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DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

Computer Networks Lab Manual

Prepared By:- Amandeep Singh Sandhu (Lab Supdt.)

2 Experiment --1 AIM:- To Study Various Transmission Media Like Twisted Pair, Coaxial Cable & Optical Fibre. APPARATUS: - Wires, PVC insulation, metallic (copper) conductor, Teflon material etc. THEORY: Transmission medium can be defined as anything that can carry information from a source to a destination. Types of Transmission media 1. 2. Guided Media Unguided Media

Guided Media: These provide a conduit from one device to another, include twisted pair, coaxial cable and fiber optical cable. A signal travling along any of these media is directed and contained by the physical limits of the medium.These are following types:1. 2. 3. Twisted Pair Cable Co-axial Cable Fibre Optic Cable

Twisted pair cable:This is of two types :1. 2. Unshielded (UTP) Shielded (STP)

Unshielded twisted pair Cable(UTP) :This is most common type of telecommunication medium. Its frequency range is suitable for both data & voice. It consists of two conductors each with its own colored plastic insulation used for identification. Colors are used both for identification of specific conductor & to indicate that which wire belong in a pairs and how they relate ot other pair in a large bundle. In past two parallel flat wires are used in communication system. Noise sources introduce signals into the wires by coupling of electric or magnetic fields and tend to couple to both wires equally. The noise thus produces a common-mode signal which is cancelled at the receiver when the difference signal is taken. This method starts to fail when the noise source is close to the signal wires; the closer wire will couple with the noise more strongly and the common-mode rejection of the receiver will fail to eliminate it. This problem is especially apparent in telecommunication cables where pairs in the same cable lie next to each other for many miles. One pair can induce crosstalk in another and it is additive along

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the length of the cable. Twisting the pairs counters this effect as on each half twist the wire nearest to the noise-source is exchanged. Providing the interfering source remains uniform, or nearly so, over the distance of a single twist, the induced noise will remain commonmode. Differential signaling also reduces electromagnetic radiation from the cable, along with the attenuation that it causes. The twist rate (also called pitch of the twist, usually defined in twists per meter) makes up part of the specification for a given type of cable. Where nearby pairs have equal twist rates, the same conductors of the different pairs may repeatedly lie next to each other, partially undoing the benefits of differential mode. For this reason it is commonly specified that, at least for cables containing small numbers of pairs, the twist rates must differ Advantage of UTP:Its cost & ease of use. UTP is cheap flexible & easy to install. Higher grades of UTP are used in many LAN technologies. i.e. Ethernet & Token ring. Shielding twisted pair Cable STP:Twisted pair cables are often shielded in attempt to prevent electromagnetic interference. Because the shielding is made of metal, it may also serve as a ground. However, usually a shielded or a screened twisted pair cable has a special grounding wire added called a drain wire. This shielding can be applied to individual pairs, or to the collection of pairs. When shielding is applied to the collection of pairs, this is referred to as screening. The shielding must be grounded for the shielding to work. Stp has the same quality considerations and uses the same connectors as UTP but shield must be connected to ground. STP is expensive than UTP But less susceptible to noise. Advantages:1. Cheap and easy to install. 2. 3. 4. Easy to work with. Easy to maintain and connect. It is having more strength because two wires are twisted together.

Disadvantages: 1. Interface is more. 2. 3. Data rate is low in case of twisted pair. Short range.

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Coaxial Cable:Coaxial cable, or coax, is an electrical cable with an inner conductor surrounded by a tubular insulating layer typically of a flexible material with a high dielectric constant, all of which are surrounded by a conductive layer (typically of fine woven wire for flexibility, or of a thin metallic foil), and finally covered with a thin insulating layer on the outside. Coaxial cable is used as a transmission line for radio frequency signals, in applications such as connecting radio transmitters and receivers with their antennas, computer network (Internet) connections, and distributing cable television signals. One advantage of coax over other types of transmission line is that in an ideal coaxial cable the electromagnetic field carrying the signal exists only in the space between the inner and outer conductors. This allows coaxial cable runs to be installed next to metal objects such as gutters without the power losses that occur in other transmission lines, and provides protection of the signal from external electromagnetic interference.

Coaxial cable should not be confused with other shielded cable used for carrying lower frequency signals such as audio signals. Shielded cable is similar in that it consists of a central wire or wires surrounded by a tubular shield conductor, but it is not constructed with the precise conductor spacing needed to function efficiently as a radio frequency transmission line. Coaxial Cable Standards:Most coaxial cables have a characteristic impedance of either 50, 52, 75, or 93 . The RF industry uses standard type-names for coaxial cables. Thanks to television, RG-6 is the most commonly-used coaxial cable for home use, and the majority of connections outside Europe are by F connectors. A series of standard types of coaxial cable were specified for military uses, in the form "RG#" or "RG-#/U". They date from WW II and were listed in MIL-HDBK-216 published in 1962. These designations are now obsolete. The current military standard is MIL-SPEC MIL-C-17. MIL-C-17 numbers, such as "M17/75-RG214," are given for military cables and manufacturer's catalog numbers for civilian applications. However, the RG-series designations were so common for generations that they are still used, although critical users should be aware that since the handbook is withdrawn there is no standard to guarantee the electrical and physical characteristics of a cable described as "RG-# type". The RG designators are mostly used to identify compatible connectors that fit the inner conductor, dielectric, and jacket dimensions of the old RG-series cables Few of the common ones:-

RG-8 Used in thick Ethernet RG-9 Used in thick Ethernet RG-11 Used in thick Ethernet RG-58 Used in thick Ethernet RG-59 Used for TV

Coaxial Cable Connectors:Barrel connector used for Coaxial Cable. Of the barrel connectors most common is bayonet network connector (BNC), Which pushes on and locks into place with a half turn other types of barrel connectors either screw together and thus requires more effort to install.Coxial connectors are familier from cable TV and VCR which employ both threaded and slip-on styles. Coaxial connectors are designed to maintain a coaxial form across the connection and have the same well-defined impedance as the attached cable. Connectors are often plated with high-conductivity metals such as silver or gold. Due to the skin effect, the RF signal is only carried by the plating and does not penetrate to the connector body. Although silver oxidizes quickly, the silver oxide that is produced is still conductive. While this may pose a cosmetic issue, it does not degrade performance. Applications: 1. Used in cable T.V. 2. Used for long distance telephone transmission. It can carry 10000 voice calls simultaneously. 3. Used for short distance computer system links LANS. Categories of Co-axial Cables: 1. 2. Brood Band. Base Band.

