FOUNDATION SYSTEMS

Foundation systems
The foundation system for a building is the critical link in the transmission of building loads down to the ground. Bearing directly on the soil, the foundation system must:
Distribute vertical loads so the settling of a building is either negligible or uniform under all parts of the building. Anchor the building's superstructure to prevent uplifting due to wind and earthquake forces.

Foundation system
The most critical factor in determining the foundation system of a building is the type and bearing capacity of the soil. Two areas to consider in foundations systems include:
BUILDING DESIGN FOUNDATION TYPES

Design considerations
There are three general concerns with the design of foundation systems:
SETTLING WATER FROST

Settling
As a building bears down on the supporting soil, some settlement is to be expected. A properly designed and constructed foundation system should minimize settlement Uneven or "differential" settlement can cause a building to shift out of plumb causing cracks in the foundation, structure, or finish. Extreme differential settlement can lead to failure of a building's structural integrity. The cause of settlement is typically due to a reduction in the volume of air voids in the soil.

Water
Ground water can create lateral pressure (called Equivalent Fluid Pressure) and can penetrate foundation walls and ground slabs below grade, especially if they lie below the water table. In cohesive soles, ground water may rise through capillary action and penetrate a building's ground slab. Granular base materials and vapor barriers are used to control capillary action. Dewatering a foundation site is often required prior to beginning construction.

Foundation Types

Foundation Types
Foundations are the building component which transfers building loads to the soil. There are two basic types of foundations:
SHALLOW - Shallow foundations transfer the load to soil at the base of the substructure DEEP - Deep foundations transfer loads far below the substructure. These foundations penetrate incompetent soil until a satisfactory bearing stratum is reached.

SHALLOW FOUNDATIONS
Shallow foundations transfer the load to soil at the base of the substructure. Characteristics of shallow foundations are they are cheap and they require suitable soil.

Shallow foundations
There are a variety of shallow foundation types used in the construction of foundations.
Columns Combined or Cantilevered Mat Floating Wall (strip) Spread Footings Slab on grade Basement crawl space

Mat footing rebar

DEEP FOUNDATIONS

CAISSON and DRIVEN PILES

Deep foundations transfer loads far below the substructure. These foundations penetrate incompetent soil until a satisfactory bearing stratum is reached. Used to reach deeper layers with greater bearing Used to avoid obstacles in ground (vs walls)

PILES

PILING EQUIPMENT

UNDERPINNING
Underpinning is a generic term to describe the process of modifying an existing foundation by adding support. This can be done by various means, such as Piering (installing steel piers), concrete caissons or piles. Each have their own advantages and disadvantages.

Underpinning

Drilled shafts
Are deep or shallow foundation support elements formed by creating a borehole into which structural steel and concrete is cast or placed.

Drilled Shafts

Drilling Hole

Caisson Foundation
Concrete cylinders poured into drilled holes Piers are dug and then filled with concrete. Differs from columns in that it reaches through strata of unsatisfactory soil beneath the substructure of a building until it reaches bearing stratum, such as Rock, dense sand or gravel.

Caisson Construction
Constructed by Drilling a hole in ground. Temporary cylindrical steel casing is usually lowered around drill as it progresses down to support soil. Bottom of caisson is "Flared" out to achieve the required bearing area, and filling the hole with concrete. Hand excavated or use "Belling bucket" with retractable cutters. Diameters can range up to 8' and more or as little as 18 inches.

Types of Caissons
Belled Caisson
Bottom of caisson is "Flared" out to achieve the required bearing area, and filling the hole with concrete. Example

Socketed Caisson
Drilled into rock at the bottom rather than "belled" Bearing capacity comes from end bearing on rocks and friction between caisson on soil or rock

BORED CAISSION PILING

Piles up to 24 diameter can be constructed using crane or lorry mounted rotary auger rigs. Tripod piles are formed by percussive boring within a temporary casing which supports unstable ground and seals off water.

Casing Caisson

Tripod piles

Rotary auger bored pile

Augered Cast-In-Place Pile

An augered hole is bored into the ground to a specific depth or criteria determined by the engineer. Once the criteria is met, fluid concrete grout is pumped through the hollow auger stem The auger stem is withdrawn while positive pressure is maintained to the surface. The top of the pile is formed and reinforcing steel is inserted.

Auger Pile

Augered Cast-In-Place Pile

Auger cast Cutoff Wall

The perimeter of the building was surrounded by a continuous 12" diameter x 20' deep auger cast wall installed from the existing surface. After excavation and shotcreting, it became the outer formwork for the structural walls.

GROUT INJECTION PILE

Consists of a steel pipe casing attached to a patented drill trip. The casing is used as a lining for the concrete, which is placed after the pile has been installed. The casing is usually used as a structural element of the pile. The drill tip serves as an installation aid, as well as provides the means through which grout is injected to produce a soil-cement mixture around the pile.

