on plotting the x,y data pairs from the specified vectors. Clearly, the vectors x and y must have the same number of elements. Imagine that you wish to plot the function ex for values of x from 0 to 2. x = 0:.1:2; y = exp(x); plot(x,y) NOTE: The use of selected functions such as exp() and sin() will be used in these tutorials without explanation if they take on an unambiguous meaning consistent with past experience. Here it is observed that operating on a matrix with these functions simply creates a matrix in which the elements are based on applying the function to each corresponding element of the argument. Of course the symbols x,y are arbitrary. If we wanted to plot temperature on the ordinate and time on the abscissa, and vectors for temperature and time were loaded in 'matlab', the command would be plot(time,temperature) Notice that the command plot(x,y) opens a graphics window. If you now execute the command 'grid', the graphics window is redrawn. (Note you move the cursor to the command window before typing new commands.) To avoid redrawing the window, you may use the line continuation ellipsis. Consider plot(x,y),... grid,... title('Exponential Function'),... xlabel('x'),... ylabel('exp(x)'), text(.6,.4,' y = exp(x)','sc') Note that if you make a mistake in typing a series of lines of code, such as the above, the use of line continuation can be frustrating. In a future lesson, we will learn how to create batch files (called '.m' files) for executing a series of 'matlab' commands. This approach gives you better opportunity to return to the command string and edit errors that have been created. Having defined the vectors x and y, construct semilog and loglog plots using these or other vectors you may wish to create. Note in particular what occurs when a logarithmic scale is selected for a vector that has negative or zero elements. Here, the vector x has a zero element (x(1)=0). The logarithm of zero or any negative number is undefined and the x,y data pair for which a zero or

negative number occurs is discarded and a warning message provided. Try the commands plot(x) and plot(y) to ensure you understand how they differ from plot(x,y). Notice that 'matlab' draws a straight line between the datapairs. If you desire to see a relatively smooth curve drawn for a rapidly changing function, you must include a number of data points. For example, consider the trigonometric function, sin(x1) (x1 is selected as the argument here to distinguish it from the vector 'x' that was defined earlier. ) Plot sin(x1) over the limits 0 <= x1 <= pi. First define x1 with 5 elements, x1 = 0 : pi/4 : pi y1 = sin(x1) plot(x1,y1) Now, repeat this after defining a new vector for x1 and y1 with 21 elements. (Note the use of the semicolon here to prevent the printing and scrolling on the monitor screen of a vector or matrix with a large number of elements!) x1 = 0 : .05*pi : pi ; y1 =sin(x1); plot(x1,y1) POLAR PLOTS Polar plots are constructed much the same way as are Cartesian x-y plots; however, the arguments are the angle 'theta' in radians measured CCW from the horizontal (positive-x) axis, and the length of the radius vector extended from the origin along this angle. Polar plots do not allow the labeling of axes; however, notice that the scale for the radius vector is presented along the vertical and when the 'grid' command is used the angles-grid is presented in 15degree segments. The 'title' command and the 'text' commands are functional with polar plots. angle = 0:.1*pi:3*pi; radius = exp(angle/20); polar(angle,radius),... title('An Example Polar Plot'),... grid Note that the angles may exceed one revolution of 2*pi. BAR GRAPHS To observe how 'matlab' creates a bargraph, return to the vectors x,y that were defined earlier. Create bar and stair graphs using these or other vectors you may define. Of course the 'title' and 'text' commands can be used with bar and stair graphs. bar(x,y) and bar(y) stair (x,y) and stair(y)

MULTIPLE PLOTS More than a single graph can be presented on one graphic plot. One common way to accomplish this is hold the graphics window open with the 'hold' command and execute a subsequent plotting command. x1=0:.05*pi:pi; y1=sin(x1); plot(x1,y1) hold y2=cos(x1); plot(x1,y2) The "hold" command will remain active until you turn it off with the command 'hold off'. You can create multiple graphs by using multiple arguments. In addition to the vectors x,y created earlier, create the vectors a,b and plot both vector sets simultaneously as follows. a = 1 : .1 : 3; b = 10*exp(-a); plot(x,y,a,b) Multiple plots can be accomplished also by using matrices rather than simple vectors in the argument. If the arguments of the 'plot' command are matrices, the COLUMNS of y are plotted on the ordinate against the COLUMNS of x on the abscissa. Note that x and y must be of the same order! If y is a matrix and x is a vector, the rows or columns of y are plotted against the elements of x. In this instance, the number of rows OR columns in the matrix must correspond to the number of elements in 'x'. The matrix 'x' can be a row or a column vector! Recall the row vectors 'x' and 'y' defined earlier. Augment the row vector 'y' to create the 2-row matrix, yy. yy=[y;exp(1.2*x)]; plot(x,yy)