Connector Used: - BNC(Bayonet Network Connector) Types of BNC Connector: 1. 2. BNC T-Connector BNC Terminator

Optical Fiber Cable:-

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Optical Fiber Cable is made of glass or plastic and transmits signal in the form of light. To understand the Optical Fiber Cable we first need to explore the various aspects of nature of light. Nature of Light:Light is the form of electromagnetic energy. It travels as fast in the vacuum 300,000 km/sec. Speed of light depend upon the density of medium through which it is traveling.

Refraction:Refraction is the change in direction of a wave due to a change in its speed. This is most commonly observed when a wave passes from one medium to another. Refraction of light is the most commonly observed example, but any type of wave can refract when it interacts with a medium, for example when sound waves pass from one medium into another or when water waves move into water of a different depth. When light travels into denser medium the angle of incidence is greater than the angle of refraction & when light travels into less denser medium the angle of incidence is less than the angle of refraction.

Fiber Size 62.5/125 50/125 100/140 8.3/125

Core (microns) 62.5 50.0 100.0 8.3

Cladding (microns) 125 125 140 125

Reflection:When the angle of incidence is become greater than the critical angle a new phenomenon occurs reflection. The angle of incidence is equal to angle of reflection. Optical fiber uses reflection to guide through a channel. Propagation Modes:Current technology supports the two modes to propagating the light analog optical channels, each requiring channel fiber with different physical characteristics Multimode & Single Mode. Multimode can be implemented in two forms step Index or Graded Index. Multimode:Multimode so named becaused multiple beams from a light source moves through the core in different paths.

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In multimode step index fiber the density of core remains constant from the center to edge. A beam of light moves through this constant density in straight line until it reaches the interface of core and the cladding. Multimode graded Index fiber, decreases the destination of signal through the cable. The word index here refers to the index of refraction. Index of refraction is related to density. A graded Index fiber is therefore is one with varying densities. Density is higher at core and decreases gradually at lowest at the edge. The signal is introduced at the core. Only the horizontal beam moves in straight line through the constant density at center. Beams at other angle moves through a series of constantly changing densities.

Propagation Modes

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Single Mode:Single mode uses step index fiber and highly focused on source of light that limits a beam to small range of angles. Single mode fiber is manufactured with a much small diameter than that of multimode fiber & with substantially lower density. The decrease in density results in a critical angle that is close enough to 90 degree to make the propagation of beam to almost horizontal. Fiber Sizes:Optical fibers are defined by the diameter of their core to diameter of their cladding. Both expressed in microns.

Fiber Size 62.5/125 50/125 100/140 8.3/125

Core (microns) 62.5 50.0 100.0 8.3

Cladding (microns) 125 125 140 125

Light Source For Optical Cable:The light source may a light emitting diode (LED) or injection laser diode (ILD). LEDs are the cheaper source but they provide a unfocused signal that strikes with the boundaries of

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channel at uncontrollable angle & diffuses over distance. So LEDs are limited to short distance use. Advantages Of Optical Fiber: 1. 2. 3. Noise Resistance: - Due to uses of light instead of electricity noise is not a factor. Less Signal Attenuation: - Its distance is significantly greater than any other guided media. Higher Bandwidth: - It supports higher bandwidth than either twisted pair or coaxial cable. High speed. Large distance travelled. Data rate upto 100 Gbps. Small size and weight. Electromagnetic isolation. Greater repeater racing. Resistant to corrosive material. More immune to tapping.

Disadvantages Of Optical Fiber:Cost: - Optical fiber is expensive because any impurities or imperfections in core throw off the signal, Manufacturing must be painstakingly precise. Fragility:- Glass fiber is more easily broken than wire. Making it less useful where hardware Probability is required. Installation/Maintenance: - Any roughness or cracking in core diffuses the light & alter the signal. Unidirectional.

Applications: Used in cable TV companies. It provides the backbone structure. Used in LAN.

Connectors used: 1. 2. 3. Subscriber channel(SC). Straight tip(ST). MT-RJ.

Unguided Media: -

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It transport electromagnetic waves without using a physical conductor. This type of communication is often referred to as wireless communication. Types of Unguided Media: 1. Radio waves: - The electromagnetic ranging in frequencies between 3 KHz and 1 GHz are normally called Radio waves. Radio is omni directional and microwave is directional Radio is a general term often used to encompass frequencies in the range 3 kHz to 300 GHz. Mobile telephony occupies several frequency bands just under 1 GHz

2. Micro waves: - Electromagnetic waves having frequencies between 1 and 300 GHz are called Micro waves. It can be normally focused. 3. Infrared: - Electromagnetic waves are ranging from 300 GHz to 400 GHz. Uses transmitters/receivers (transceivers) that modulate no coherent infrared light. Transceivers must be within line of sight of each other (directly or via reflection). Unlike microwaves, infrared does not penetrate walls.