STEEL PIPE PILES

Steel pipe are used for piling and drilled shaft projects. The pipe is produced to ASTM A-252 in Grade 2 and Grade 3 and with 50,000-psi minimum yield, in sizes ranging from 8 5/8" OD to 144" OD. Lengths to 100 and the ability to attach end plates, conical points, reinforcing bands and other fabrications.

Steel Pipe Pile

DRIVEN PILES

Pile Types
Distinguished from caissons by being "driven" into the earth rather than drilled Classified by Pile material, method of placement, and method of load transfer

Pile Drivers
Drop hammer
Hammer drops on piling

Mechanical
Piston actuated by steam or compressed air

Vibratory hammer

Load Transfer Characteristics

Bearing Piles
transfers load through the unstable surface soils to the denser soils below such as bedrock

Friction Piles
Depends on friction resistance between the soil it passes through and the surface of the pile. Used in clay soils Driven Piles & Concrete Caissons use this methods

Sheet Piles
Designed to resist Horizontal pressures Used to hold back earth embankments and sides of excavation

Bearing Caps

Steel reinforced concrete structures, normally square or rectangular, of a thickness which combine piles in groups to support singular columns above.

Pile Materials
Wood Pile Steel H-Pile Steel Pipe Pile Site cased pile Precast Concrete Pile Composite Piles (Wood & Steel)

Pile Materials

Wood Piling

Steel H-Piling

Timber Piles
Were the first tapered piles. Using the trunk as a pile must have come easily to ancient pile drivers placing the small end down was obviously a better way to drive a tree trunk into the ground.

DRIVEN PILING
Precast top driven piles.
Large crane or restricted headroom (5.0) rigs are available for 200mm and 250mm square sections.

Driven Tube
Full ranges of permanently steel cased piles are available from 150mm tp 405mm diameters. These can be top or bottom driven. Pile size can be varied to provide the most economical solution for different pile loads.

Depth to 80 feet

DRIVEN PRECAST
10 x 10 square precast Depth 60 feet

Permanent steel cased

Concrete infilled bottom driven piles.

Driven Piles

Tapered Piles
Taper increases the apparent friction on the side of the pile. The load creates both horizontal and vertical reactions in the soil as the tapered surface is pushed down. For vertical-sided piles all horizontal compaction of the soil is done during driving, before working load is applied, but for a tapered pile to settle, some additional side compaction must occur.

Tapered Pile
Most of the tapered products produced as tubular steel piles Configured with a 25 long tapered section having a bottom diameter of 8, top diameter of 18 A cast steel point was welded to the bottom of the taper, and the polygonal shape was mechanically circularized at the top of the taper.

Advantages of a Tapered Piles

Some soil conditions that would otherwise not carry much load using a straight-sided pile will carry a substantially higher load when the pile is tapered. The combination of bearing and frictional resistance produced by the wedge shape of the taper is greater than the side friction and end bearing of a cylindrical pile.

Monotube Pile
For fully embedded foundation piles the most commonly used diameters are 12 and 14 inches with design loads up to 150 tons, contingent on soil capacity.

Taper tube cast steel conical tip

Pile driver lifting a Tapered tube

Tapered pile
A 25 bottom section can easily be matched, on the job, with a 50 top section to produce a 75 pile and no over length trucks or permits are required. A large diameter tip can be used to take advantage of weaker soils while retaining a smaller diameter upper portion of the pile.
For instance, a pile using an 8 tip 25 long and tapering up to 18 could be extended with a 14 top.

Taper pile being positioned into pile leads.

Tapertube being driven to splicing level.

Pipe being spliced to driven section of Taper tube.

Helical Piers
Are hydraulically twisted or turned into the soil much like a corkscrew. The piers contain one or more "flights" that pull the pier into the soil. These piers are screwed down until they reach soil that is thick enough to support the desired result. Since they are screwed in, they cannot be pushed or pulled out. They can be used to either support a structure or to keep a structure from coming away from the soil such as a retaining wall or a home on a hillside.

Helical Screw Pile

A circular hollow section of steel (shaft) with one or more tapered steel plates (helix's) strategically welded to the shaft which is in turn wound into the ground using rotary hydraulics for the purpose of compression piles and tension anchors.

Screwpile Technology
Screwpiles work in both sand or clay conditions. Screwpiles are screwed into the ground much like giant self tapping screws through the use of rotary hydraulics attached to earthmoving equipment such as mini excavators, bobcats, proline crane borers or large excavators depending on the capacity and size of screwpile required. During and at completion of the Screwpile installation the installer monitors the installing torques to ensure that sufficient load capacities are achieved.

Advantages of Screwpiling
Vibration free installation Very fast installation No de-watering No concrete No Reinforcement No spoils No liners Versatile Re-Usable The Environmental Choice