PLOTTING DATA POINTS & OTHER FANCY STUFF Matlab connects a straight line between the data pairs described by the vectors used in the 'print' command. You may wish to present data points and omit any connecting lines between these points. Data points can be described by a variety of characters ( . , + , * , o and x .) The following command plots the x,y data as a "curve" of connected straight lines and in addition places an 'o' character at each of the x1,y1 data pairs. plot(x,y,x1,y1,'o') Lines can be colored and they can be broken to make distinctions among more than one line. Colored lines are effective on the color monitor and color printers or plotters. Colors are useless on the common printers used on this network. Colors are

denoted in 'matlab' by the symbols r(red), g(green), b(blue), w(white) and i(invisible). The following command plots the x,y data in red solid line and the r,s data in broken green line. plot(x,y,'r',r,s,'--g') PRINTING GRAPHIC PLOTS Executing the 'print' command will send the contents of the current graphics widow to the local printer. You may wish to save in a graphics file, a plot you have created. To do so, simply append to the 'print' command the name of the file. The command print filename will store the contents of the graphics window in the file titled 'filename.ps' in a format called postscript. You need not include the .ps suffix, as matlab will do this. When you list the files in your matlab directory, it is convenient to identify any graphics files by simply looking for the files with the .ps suffix. If you desire to print one of these postscript files, you can conveniently "drag and drop" the file from the file-manager window into the printer icon. Commands introduced in this lesson: max(x) returns the maximum value of the elements in a vector or if x is a matrix, returns a row vector whose elements are the maximum values from each respective column of the matrix. returns the minimum of x (see max(x) for details). returns the mean value of the elements of a vector or if x is a matrix, returns a row vector whose elements are the mean value of the elements from each column of the matrix.

min (x) mean(x)

median(x) same as mean(x), only returns the median value. sum(x) returns the sum of the elements of a vector or if x is a matrix, returns the sum of the elements from each respective column of the matrix. same as sum(x), only returns the product of elements. returns the standard deviation of the elements of a vector or if x is a matrix, a row vector whose elements are the standard deviations of each column of the matrix. sorts the values in the vector x or the columns of a matrix and places them in ascending order. Note that this command will destroy any association that may exist between the elements in a row of matrix x.

prod(x) std(x)

sort(x)

hist(x)

plots a histogram of the elements of vector, x. Ten bins are scaled based on the max and min values.

hist(x,n) plots a histogram with 'n' bins scaled between the max and min values of the elements. hist((x(:,2)) plots a histogram of the elements of the 2nd column from the matrix x.

The 'matlab' commands introduced in this lesson perform simple statistical calculations that are mostly self-explanatory. A simple series of examples are illustrated below. Note that 'matlab' treats each COLUMN OF A MATRIX as a unique set of "data", however, vectors can be row or column format. Begin the exercise by creating a 12x3 matrix that represents a time history of two stochastic temperature measurements. Load these data into a matrix called 'timtemp.dat' using an editor to build an ASCII file. Time(sec) 0.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0 8.0 9.0 10.0 11.0 Temp-T1(K) 306 305 312 309 308 299 311 303 306 303 306 304 Temp-T2(K) 125 121 123 122 124 129 122 122 123 127 124 123

Execute the commands at the beginning of the lesson above and observe the results. Note that when the argument is 'timtemp', a matrix, the result is a 1x3 vector. For example, the command M = max(timtemp) gives M = 11 312 129 If the argument is a single column from the matrix, the command identifies the particular column desired. The command M2 = max(timtemp(:,2)) gives M2 = 312 If the variance of a set of data in a column of the matrix is desired, the standard deviation is squared. The command T1_var = (std(timtemp(:,2)))^2 gives T1_var = 13.2727

If the standard deviation of the matrix of data is found using STDDEV = std(timtemp) gives STDDEV = 3.6056 Note that the command VAR = STDDEV^2 is not acceptable; however, the command VAR = STDDEV.^2 is acceptable, creating the results, VAR = 13.0000 USING m-FILES - SCRATCH and FUNCTION FILES 13.2727 5.2955 3.6432 2.3012

Sometimes it is convenient to write a number of lines of 'matlab' code before executing the commands. We have seen how this can be accomplished using the line continuation ellipsis; however, it was noted in this approach that any mistake in the code required the entire string to be entered again. Using an m-file we can write a number of lines of 'matlab' code and store it in a file whose name we select with the suffix '.m' added. Subsequently the command string or file content can be executed by invoking the name of the file while in 'matlab'. This application is called a SCRATCH FILE. On occasion it is convenient to express a function in 'matlab' rather than calculating or defining a particular matrix. The many 'matlab' stored functions such as sin(x) and log(x) are examples of functions. We can write functions of our definition to evaluate parameters of our particular interest. This application of m-files is called FUNCTION FILES. SCRATCH FILES A scratch file must be prepared in a text editor in ASCII format and stored in the directory from which you invoked the command to download 'matlab'. The name can be any legitimate file name with the '.m' suffix. As an example, suppose we wish to prepare a x-y plot of the function y = e-x/10 sin(x) 0 x 10 .