13 EXPERIMENT NO- 2 AIM: - To generate AM signal by modulating with Audio signal generator. (Analog to Analog conversion) APPARATUS: - Cathode Ray Oscilloscope (CRO), Trainer Kit, connecting wires etc. THEORY: Amplitude modulation: AM is a technique used in electronic communication, most commonly for transmitting information via a radio carrier wave. AM works by varying the strength of the transmitted signal in relation to the information being sent. The amplitude modulation is the way to accomplish analog to analog signal modulation. In AM transmission, the carrier signal is modulated so that its amplitude varies with the changing amplitudes of the modulating signal. The frequency and phase of the carrier remains the same, only the amplitude changes to follow the variations in the information. In AM, the carrier itself does not fluctuate in amplitude. Instead, the modulating data appears in the form of signal components at frequencies slightly higher and lower than that of the carrier. These components are called sidebands

Modulating wave signal

Modulated Signal
Amplitude Bandwidth: The bandwidth of AM signal is equal to twice the bandwidth of the modulating signal and covers a range centered around the carrier frequency. The bandwidth of an audio signal is usually 5 KHz. Therefore, an AM radio station needs a minimum bandwidth of 10 KHz. AM stations are allowed carrier frequencies anywhere between 530 and 1700 KHz. Each stations carrier frequency must be separated

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from those on either side of it by at least 10 KHz to avoid interference. If one station uses a carrier frequency of 1100 KHz, the next stations carrier frequency cannot be lower than 1110 KHz. The total bandwidth required for AM can be determined from the bandwidth of the audio signal: BW t=2*BW m

Amplitude Bandwidth
Demodulation:Demodulation is the process of decoding an analog signal into digital data. When data is transferred over phone lines, a modem modulates the data into audible tones "carried" on frequencies between 0 Hz and 4 KHz. Demodulation is the act of removing the modulation from an analog signal to get the original baseband signal back. Demodulating is necessary because the receiver system receives a modulated signal with specific characteristics and it needs to turn it to base-band. Once the data reaches its intended destination, another modem demodulates the signal back into digital data. Cable TV networks also use modulation techniques to transfer data. But instead of audible tones, cable has sophisticated digital modulation schemes to greatly increase the amount of data that can be sent. There are several ways of demodulation depending on what parameters of the base-band signal are transmitted in the carrier signal, such as amplitude, frequency or phase.

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An example of a demodulation system is a modem, which receives a telephone signal (electrical signal) and turns this signal from the wire net into a binary signal for the computer.

Amplitude Modulation

PROCEDURE: 1. Connect the following links: a. Link between sine output terminal of balanced modulator. b. +1 V link in balanced modulator. 2. Connect CRO channel-1 at sine output terminal. 3. Connect ground of probe to ground terminal of audio oscillator. 4. Adjust amplitude of sine wave to 2 Vpp and audio frequency of 1 KHz. 5. Connect CRO channel-2 at RF output terminal of RF oscillator. 6. Connect ground of probe to ground terminal of local oscillator. 7. Adjust output frequency of RF oscillator to 455 KHz and amplitude to 10 Vpp. 8. Now connect CRO channel-2 at AM mod output terminal of balanced modulator. 9. Trigger CRO by channel-1. 10. The amplitude modulated wave will be observed connect the modulated output of balanced modulator to input of diode detector i.e. link between AM between AM mod output and AM mod input.

16 EXPERIMENT NO.3
AIM: - To generate FM signal modulationwith Audio signal generator. (Analog to Analog conversion) APPARATUS: - Cathode Ray Oscilloscope (CRO), Trainer Kit, connecting wires etc. THEORY: Frequency Modulation (FM) FM is a system in which the amplitude of the modulated carrier is kept Constant, while its frequency is varied by the modulating signal The first practical system was Put forward in

1936 as an alternative to AM in an effort to make radio transmissions more Resistant to noise Phase Modulation is a similar system in which the phase of the carrier Signal is varied instead of its frequency; as in FM. the amplitude of the carrier signal remains Constant. The general equation of an un modulated wave or carrier wave may be written as x = A Sin (t +] where x = instantaneous value of voltage or current of carrier A= (maximum) amplitude - angular velocity, radians per second (rad/s) = Phase angle, rad Note that we represent an angle in radians

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If any one of these three parameters is varied in accordance with another signal, normally of a lower frequency, then the second signal is called the modulation and the first is said to be modulated by the second In the frequency modulation, frequency of the carrier is made to vary F for simplicity, it is again assumed that the modulation signal is sinusoidal. This signal has two important parameters which must be represented by the modulation process without distortion: namely, its amplitude and frequency It is assumed that the phase relations of a complex modulation signal will be preserved By the definition of frequency modulation, the amount by which the carrier frequency is varied from its un modulated value called the deviation, is made proportional to the instantaneous value of the modulating voltage. The rate at which this frequency variations or oscillations takes place is naturally equal to the modulating frequency.The situation is illustrated in Fig Which shows the modulating voltage and the resulting frequency - modulated wave. Fig also shows the frequency variation with time which is seen to be identical to the variation with time of the modulating voltage As an example of FM. all signals having the same amplitude will deviate the carrier frequency by the same amount, say 45 KHz, no matter what their frequencies are. Similarly all signals of the same frequency say 2 KHz. will deviate the carrier at the same rate of 2000 times per second, no matter what their individual amplitudes are. The amplitude of the frequency modulated wave remains constant at all times. This is infect, the greatest single advantage of FM. Frequency demodulation Frequency demodulation is the process that enable us to recover the original modulating signal from a frequency modulated signal. Here we describe a direct method of frequency demodulation involving the use of a popular device known as frequency discriminator, whose instantaneous frequency of the input of FM signal the circuit of frequency discriminator is shown in fig 1phase discriminator is shown in fig 2 both the primary and secondary tuned circuits are tuned to the centre frequency of the carrier the operation of this circuit very much depend on the 90 phase shift between the primary and secondary voltage at resonance This immediately rules out slope detection as a means of recovering the information signal. Instead, phase and frequency response of the tuned circuit are used to obtain the demodulated output.

Procedure :1. 2. 3. Make the connection according to the circuit diagram. Applied carried I/P to the Modulator Also applied modulating voltage I/P to the modulator.

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4. One Lead of CRO is connected to the modulator to observe the output waveform & second to measure the modulator voltage. 5. Precautions: 1. All the circuits should be according to circuit diagram. 2. All the connections should be tight. 3. The trainer kit should be switched off until the complete connections are made. 4. Switch off the trainer kit when not in use. Sketched the observed Waveforms.

19 EXPERIMENT NO.4 AIM: - Conversion of Analog to digital signals. EQUIPMENTS; - Experiment kit DCL-08, Patch chords, power supply, 20 MHz dual trace oscilloscope. THEORY: Pulse amplitude modulation (PAM)- Pulse amplitude modulation (PAM) is the transmission of data by varying the amplitudes (voltage or power levels) of the individual pulses in a regularly timed sequence of electrical or electromagnetic pulses. The number of possible pulse amplitudes can be infinite (in the case of analog PAM), but it is usually some power of two so that the resulting output signal can be digital. For example, in 4-level PAM there are 22 possible discrete pulse amplitudes; in 8-level PAM there are 23 possible discrete pulse amplitudes; and in 16-level PAM there are 24 possible discrete pulse amplitudes. In some PAM systems, the amplitude of each pulse is directly proportional to the instantaneous modulating-signal amplitude at the time the pulse occurs. In other PAM systems, the amplitude of each pulse is inversely proportional to the instantaneous modulating-signal amplitude at the time the pulse occurs. In still other systems, the intensity of each pulse depends on some characteristic of the modulating signal other than its strength, such as its instantaneous frequency or phase. PAM is only one of several forms of pulse modulation. Other methods include varying the durations (or widths), the frequencies, the positions, or the intervals of the individual pulses in a sequence. Some characteristic of the sampling pulses must be varied by the modulating signal for the intelligence of the signal to be present in the pulsed wave. Figure 2-42 shows three typical waveforms in which the pulse amplitude is varied by the amplitude of the modulating signal. View (A) represents a sine wave of intelligence to be modulated on a transmitted carrier wave. View (B) shows the timing pulses which determine the sampling interval. View (C) shows PULSE-AMPLITUDE MODULATION (PAM) in which the amplitude of each pulse is controlled by the instantaneous amplitude of the modulating signal at the time of each pulse.

20 Pulse-Amplitude Modulation

Pulse-amplitude modulation (PAM). TIMING.

Pulse-amplitude modulation (PAM). Pulse-amplitude modulation is the simplest form of pulse modulation. It is generated in much the same manner as analog-amplitude modulation. The timing pulses are applied to a pulse amplifier in which the gain is controlled by the modulating waveform. Since these variations in amplitude actually represent the signal, this type of modulation is basically a form of AM. The only difference is that the signal is now in the form of pulses. This means that pam has the same built-in weaknesses as any other AM signal - high susceptibility to noise and interference. The reason for susceptibility to noise is that any interference in the transmission path will either add to or subtract from any voltage already in the circuit (signal voltage). Thus, the amplitude of the signal will be changed. Since the amplitude of the voltage represents the signal, any unwanted change to the signal is considered a SIGNAL DISTORTION. For this reason, pam is not often used. When pam is used, the pulse train is used to frequency modulate a carrier for transmission. Techniques of pulse modulation other than pam have been developed to overcome problems of noise interference. The following sections will discuss other types of pulse modulation. Pulse code modulation (PCM)-Pulse code modulation is the heart of technology in communications in todays digital world. Its a process in which analog signals are converted to digital form. The analog signal is represented by a series of pulses and non-pulses (1 or 0 respectively).The stream of pulses and non-pulse streams of 1s and 0s are not easily affected by interference and noise. Even in the presence of noise, the presence or absence of a pulse can be easily determined. Since PCM is digital, a more general reason would be that digital signals are easy to process by cheap standard techniques. This makes it easier to implement complicated communication systems such as telephone networks. The practical implementation of PCM makes use of other processes. The processes are carried out in the order in which they appear below:

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Filtering Sampling Quantizing Encoding

The filtering stage removes frequencies above the highest signal frequency. These frequencies if not removed, may cause problems when the signal is going through the stage of sampling. Sampling of a waveform means determining instantaneous amplitudes of a signal at fixed intervals. You may have a problem in understanding what this sentence means, but if you take time to look at Figure 7 on the following Slide, you should be able to understand.

The Action of Sampling

Figure shows the determination of instantaneous amplitude at uniform intervals. 7b shows the samples corresponding to instantaneous amplitudes of the input signal, and 7c shows the output which represents the reconstructed input signal. Earlier we talked about PCM as the process of changing/converting signals from one form (analog) to the other (digital). Sampling is the first part of the answer as to how the signal changes from one form to the other. Quantization is the process of allocating levels to the infinite range of amplitudes of sample values of the analog signal.

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PROCEDURE:1. Carry out the following connection and switch settings. 2. Connect the power supply with proper polarity to the kit DCL-08 and switch it on. 3. Select 16 kHz sampling frequency by jumper JP1. 4. Connect the 1 KHz, 2Vp-p sine wave signal generated on board to PAM IN post. 5. Observe the pulse amplitude modulation output at PAM OUT post. 6. short the following posts with the link provided PAM OUT and AMP IN AMP OUT and FIL IN 7. Observe the pulse amplitude demodulated signal at FIL OUT, which is same as the input signal. 8. Repeat the experiment for different input signal and sampling frequency.

23 Experiment No. 5 AIM:- Various techniques of digital to analog converters. APPARATUS: - Multiplexer, Demutiplexer. THOERY: Phase-shift keying (PSK) is a digital modulation scheme that conveys data by changing, or modulating, the phase of a reference signal (the carrier wave). Any digital modulation scheme uses a finite number of distinct signals to represent digital data. PSK uses a finite number of phases, each assigned a unique pattern of binary bits. Usually, each phase encodes an equal number of bits. Each pattern of bits forms the symbol that is represented by the particular phase. The demodulator, which is designed specifically for the symbol-set used by the modulator, determines the phase of the received signal and maps it back to the symbol it represents, thus recovering the original data. This requires the receiver to be able to compare the phase of the received signal to a reference signal such a system is termed coherent.

Amplitude-shift keying (ASK) is a form of modulation that represents digital data as variations in the amplitude of a carrier wave. The amplitude of an analog carrier signal varies in accordance with the bit stream (modulating signal), keeping frequency and phase constant. The level of amplitude can be used to represent binary logic 0s and 1s. W e can

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think of a carrier signal as an ON or OFF switch. In the modulated signal, logic 0 is represented by the absence of a carrier, thus giving OFF/ON keying operation and hence the name given.

Frequency-shift keying (FSK) is a modulation scheme in which digital information is transmitted through discrete frequency changes of a carrier wave. The most common form of frequency shift keying is 2-FSK. As suggested by the name, 2-FSK uses two discrete frequencies to transmit binary (0's and 1's) information. With this scheme, the "1" is called the mark frequency and the "0" is called the space frequency. The time domain of an FSK modulated carrier is illustrated in the figures at right.