To accomplish this using a scratch ".m-file", we will call the file 'explot.m'. Open the file in a text editor and type the code below. (Note the use of the '%' in line 1 below to create a comment. Any text or commands typed on a line after the'%' will be treated as a comment and ignored in the executable code.) % A scratch m-file to plot exp(-x/10)sin(x) x = [ 0:.2:10 ]; y = exp(-x/10) .* sin(x); plot(x,y),...

title('EXPONENTIAL DAMPED SINE FUNCTION'),... xlabel('x'),... ylabel('y'),... text(.6,.7,'y = exp(-x/10)*sin(x)','sc') Store this file under the name 'explot.m in your 'matlab' directory. Now when you are in 'matlab', any time you type the command 'explot' the x-y plot of the damped exponential sine function will appear. FUNCTION FILES Suppose that you wish to have in your 'matlab' workspace a function that calculates the sine of the angle when the argument is in degrees. The matlab function sin(x) requires that x be in radians. A function can be written that use the 'matlab' sin(x) function, where x is in radians, to accomplish the objective of calculating the sine of an argument expressed in degrees. Again, as in the case of the scratch file, we must prepare the file in ASCII format using a text editor, and we must add the suffix '.m' to the file. HERE THE NAME OF THE FILE MUST BE THE NAME OF THE FUNCTION. The following code will accomplish our objective. Note that the first line must always begin with the word "function" followed by the name of the function expressed as " y = function-name". Here the function name is "sind(x)". This is the name by which we will call for the function once it is stored. function y = sind(x) % This function calculates the sine when the argument is degrees % Note that array multiplication and division allows this to % operate on scalars, vectors and matrices. y = sin( x .* pi ./ 180 ) Again, note the rule in writing the function is to express in the first line of the file the word 'function', followed by y = function call, here 'sind' with the function argument in parentheses, 'x' is the function call. Thus, function y=sind(x) Now every time we type sind(x) in 'matlab', it will return the value of the sine function calculated under the assumption that x is in degrees. Of course any matrix or expression involving a matrix can be written in the argument. ALGEBRAIC OPERATIONS IN MATLAB Scalar Calculations. The common arithmetic operators used in spreadsheets and programming languages such as BASIC are used in 'matlab'. In addition a distinction is made between right and left division. The arithmetic operators are + addition subtraction

* / \ ^

multiplication right division (a/b means a b) left division (a\b means b a) exponentiation

When a single line of code includes more than one of these operators the precedence or order of the calculations follows the below order: Precedence 1 2 3 4 Operation parentheses exponentiation, left to right multiplication and division, left right addition and subtraction, left right

These rules are applied to scalar quantities (i.e., 1x1 matrices) in the ordinary manner. (Below we will discover that nonscalar matrices require additional rules for the application of these operators!!) For example, 3*4 ans=12 executed in 'matlab' gives

4/5 executed in 'matlab' gives ans=.8000 4\5 executed in 'matlab' gives ans=1.2500 x = pi/2; y = sin(x) y = 1 z = 0; w = exp(4*z)/5 z= .2000 executed in 'matlab' gives executed in 'matlab" gives

Note that many programmers will prefer to write the expression for w above in the format w = (exp(4*x))/5 which gives the same result and is sometimes less confusing when the string of arithmetic operations is long. Using 'matlab', carry out some simple arithmetic operations with scalars you define. In doing so utilize the 'matlab' functions sqrt(x), abs(s), sin(x), asin(x), atan(x), atan2(x), log(x), and log10(x) as well as exp(x). Many other functions are available in 'matlab' and can be found in the documentation. Matrix Calculations. Because matrices are made up of a number of elements and not a single number (except for the 1x1 scalar matrix), the ordinary rules of commutative, associative and distributive operations in arithmetic do not always follow. Moreover, a number of important but common-sense rules will prevail in matrix algebra and 'matlab' when dealing with nonscalar quantities. Addition and Subtraction of Matrices. Only matrices of the SAME ORDER can be added or subtracted. When two matrices of the same order are added or subtracted in matrix algebra, the individual

elements are added or subtracted. Thus the distributive rule applies. A + B = B + A and A - B = B - A

If C = A + B then each element Cij = Aij + Bij. Define A and B as follows: A=[1 2 3; 3 3 3; 5 3 1] B=[2 -3 4;2 -2 2; 0 4 0] Then note that C = A + B gives C = 3 5 5 -1 1 7 7 5 1 and C = B + A

Now define the row vector x= [3 5 7]

and the column vector y = [4; -1; -3] Note that the operation z = x + y is not valid! It is not valid because the two matrices do not have the same order. (x is a 1x3 matrix and y is a 3x1 matrix.) Adding any number of 1x1 matrices or scalars is permissible and follows the ordinary rules of arithmetic because the 1x1 matrix is a scalar. Adding two vectors is permissible so long as each is a row vector (1xn matrix) or column vector (nx1 matrix). Of course any number of vectors can be added or subtracted, the result being the arithmetic sum of the individual elements in the column or row vectors. Square matrices can always be added or subtracted so long as they are of the same order. A 4x4 square matrix can not be added to a 3x3 square matrix, because they are not of the same order, although both matrices are square. Multiplication of Matrices. Matrix multiplication, though straightforward in definition, is more complex than arithmetic multiplication because each matrix contains a number of elements. Recall that with vector multiplication, the existence of a number of elements in the vector resulted in two concepts of multiplication, the scalar product and the vector product. Matrix multiplication has its array of special rules as well. In matrix multiplication, the elements of the product, C, of two matrices A*B are calculated from

Cij = Aik * Bkj To form this sum, the number of columns of the first or left matrix (A) must be equal to the number of rows in the second or right matrix (B). The resulting product, matrix C, has an order for which the number of rows equals the number of rows of the first (left) matrix (A) and the product (C) has a number of columns equal to the number of columns in the second (right) matrix (B). It is clear that A*B IS NOT NECESSARILY EQUAL TO B*A! It is also clear that A*B and B*A only exist for square matrices! Consider the simple product of two square 2x2 matrices. a = [ 1 2; 3 4]; b = [ 8 7; 6 5]; Calling the product c = a*b c11 c12 c21 c22 = = = = a11*b11 a11*b12 a21*b11 a21*b12 + + + + a12*b21 a12*b22 a22*b21 a22*b22

Carry out the calculations by hand and verify the result using 'matlab'. Next, consider the following matrix product of a 3x2 matrix X and a 2x4 matrix Y. X = [2 Y = [5 3 ; 4 -1 ; 0 -6 7 2 ; 1 7]; 2 3 6];

First, note that the matrix product X*Y exists because X has the same number of columns (2) as Y has rows (2). (Note that Y*X does NOT exist!) If the product of X*Y is called C, the matrix C must be a 3x4 matrix. Again, carry out the calculations by hand and verify the result using 'matlab'. Note that the PRODUCT OF A SCALAR AND A MATRIX is a matrix in which every element of the matrix has been multiplied by the scalar. Verify this by recalling the matrix X defined above, and carry out the product 3*X on 'matlab'. (Note that this can be written X*3 as well as 3*X, because quantity '3' is scalar.) ARRAY PRODUCTS Recall that addition and subtraction of matrices involved addition or subtraction of the individual elements of the matrices. Sometimes it is desired to simply multiply or divide each element of an matrix by the corresponding element of another matrix. These are called 'array operations" in 'matlab'. Array or element-byelement operations are executed when the operator is preceded by a '.' (period). Thus a .* b a ./ b a .\ b multiplies each element of a by the respective element of b divides each element of a by the respective element of b divides each element of b by the respective element

a .^ b

of a raise each element of a by the respective b element

For example, if matrices G and H are defined G = [ 1 H = [-4 3 0 5; 2 3; 1 0 36 4 9 6]; 8]; 15 48 ]

G .* H = [ -4 2

TRANSPOSE OF A MATRIX The transpose of a matrix is obtained by interchanging the rows and columns. The 'matlab' operator that creates the transpose is the single quotation mark, '. Recalling the matrix G G' = [ 1 3 5 2 4 6 ]

Note that the transpose of a m x n matrix creates a n x m matrix. One of the most useful operations involving the transpose is that of creating a column vector from a row vector, or a row vector from a column vector. INNER (SCALAR) PRODUCT OF TWO VECTORS The scalar or inner product of two row vectors, G1 and G2 is found as follows. Create the row vectors for this example by decomposing the matrix G defined above. G1 = G(1,:) G2 = G(2,:) Then the inner product of the 1x3 row vector G1 and the 1x3 row vector G2 is G1 * G2' = 44 Verify this result by carrying out the operations on 'matlab'. If the two vectors are each column vectors, then the inner product must be formed by the matrix product of the transpose of a column vector times a column vector, thus creating an operation in which a 1 x n matrix is multiplied with a n x 1 matrix. In summary, note that the inner product must always be the product of a row vector times a column vector. OUTER PRODUCT OF TWO VECTORS If two row vectors exist, G1 and G2 as defined above, the outer product is simply G1' * G2 {Note G1' is 3x1 and G2 is 1x3}

and the result is a square matrix in contrast to the scalar result

for the inner product. DON'T CONFUSE THE OUTER PRODUCT WITH THE VECTOR PRODUCT IN MECHANICS! If the two vectors are column vectors, the outer product must be formed by the product of one vector times the transpose of the second! OTHER OPERATIONS ON MATRICES As noted above, many functions that exist can be applied directly to a matrix by simply allowing the function to operate on each element of the matrix array. This is true for the trigonometric functions and their inverse. It is true also for the exponential function, ex, exp(), and the logarithmic functions, log() and log10(). Exponential operations (using ^) on matrices are quite different from their use with scalars. If W is a square matrix W^2 implies W*W which is quite different from W.*W. Be certain of your intent before raising a matrix to an exponential power. Of course W^2 only exists if W is a square matrix. SPECIAL MATRICES A number of special functions exist in 'matlab' to create special or unusual matrices. For example, matrices with element values of zero or 1 are sometimes useful. zeros(4) creates a square matrix (4 x 4) whose elements are zero. zeros(3,2) creates a 3 row, 2 column matrix of zeros. Similarly the commands ones(4) creates a 4 x 4 square matrix whose elements are 1's and 'ones(3,2)' creates a 3x2 matrix whose elements are 1's. If a m x n matrix, say A, already exists, the command 'ones(A)' creates an m x n matrix of 1's. The command 'zeros(A)' creates an mxn matrix of 0's. Note that these commands do not alter the previously defined matrix A, which is only a basis for the size of the matrix created by commands zeros() and ones(). The identity matrix is a square matrix with 1's on the diagonal and 0's off the diagonal. Thus a 4x4 identity matrix, a, is a=[1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1]

This matrix can be created with the 'eye' function. Thus, a = eye(4)

The 'eye' function will create non-square matrices. Thus eye(3,2) creates 1 0 0 and eye(2,3) creates 1 0 0 0 1 0 PRACTICE 1. The first four terms of the fourier series for the square wave whose amplitude is 5 and whose period is 2 is y = (20/)[sinx + (1/3)sin3x + (1/5)sin5x + (1/7)sin7x)] 0 1 0

Calculate this series, term by term, and plot the results for each partial sum.