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Applications Most early telephone-line modems used audio frequency-shift keying to send and receive data, up to rates of about 300 bits per second. The common Bell 103 modem used this technique. Procedure 1. First apply any digital word by pushing push switches in data generator section e.g11001001 2. This digital word is NRZ data, which can be observed at NRZ DATA output terminal. 3. Connect CRO Channel-1 at Carrier Clock (Ck) socket and observe it. 4. Connect CRO Channel-1 at Bit Clock (bk) socket and observe it. 5. Connect CRO Channel-1 at Word Clock (wk) socket and observe it. 6. Connect CRO Channel-1 at NRZ DATA (NRZ) socket and observe it. 7. Connect CRO Channel-1 at RF Carrier socket (in Carrier generator section) and observe it. 8. Connect CRO Channel-1 at Bipolar NRZ socket and observe it. 9. Connect CRO Channel-1 at RF Carrier and CRO Channel-2 at 1 signal and observe their 180deg out of phase relationship. 10. Now connect CRO channel to at PSK output of PSK modulator. Connect CRO Channel 1 at Bipolar NRZ terminal, observe PSK output. 11. Observe carrier recovery process at following waveforms. 12. Squarer output 13. TTL received clock TTL, RCK 14. Recovered Carrier 15. Observe recovered raw data signal at output of PSK demodulator.

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16. Observe received pure NRZ data at the output data squarer. 17. Observe recovered bit clock. 18. Finally observe received NRZ output. 19. Apply different digital word by pushing push switches in data generator and observe recovered signal. Conclusion The PSK modulation and demodulation process observed.

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EXPERIMENT No. 6
Aim: - Various techniques of digital to digital conversion. Apparatus: - Multiplexer and De-multiplexer Theory: Digital to digital conversion is the representation of digital information by a digital signal. For example , when you transmit data from your computer to your printer both the orignal data and the transmitted data are digital. In this type of encoding the binary 1s and 0s generated by a computer bare translated into a sequence of voltage pulses that can be propagated over a wire. There are three categories : Unipolar Polar Bipolar

Unipolar Unipolar encoding is a line code. A positive voltage represents a binary 1, and zero volts indicates a binary 0.Its drawbacks are that it is not self-clocking and it has a significant DC component. The DC can be reduced by one-half by using return-to-zero, where the signal returns to zero in the middle of the bit period. With a 50% duty cycle each rectangular pulse is only at a positive voltage for half of the bit period. This is ideal if one symbol is sent much more often than the other and power considerations are necessary, and also makes the signal self-clocking.In a unipolar encoding scheme, all signal are only on one side of the time axis, either above or below.

Polar When the digital encoding is symmetrical--around 0 Volts--it is called a Polar Code. For example, the RS-232D interface uses Polar line encoding. The signal does not return to zero; it is either a +ve voltage or a -ve voltage. Polar line encoding is also called None Return To Zero (NRZ). Polar line encoding is the simplest pattern that eliminates most of the residual DC problem.

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There is still a small residual DC problem, but Polar line encoding is a great improvement over Unipolar line encoding. Polar encoding has an added benefit in that it reduces the power required to transmit the signal by one-half.

RS-232D TXD Polar and Unipolar line encoding both share the same synchronization problem: if there is a long string of logical 1s or 0s, the receive oscillator may drift and become unsynchronized. Non return to zero In telecommunication, a non-return-to-zero (NRZ) line code is a binary code in which "1s" are represented by one significant condition and "0s" are represented by the other significant condition, with no other neutral or rest condition. The pulses have more energy than a RZ code. Unlike RZ, NRZ does not have a rest state. NRZ is not inherently a selfsynchronizing code, so some additional synchronization technique (perhaps a run length limited constraint, or a parallel synchronization signal) must be used to avoid bit slip. For a given data signaling rate, i.e., bit rate, the NRZ code requires only half the bandwidth required by the Manchester code.Bipolar Line Encoding Bipolar line encoding has 3 voltage levels. A low or 0 is represented by a 0 Volt level and a 1 is represented by alternating polarity pulses. By alternating the polarity of the pulses for 1s, the residual DC component cancels.

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Bipolar Line Encoding Synchronization of receive and transmit clocks is greatly improved--except if there is a long string of 0s transmitted. Bipolar line encoding is also called Alternate Mark Inversion (AMI). Manchester Line Encoding In Manchester Line Encoding, there is a transition at the middle of each bit period. The mid-bit transition serves as a clocking mechanism (and also as data): a low to high transition represents a 1 and a high to low transition represents a 0.

Manchester line encoding has no DC component and there is always a transition available for synchronizing receive and transmit clocks. Manchester line encoding is also called self-clocking line encoding. It has the added benefit of requiring the least amount of bandwidth compared to the other line encoding. Manchester line encoding requires 2 frequencies: the base carrier and 2 x the carrier frequency. All others require a range from 0 hertz to the maximum transfer rate frequency.

Manchester line encoding can detect errors during transmission: a transition is expected during every bit period. Therefore, the absence of a transition would indicate an error condition.

30 Experiment No-7 AIM:- To study the Frequency Division Multiplexing APPRATUS: - Multiplexer, Demultiplexer THEORY: Short for frequency division multiplexing, a multiplexing technique that uses different frequencies to combine multiple streams of data for transmission over a communications medium. FDM assigns a discrete carrier frequency to each data stream and then combines many modulated carrier frequencies for transmission. For example, television transmitters use FDM to broadcast several channels at once. A carrier signal is a frequency in a communications channel modulated to carry analog or digital signal information. For example, an FM radio transmitter modulates the frequency of a carrier signal and the receiver processes the carrier signal to extract the analog information. An AM radio transmitter modulates the amplitude of a carrier signal. Thus, Frequency-division multiplexing (FDM) is a form of signal multiplexing where multiple base band signals are modulated on different frequency carrier waves and added together to create a composite signal. FDM transmits multiple signals simultaneously over a single transmission path. Each signal travels within its own unique frequency range (carrier), which is modulated by the data (text, voice, video, etc.). FDM assigns one band for upstream data and another band for downstream data. In this way, ADSL splits off a 4 kHz region for POTS at the end of the band.

Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM) is a technique the carrier bandwidth is divided into sub-channels of different frequency widths, each carrying a signal at the same time in parallel. Each channel is 30 kHz. All the signals may be amplified, conducted, translated in

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frequency and routed toward a destination as a single signal, resulting in economies which are the motivation for multiplexing. Receivers at the receiving end separates the multiplexed signals by means of frequency passing or rejecting filters, and demodulates the results individually, each in the manner appropriate for the modulation scheme used for that band or group.

FDMA Where frequency division multiplexing is used as to allow multiple users to share a physical communications channel, it is called frequency division multiple access (FDMA). FDMA analog transmissions are the least efficient networks since each analog channel can only be used one user at a time. Analog channels don't take full advantage of band-width. Not only are these FDMA channels larger than necessary given modern digital compression, but they are also wasted whenever there is silence during communication. Analog signals are especially susceptible to noise and the extra noise cannot get filtered out.

Applications 1. FDM is used in analog transmission such as twisted pair telephone line, cable access, cellular, radio and TV communications. TDMA and CDMA are always used in

combination with FDMA, i.e., a given frequency channel may be used for either TDMA or CDMA independently of signals on other frequency channels. 2. FDM can also be used to combine multiple signals before final modulation onto a carrier wave. 3. A Television channel is divided into sub carrier frequencies for video, color, and audio. DSL uses different frequencies for voice and for upstream and downstream data transmission on the same conductors, which is also an example of frequency duplex.

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4. FDMA is the traditional way of separating radio signals from different transmitters.

Advantages >Save Time The FDM can reduce the power restoration time by up to 75%, on average. >Save Money The FDM can significantly reduce costs from three primary sources; material cost, installation cost and usage cost. >Improve Reliability Significant improvement in restoration time can lead to happier customers as well as regulators.

33 EXPERIMENT No 8 AIM: -To study time division multiplexing(TDM). Theory: Time-division multiplexing (TDM) is a method of putting multiple data stream in a single signal by separating the signal into many segments, each having a very short duration. Each individual data stream is reassembled at the receiving end based on the timing. TDM is a type of digital or (rarely) analogmultiplexing in which two or more signals or bit streams are transferred apparently simultaneously as sub-channels in one

communication channel, but physically are taking turns on the channel. Working: The time domain is divided into several recurrent timeslots of fixed length, one for each sub-channel. A sample, byte or data block of sub-channel 1 is transmitted during timeslot 1, sub-channel 2 during timeslot 2, etc. One TDM frame consists of one timeslot per sub-channel. After the last sub-channel the cycle starts all over again with a new frame, starting with the second sample, byte or data block from sub-channel 1, etc. Benefits of TDM TDM is all about cost: fewer wires and simpler receivers are used to transmit data from multiple sources to multiple destinations. TDM also uses less bandwidth than Frequency-Division Multiplexing (FDM) signals, unless the bitrate is increased, which will subsequently increase the necessary bandwidth of the transmission. .An asset of TDM is its flexibility. The scheme allows for variation in the number of signals being sent along the line, and constantly adjusts the time intervals to make optimum use of the available bandwidth. The Internet is a classic example of a communications network in which the volume of traffic can change drastically from hour to hour Synchronous TDM: Synchronous TDM is a system where the transmitter and the receiver both know exactly which signal is being sent.In this system, starting at time-slice 0, every third time-slice is reserved for Signal A; starting at time-slice 1, every third time-slice is reserved for Signal B; and starting at time-slice 2, every third time-slice is reserved for Signal C. In this situation, the receiver (De-TDM) needs only to switch after the signal on each time-slice is received. Benefits of Synchronous TDM:

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Synchronous TDM is beneficial because the receiver and transmitter can both cost very little. However, consider the most well-known network: the Internet. In the Internet, a given computer might have a data rate of 1kbps when hardly anything is happening, but might have a data rate of 100kbps when downloading a large file from a fast server. How are the time-slices divided in this instance? If every time slice is made big enough to hold 100Kbps, when the computer isn't downloading any data, all of that time and electricity will be wasted. If every time-slice is only big enough for the minimum case, the time required to download bigger files will be greatly increased. The solution to this problem is called Statistical TDM, and is the solution that the Internet currently uses. Schemes used in TDM: There are a variety of TDM schemes: Conventional Time Division Multiplexing Statistical Time Division Multiplexing Cell-Relay/ATM Multiplexing Conventional Time Division Multiplexing (TDM)

Conventional TDM systems usually employ either : Bit-Interleaved or Byte-Interleaved multiplexing schemes Clocking (Bit timing) is critical in Conventional TDM. All sources of I/O and aggregate clock frequencies should be derived from a central, "traceable" source for the greatest efficiency. 1. Bit-Interleaved Multiplexing In Bit-Interleaved TDM, a single data bit from an I/O port is output to the aggregate channel. This is followed by a data bit from another I/O port (channel), and so on, and so on, with the process repeating itself. A "time slice" is reserved on the aggregate channel for each individual I/O port. Since these "time slices" for each I/O port are known to both the transmitter and receiver, the only requirement is for the transmitter and receiver to be in-step; that is to say, being at the right place (I/O port) at the right time. This is accomplished through the use of a synchronization channel between the two multiplexers. The synchronization channel transports a fixed pattern that the receiver uses to acquire synchronization. Total I/O bandwidth (expressed in Bits Per Second - BPS) cannot exceed that of the aggregate (minus the bandwidth requirements for the synchronization channel). Properties:

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1.Bit-interleaved is efficient and requires little or no buffering of I/O data. A single data bit from each I/O channel is sampled, then interleaved and output in a high speed data stream. Byte-Interleaved Multiplexing In Byte-Interleaved multiplexing, complete words (bytes) from the I/O channels are placed sequentially, one after another, onto the high speed aggregate channel. Again, a synchronization channel is used to synchronize the multiplexers at each end of the communications facility. Statistical Time Division Multiplexing (STDM) Statistical TDMs are such that they only utilize aggregate bandwidth when there is actual data to be transported from I/O ports. Data STDMs can be divided into two categories: Conventional Frame Relay/X.25 Networking In Statistical TDM, each data item, known as the payload (we used time-slices to describe these earlier), is appended with a certain amount of information about who sent it, and who is supposed to receive it (the header). The combination of a payload and a header is called a packet. Packets are like envelopes in the traditional "snail mail" system: Each packet contains a destination address and a return address as well as some enclosed data. Because of this, we know where each packet was sent from and where it is going. Limitation: 1.downside to statistical TDM is that the sender needs to be smart enough to write a header, and the receiver needs to be smart enough to read the header and (if the packet is to be forwarded,) send the packet toward its destination. 2.another is I/O protocol sensitive. Therefore, they have difficulty supporting "transparent" I/O data and unusual protocols. 3.Cell-Relay Transmission In Cell-Relay systems, data is broken up into basic units (called "cells") and transported through the network. A standard cell-size is defined as consisting of 53 8-bit bytes. These 53 bytes consist of 48 bytes of Payload (data) and 5 bytes of Header (routing) information. Cell-Relay operation can be summarized as being similar to Conventional TDM, except that is has properties of asynchronous transfer. When operating with very high speed facilities, Cell-Relay has the ability to integrate Local Area Networks (LANs) and Wide Area Networks (WANs). STDM

36 EXPERIMENT NO.9 AIM: - To study Wavelength division Multiplexing APPARATUS: - Multiplexer, Demultiplexer,Wavelengths etc Theory: wavelength-division multiplexing (WDM) is a technology which multiplexes multiple optical fibre signals on a single optical fibre by using different wavelengths (colours) of laser light to carry different signals. This allows for a multiplication in capacity, in addition to enabling bidirectional communications over one strand of fibre. "The true potential of optical fibre is fully exploited when multiple beams of light at different frequencies are transmitted on the same fibre. This is a form of frequency-division multiplexing (FDM) but is commonly called wavelength division multiplexing." The term wavelength-division multiplexing is commonly applied to an optical carrier (which is typically described by its wavelength), whereas frequency-division multiplexing typically applies to a radio carrier (which is more often described by frequency). However, since wavelength and frequency are inversely proportional, and since radio and light are both forms of electromagnetic radiation the two terms are equivalent.A WDM system uses a multiplexer at the transmitter to join the signals together, and a demultiplexer at the receiver to split them apart.Most WDM systems operate on single mode fibre optical cables, which have a core diameter of 9 m. Certain forms of WDM can also be used in multi-mode fibre cables (also known as premises cables) which have core diameters of 50 or 62.5 m.Early WDM systems were expensive and complicated to run. However, recent standardization and better understanding of the dynamics of WDM systems have made WDM much cheaper.

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Applications: WDM systems are popular with telecommunication companies because they allow them to expand the capacity of the network without laying more fibre. By using WDM and optical amplifiers, they can accommodate several generations of technology development in their optical infrastructure without having to overhaul the backbone network. Capacity of a given link can be expanded by simply upgrading the multiplexers and demultiplexers at each end. Advantages of WDM: Use current physical optical fiber Dispersion is not an issue when increasing the bandwidth Passive amplification Flexibility Relatively low cost

38 Experiment -- 10 AIM:- Implementation Of Multiplexer. Theory:Multiplexing is the set of techniques that allows the simultaneous transmission of multiple signals across a single data link.

FDM Multiplexing Process, Time Domain

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Many To One / One To Many:In a multiplex system n devices shares the capacity of one link. The four devices on the left direct their transmission streams to a multiplexer (MUX). Which combines them in to a single stream. At receiving end this stream is fed in to a demultiplexer (DEMUX), which separates the stream back in to its component transmissions and direct them to their indented receiving devices. Signals are multiplexed using three basic techniques
Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM) Time Division Multiplexing (TDM) Wave Division Multiplexing (WDM).

Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM): This is a analog technique that can be applied when the bandwidth of a link is greater than the combined bandwidths of signals to be transmitted. In FDM signals generated by each sending device modulate different carrier frequencies. Carrier frequencies are separates by enough bandwidth to accommodate the modulated signal. These bandwidths ranges are the channels through which the various signals travel. Channels must be separated by stripes of unused bandwidth to prevent signals from overlapping. The FDM Process: FDM is an analog process and we show it here using telephones as the input & output device. Each telephone set generates a signal of similar frequency range. Inside multiplexer these similar signals are modulated into different carrier frequencies. Resulting modulated signals are then combined into a single composite signal that is sent out over a media link that has enough bandwidth to accommodate it. Demultiplexing:-. The demultiplexer uses a series of filters to decompose the multiplexed signal in to its constituent component signals. The individual signals component signals. The individual signals are then passed to a demodulator that separates them from their carriers and passed them to the waiting receivers.

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Wave Division Multiplexing (WDM): Wave Division Multiplexing (WDM) is conceptually the same as FDM, except that the demultiplexing and demultiplexing involve light signals transmitted through fiber optic channels. Very narrow band of light from different sources are combined to make a wider band of light. At the receiver the signals are separated by demultiplexer. Although the technology is very complex the idea is very simple. We want to combine multiple light sources to a single light at multiplexer and do the reverse at demultiplexer. Combining & splitting of light sources are easily handled by a prism.

Time Division Multiplexing (TDM): Time Division Multiplexing (TDM) is a digital process, that can be applied when the data rate capacity of transmission media is greater than the data rate required by the sending &

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receiving devices. Multiple transmissions can occupy a single link by sub-dividing them and interleaving the portions. TDM is further divided into synchronous TDM and asynchronous TDM Synchronous TDM:In Synchronous Time Division Multiplexing the term synchronous has a different meaning from that is used in other areas of telecommunications, here synchronous means that the multiplexer allocates exactly the same time slot to each device at all times, whether or not a device has anything to transmit. Asynchronous TDM:Asynchronous TDM or statistical TDM is designed to avoid the wastage of capacity of line. As with the term synchronous, the term asynchronous means something different in multiplexing. Than it means in other areas of data communication. Here it means flexible or not fixed. Like s synchronous TDM, a synchronous TDM allows a number of lower speed input lines to be multiplexed.