Matlab Commands List

The following list of commands can be very useful for future reference. Use "help" in Matlab for more information on how to use the commands. In these tutorials, we use commands both from Matlab and from the Control Systems Toolbox, as well as some commands/functions which we wrote ourselves. For those commands/functions which are not standard in Matlab, we give links to their descriptions. For more information on writing Matlab functions, see thefunction page. Note:Matlab commands from the control system toolbox are highlighted in red. Non-standard Matlab commands are highlighted in green.

Command abs acker axis bode c2dm clf conv ctrb deconv det dimpulse dlqr dlsim dstep eig eps feedback figure for format function Absolute value

Description

Compute the K matrix to place the poles of A-BK, see also place Set the scale of the current plot, see also plot, figure Draw the Bode plot, see also logspace, margin, nyquist1 Continuous system to discrete system Clear figure (use clg in Matlab 3.5) Convolution (useful for multiplying polynomials), see also deconv The controllability matrix, see also obsv Deconvolution and polynomial division, see also conv Find the determinant of a matrix Impulse response of discrete-time linear systems, see also dstep Linear-quadratic requlator design for discrete-time systems, see also lqr Simulation of discrete-time linear systems, see also lsim Step response of discrete-time linear systems, see also stairs Compute the eigenvalues of a matrix Matlab's numerical tolerance Feedback connection of two systems. Create a new figure or redefine the current figure, see also subplot, axis For, next loop Number format (significant digits, exponents) Creates function m-files

grid gtext help hold if imag impulse input inv jgrid legend length linspace lnyquist1 log loglog logspace lqr lsim margin norm nyquist1

Draw the grid lines on the current plot Add a piece of text to the current plot, see also text HELP! Hold the current graph, see also figure Conditionally execute statements Returns the imaginary part of a complex number, see also real Impulse response of continuous-time linear systems, see also step, lsim, dlsim Prompt for user input Find the inverse of a matrix Generate grid lines of constant damping ratio (zeta) and settling time (sigma), see also sgrid, sigrid, zgrid Graph legend Length of a vector, see also size Returns a linearly spaced vector Produce a Nyquist plot on a logarithmic scale, see also nyquist1 natural logarithm, also log10: common logarithm Plot using log-log scale, also semilogx/semilogy Returns a logarithmically spaced vector Linear quadratic regulator design for continuous systems, see also dlqr Simulate a linear system, see also step, impulse, dlsim. Returns the gain margin, phase margin, and crossover frequencies, see also bode Norm of a vector Draw the Nyquist plot, see also lnyquist1. Note this command was written to replace the

Matlab standard command nyquist to get more accurate Nyquist plots. obsv ones place plot poly polyadd polyval print pzmap rank real rlocfind rlocus roots rscale set series sgrid sigrid size The observability matrix, see also ctrb Returns a vector or matrix of ones, see also zeros Compute the K matrix to place the poles of A-BK, see also acker Draw a plot, see also figure, axis, subplot. Returns the characteristic polynomial Add two different polynomials Polynomial evaluation Print the current plot (to a printer or postscript file) Pole-zero map of linear systems Find the number of linearly independent rows or columns of a matrix Returns the real part of a complex number, see also imag Find the value of k and the poles at the selected point Draw the root locus Find the roots of a polynomial Find the scale factor for a full-state feedback system Set(gca,'Xtick',xticks,'Ytick',yticks) to control the number and spacing of tick marks on the axes Series interconnection of Linear time-independent systems Generate grid lines of constant damping ratio (zeta) and natural frequency (Wn), see also jgrid, sigrid, zgrid Generate grid lines of constant settling time (sigma), see also jgrid, sgrid, zgrid Gives the dimension of a vector or matrix, see also length

sqrt ss ss2tf ss2zp stairs step subplot text tf tf2ss tf2zp title wbw

Square root Create state-space models or convert LTI model to state space, see also tf State-space to transfer function representation, see also tf2ss State-space to pole-zero representation, see also zp2ss Stairstep plot for discreste response, see also dstep Plot the step response, see also impulse, lsim, dlsim. Divide the plot window up into pieces, see also plot, figure Add a piece of text to the current plot, see also title, xlabel, ylabel, gtext Creation of transfer functions or conversion to transfer function, see also ss Transfer function to state-space representation, see also ss2tf Transfer function to Pole-zero representation, see also zp2tf Add a title to the current plot Returns the bandwidth frequency given the damping ratio and the rise or settling time.

xlabel/ylabel Add a label to the horizontal/vertical axis of the current plot, see also title, text, gtext zeros zgrid zp2ss zp2tf Returns a vector or matrix of zeros Generates grid lines of constant damping ratio (zeta) and natural frequency (Wn), see also sgrid, jgrid, sigrid Pole-zero to state-space representation, see also ss2zp Pole-zero to transfer function representation, see also tf2zp

Basic Matlab Commands

Derrick Hasterok January 27, 2005

1 Introduction
Matlab has a multitude of syntax and basic commands. Begining to program in a new language can be a daunting task. This document is meant as a help

to make getting started with Matlab a bit easier. Listed below is a few of the basic commands and a few of their properties. This list is not exhaustive, nor is it meant to be. The Matlab command help is your friend!

2 System Commands
cd - Change directory. clc - Clears command window. clear - Clears variables from workspace. close - Closes figures. delete - Deletes file. ls - Lists directry. help - Tells you how to use a command. mkdir - Makes directory. pwd - Prints working directory. who - Lists current variables on workspace. whos - Lists current variables and size. why - Just try it if you get annoyed.

3 Operators
3.1 Arithmetic operators
+ - Plus - - Minus * - Matrix multiply .* - Array multiply ^ - Matrix power .^ - Array power / - Right matrix divide 1 ./ - Right array divide

3.2 Boolean operators

== - Equal ~= - Not equal < - Less than > - Greater than <= - Less than or equal >= - Greater than or equal

3.3 Logical operators

& - Logical AND | - Logical OR ~ - Logical NOT

3.4 Special commands

: - Span operator [1:5] = [1 2 3 4 5] ( ) - Operation grouping [ ] - Vector and matrix delimiter . - Decimal point .. - Parent directory ... - Continuation of command to next line , - Separator ; - End line or row % - Comment = - Assignment operator - String delimiter . - Transpose - Complex conjugate transpose

4 Basic Syntax
if - Conditionally execute statements.

else - IF statement condition. elseif - IF statement condition. end - Terminate scope of FOR, WHILE, SWITCH, TRY and IF statements. for - Repeat statements a specific number of times. while - Repeat statements an indefinite number of times. break - Terminate execution of WHILE or FOR loop. continue - Pass control to the next iteration of FOR or WHILE loop. function - Add new function. return - Return to invoking function. 2 error - Display error message and abort function. disp - Display an array. feval - Execute function specified by string.

5 Elementary Math Functions

5.1 Trigonometric
sin - Sine. asin - Inverse sine. cos - Cosine. acos - Inverse cosine. tan - Tangent. atan - Inverse tangent. atan2 - Four quadrant inverse tangent.

5.2 Basic
sqrt - Square root. exp - Exponential. log - Natural logarithm. log10 - Common (base 10) logarithm. factorial - Factorial function.

5.3 Complex
abs - Absolute value. conj - Complex conjugate. real - Complex real part. imag - Complex imaginary part. isreal - True for real array.

5.4 Rounding
floor - Round towards minus infinity. ceil - Round towards plus infinity. round - Round towards nearest integer. mod - Modulus.

5.5 Matrix and Other

norm - Matrix or vector norm. det - Determinant. inv - Matrix inverse. eig - Eigenvalues and eigenvectors. cross - Vector cross product. 3 dot - Vector dot product.

6 File input/output
input - Prompt for user input. load - Load workspace from MATLAB (MAT) file. save - Save data to MATLAB (MAT) file.

7 Plot commands
7.1 2D Graphs

plot - Linear plot. loglog - Log-log scale plot. semilogx - Semi-log scale plot. semilogy - Semi-log scale plot. axis - Control axis scaling and appearance. hold - Hold current graph. title - Graph title. xlabel - X-axis label. ylabel - Y-axis label. get - Gets plot properties. set - Sets plot properties.

7.2 Matlab PLOT styles

Color Line Type Marker Type y - yellow - - solid . - point m - magenta : - dotted o - circle c - cyan -. - dashdot x - x-mark r - red -- - dashed + - plus g - green * - star b - blue s - square w - white d - diamond k - black v - triangle (down) ^ - triangle (up) < - triangle (left) > - triangle (right p - pentagram h - hexagram 4

General Reference of MATLAB Commands

There are many MATLAB features which cannot be included in these introductory notes. Listed below are some of the MATLAB functions and operators available, grouped by subject area. Use the online help facility, or consult the MATLAB User's Guide, for more detailed information on the functions. There are many functions beyond these. There exist, in particular, several "toolboxes" of functions for specific areas, including those for signal processing, control theory, dynamical systems (system identification), and chemometrics. These can be explored via the command
help

General Functions
help demo who what size length clear computer help facility run demonstrations list variables in memory list M-files on disk row and column dimensions vector length clear workspace type of computer

^C exit quit

local abort exit MATLAB same as exit

Matrix and Array Operators

Matrix Operators + * / \ ^ ' addition subtraction multiplication right division left division power conjugate transpose Array Operators + .* ./ .\ .^ .' addition subtraction multiplication right division Left division power transpose

Relational and Logical Operators

<= > >= == ~= less than less than or equal greater than greater than or equal equal not equal & | ~ and or not

Special Characters
= [ ] ( ) . ... , ; : ! assignment statement used to form vectors and matrices see [ arithmetic expression precedence see ( decimal point continue statement to next line separate subscripts and function arguments end rows, suppress printing comments subscripting, vector generation execute operating system command

Special Values
ans eps pi i,j inf NaN clock date flops nargin answer when expression not assigned floating point precision 3.14159...... square root of -1 oo Not-a-Number wall clock date floating point operation count number of function input arguments

nargout number of function output arguments

Disk- and File-related Commands

chdir delete diary dir load save type what fprintf pack change current directory delete file diary of the session directory of files on disk load variables from file save variables to file list function or file show M-files on disk write to a file compact memory via save

Special Matrices
compan diag eye gallery hadamard hankel hilb invhilb linspace logspace magic meshdom ones rand toeplitz vander zeros companion diagonal identity esoteric Hadamard Hankel Hilbert inverse Hilbert linearly spaced vectors logarithmically spaced vectors magic square domain for mesh points constant random elements Toeplitz Vandermonde zero

Matrix Manipulation
rot90 fliplr flipud diag tril triu reshape .' : rotation flip matrix left-to-right flip matrix up-to-down diagonal matrices lower triangular part upper triangular part reshape transpose convert matrix to single column; A (: )

Relational and Logical Functions

any all logical conditions logical conditions

find isnan finite isempty isstr strcomp

find array indices of logical values detect NaNs detect infinities detect empty matrices detect string variables compare string variables

Control Flow
elseif else end for while break return pause used with if used with if terminate if, for, while repeat statements a number of times do while break out of for and while loops return from functions pause until key pressed

Programming and M-Files

input keyboard error function eval feval echo exist casesen global startup getenv menu etime get numbers from keyboard call keyboard as M-file display error message define function interpret text in variables evaluate function given by string enable command echoing check if variables exist set case sensitivity define global variables startup M-file get environment string select item from menu elapsed time

Text and Strings

abs eval num2str int2str setstr sprintf isstr strcomp hex2num convert string to ASCII values evaluate text macro convert number to string convert integer to string set flag indicating matrix is a string convert number to string detect string variables compare string variables convert hex string to number

Command Window
home format disp move cursor home set output display format display matrix or text

fprintf echo

print formatted number enable command echoing

Graph Features
plot loglog semilogx semilogy polar mesh contour meshdom bar stairs errorbar linear X-Y plot loglog X-Y plot semi-log X-Y plot semi-log X-Y plot polar plot 3-dimensional mesh surface contour plot domain for mesh plots bar charts stairstep graph add error bars

Graph Annotation
title xlabel ylabel grid text gtext ginput plot title x-axis label y-axis label draw grid lines arbitrarily position text mouse-positioned text graphics input

Graph Window Control

axis hold shg clg subplot manual axis scaling hold plot on screen show graph window clear graph window split graph window

Graph Window Hardcopy Commands

print prtsc meta send graph to printer screen dump graphics metafile

Elementary Math Functions

abs angle sqrt real imag conj absolute value or complex magnitude phase angle square root real part imaginary part complex conjugate

round fix floor ceil sign rem exp log logl0

round to nearest integer round toward zero round towards -oo round toward oo signum function remainder exponential base e natural logarithm log base 10

Trigonometric Functions
sin cos tan asin acos atan atan2 sinh cosh tanh asinh acosh atanh sine cosine tangent arcsine arccosine arctangent four quadrant arctangent hyperbolic sine hyperbolic cosine hyperbolic tangent hyperbolic arcsine hyperbolic arccosine hyperbolic arctangent

Special Functions
bessel gamma rat erf inverf ellipk ellipj bessel function gamma function rational approximation error function inverse error function complete elliptic integral of first kind Jacobian elliptic integral

Decompositions and Factorizations

balance backsub cdf2rdf chol eig hess inv lu nnls null orth pinv qr qz rref balanced form backsubstitution convert complex-diagonal to real-diagonal Cholesky factorization eigenvalues and eigenvectors Hessenberg form inverse factors from Gaussian elimination nonnegative least squares null space orthogonalization pseudoinverse orthogonal-triangular decomposition QZ algorithm reduced row echelon form

schur svd

Schur decomposition singular value decomposition

Matrix Conditioning
cond norm rank rcond condition number in 2-norm 1-norm,2-norm,F-norm,oo-norm rank condition estimate (reciprocal)

Elementary Matrix Functions

expm logm sqrtm funm poly det trace kron matrix exponential matrix logarithm matrix square root arbitrary matrix function characteristic polynomial determinant trace Kronecker tensor product

Polynomials
poly roots rootsl polyval polyvalm conv deconv residue polyfit characteristic polynomial polynomial roots-companion matrix method polynomial roots-Laguerre's method polynomial evaluation matrix polynomial evaluation multiplication division partial-fraction expansion polynomial curve fitting

Column-Wise Data Analysis

max min mean median std sort sum prod cumsum cumprod diff hist corrcoef cov cplxpair maximum value minimum value mean value median value standard deviation sorting sum of elements product of elements cumulative sum of elements cumulative product of elements approximate derivatives histograms correlation coefficients covariance matrix reorder into complex pairs

Signal Processing
abs angle conv corrcoef cov deconv fft fft2 ifft ifft2 fftshift complex magnitude phase angle convolution correlation coefficients covariance deconvolution radix-2 fast Fourier transform two-dimensional FFT inverse fast Fourier transform inverse 2-D FFT FFT rearrangement

Interpolation
spline table1 table2 cubic spline 1-D table look-up 2-D table look-up

Differential Equation Solution

ode23 ode45 2nd/3rd order Runge-Kutta method 4th/5th order Runge-Kutta-Fehlberg method

Nonlinear Equations and Optimization

fmin fmins fsolve fzero minimum of a function of one variable minimum of a multivariable function solution of a system of nonlinear equations (zeros of a multivariable function) zero of a function of one variable

Other Matlab Hints

Click on an item listed below to access additional MATLAB-related hints.

A General Introduction to MATLAB Algorithm Efficiency Comparisons The Basics of MATLAB MATLAB Command Summary FOR, WHILE, and IF Loops Formatting Your MATLAB Output Generating MATLAB Graphics Matrix-Building Functions Entering Matrices in MATLAB Matrix Operating Functions

Matrix Operations A Brief Explanation of M-Files Managing M-Files Printing a Hardcopy of Your MATLAB Session MATLAB Scalar Functions MATLAB Statements, Expressions and Variables Submatrices and Colon Notation Vector Functions

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MATLAB Commands List

The following list of commands can be very useful for future reference. Use "help" in MATLAB for more information on how to use the commands. In these tutorials, we use commands both from MATLAB and from the Control Systems Toolbox, as well as some commands/functions which we wrote ourselves. For those commands/functions which are not standard in MATLAB, we give links to their descriptions. Note: MATLAB commands from the control system toolbox are highlighted in red. Non-standard MATLAB commands are highlighted in green. Command Description abs Absolute value acker Compute the K matrix to place the poles of A-BK, see also place axis Set the scale of the current plot, see also plot, figure bode Draw the Bode plot, see also logspace, margin, nyquist1 c2d Continuous system to discrete system clf Clear figure conv Convolution (useful for multiplying polynomials), see also deconv ctrb The controllability matrix, see also obsv deconv Deconvolution and polynomial division, see also conv det Find the determinant of a matrix dlqr Linear-quadratic regulator design for discrete-time systems, see also lqr eig Compute the eigenvalues of a matrix eps MATLAB's numerical tolerance feedback Connect linear systems in a feedback loop figure Create a new figure or redefine the current figure, see also subplot, axis for For, next loop format Number format (significant digits, exponents)

function Creates function m-files grid Draw the grid lines on the current plot gtext Add a piece of text to the current plot, see also text help HELP! hold Hold the current graph, see also figure if Conditionally execute statements imag Returns the imaginary part of a complex number, see also real impulse Impulse response of linear systems, see also step, lsim input Prompt for user input inv Find the inverse of a matrix legend Graph legend length Length of a vector, see also size linspace Returns a linearly spaced vector lnyquist Produce a Nyquist plot on a logarithmic scale, see also nyquist1 log natural logarithm, also log10: common logarithm loglog Plot using log-log scale, also semilogx/semilogy logspace Returns a logarithmically spaced vector lqr Linear quadratic regulator design for continuous systems, see also dlqr lsim Simulate a linear system, see also step, impulse margin Returns the gain margin, phase margin, and crossover frequencies, see also bode minreal Produces a minimal realization of a system (forces pole/zero cancellations) norm Norm of a vector nyquist1 Draw the Nyquist plot, see also lnyquist. Note this command was written to replace the MATLAB standard command nyquist to get more accurate Nyquist plots. obsv The observability matrix, see also ctrb ones Returns a vector or matrix of ones, see also zeros place Compute the K matrix to place the poles of A-BK, see also acker plot Draw a plot, see also figure, axis, subplot. poly Returns the characteristic polynomial polyval Polynomial evaluation print Print the current plot (to a printer or postscript file) pzmap Pole-zero map of linear systems rank Find the number of linearly independent rows or columns of a matrix real Returns the real part of a complex number, see also imag rlocfind Find the value of k and the poles at the selected point rlocus Draw the root locus roots Find the roots of a polynomial rscale Find the scale factor for a full-state feedback system set Set(gca,'Xtick',xticks,'Ytick',yticks) to control the number and spacing of tick marks on the axes sgrid Generate grid lines of constant damping ratio (zeta) and natural frequency (Wn), see also sigrid, zgrid sigrid Generate grid lines of constant settling time (sigma), see also sgrid, zgrid

size Gives the dimension of a vector or matrix, see also length sqrt Square root ss Create state-space models or convert LTI model to state space, see also tf ssdata Access to state-space data. See also tfdata stairs Stairstep plot for discrete response step Plot the step response, see also impulse, lsim subplot Divide the plot window up into pieces, see also plot, figure text Add a piece of text to the current plot, see also title, xlabel, ylabel, gtext tf Creation of transfer functions or conversion to transfer function, see also ss tfdata Access to transfer function data, see also ssdata title Add a title to the current plot wbw Returns the bandwidth frequency given the damping ratio and the rise or settling time. xlabel/ylabel Add a label to the horizontal/vertical axis of the current plot, see also title, text, gtext zeros Returns a vector or matrix of zeros zgrid Generates grid lines of constant damping ratio (zeta) and natural frequency (Wn), see also sgrid, sigrid