42 Experiment 11 AIM:- To study amplitude shift keying (ASK) or Digital amplitude modulation .. Apparatus:-ASK kit, CRO, Function Generator, Power Supply and Connecting wires.

Theory:Amplitude-shift keying (ASK) is a form of modulation that represents digital data as variations in the amplitude of a carrier wave. The amplitude of an analog carrier signal varies in accordance with the bit stream (modulating signal), keeping frequency and phase constant. The level of amplitude can be used to represent binary logic 0s and 1s. We can think of a carrier signal as an ON or OFF switch. In the modulated signal, logic 0 is represented by the absence of a carrier, thus giving OFF/ON keying operation and hence the name given. Like AM, ASK is also linear and sensitive to atmospheric noise, distortions, propagation conditions on different routes in PSTN, etc. Both ASK modulation and demodulation processes are relatively inexpensive. The ASK technique is also commonly used to transmit digital data over optical fiber. For LED transmitters, binary 1 is represented by a short pulse of light and binary 0 by the absence of light. Laser transmitters normally have a fixed "bias" current that causes the device to emit a low light level. This low level represents binary 0, while a higher-amplitude light wave represents binary 1. Generation of ASK:Amplitude shift keying (ASK) in the context of digital communications is a modulation process, which imparts to a sinusoid two or more discrete amplitude levels. These are

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related to the number of levels adopted by the digital message. For a binary message sequence there are two levels, one of which is typically zero. Thus the modulated waveform consists of bursts of a sinusoid. Figure illustrates a binary ASK signal (lower), together with the binary sequence which initiated it (upper). Neither signal has been band limited. There are sharp discontinuities shown at the transition points. These result in the signal having an unnecessarily wide bandwidth. Band limiting is generally introduced before transmission, in which case these discontinuities would be rounded off. The band limiting may be applied to the digital message, or the modulated signal itself. The data rate is often made a submultiple of the carrier frequency. This has been done in the waveform of Figure 1. One of the disadvantages of ASK, compared with FSK and PSK, for example, is that it has not got a constant envelope. This makes its processing (eg, power amplification) more difficult, since linearity becomes an important factor. However, it does make for ease of demodulation with an envelope detector. Demodulation of an ASK signal :Demodulation of ASK waveform can be achived with the help of coherent detector. It consists of product modulator which is followed by a integrator and a decision making device. The incoming ASK signal is applied to one I/P of product modulator is applied with sinusoidal carrier which is generated with the help of local oscillator. The O/P of product modulator goes to input of integrator. The integrator operates on O/P of multiplier for successive bit intervals and essentially performs a low pass filtering action. The O/P of integrator goes to I/P of decision making devices. Now the decision making device compares the O/P of integrator with present threshold. It makes decision in favour of symbol when the threshold is exceeded and in favour of symbol when the threshold is exceeded and in favour of symbol o other wise the coheret detection makes use of linear operations. In this method we have assumed that local carrier is used in transmitter. This means that frequency and phase of locally generated carrier used in transmitter. Procedure:1. Connect signals from function generator to section CH-I of transmitter trainer kit. 2. Connect CRO to CH-I at input side & CH-II output side of kit. 3. Switch on the power supply. 4. Observe the input and output wave shapes at CRO screen. 5. For demodulation connect the output of modulator to demodulator and check output of demodulation of CRO screen. Precautions: 1. All the circuits should be according to circuit diagram.

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2. All the connections should be tight. 3. The trainer kit should be switched off until the complete connections are made. 4. Switch off the trainer kit when not in use.

45 Experiment -- 12 AIM:- To study the pulse data coding and decoding techniques for various formats.
Apparatus:PCM transmitter & receiver trainer kit, Data formatting & carrier modulation transmitter, carrier demodulation & reforming receiver kit, CRO, Function Generator, Power Supply & Connecting wires.

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Theory:There are various techniques used to convert the analog signal to digital signal. The data is first converted to a PAM suitable format and then transmitted over communication channel. The various formats used are called line codes. Some of the important PAM formats are:Unipolar Return To zero(RZ) Format:In this format each binary 0 is represented by a off pulse (ak=0) and each binary 1 by an on pulse with amplitude ak=A and duration of Tb/2 following by a return to zero level. RZ format has a non zero DC value. the DC value does not contain any information. Unipolar Non Return To zero(NRZ) Format:In this format a logic 1 is represented by a pulse of fill bit duration and amplitude +A, While logic 0 is represented by a off pulse or zero amplitude. During the on time the pulse dose not return to zero after half bit period hence the name Unipolar Non Return to zero (NRZ) Forms due to the unipolar nature. This format also have a non zero average value (DC). This does not contain any information. Due to longer pulse duration this format carries more energy than the RZ pulse. These pulses needs synchronization at the receiver as there is no separation between the adjacent pulses. The voltage level in these formats is either =A OR 0 amplitude as has only one polarity called as unipolar formats. Polar Return To zero (RZ) Format:The main disadvantages of above two formats that they carry a DC component which does not carry any information and hence wastes power. In the polar PZ format opposite polarity pulses of amplitude +_ A/2 are used to represent the binary logic 0 & 1.So it is called a polar format. As the pulses return to zero after half the bit duration hence it return to zero format. Polar Non Return To zero (NRZ) Format:In the polar non return to zero a pulse of amplitude +A/2 of duration Tb is used to represent a logic 1 and pulse of amplitude A/2 of same duration is used to represent a logic 0 A polar wave form has no DC components unlike unipolar w3aveform which always has. If the 0s and 1s in the input data occur in equal probations. Bipolar Non Return To zero (NRZ) Format:"One" is represented by one physical level (usually a negative voltage)."Zero" is represented by another level (usually a positive voltage). In clock language, in bipolar NRZ-Level the voltage "swings" from positive to negative on the trailing edge of the previous bit clock cycle. Split Phase Manchester encoding format

Each bit is transmitted in a fixed time (the "period").

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A 0 is expressed by a low-to-high transition, a 1 by high-to-low transition The

transitions which signify 0 or 1 occur at the midpoint of a period. Transitions at the start of a period are overhead and don't signify data. Manchester code always has a transition at the middle of each bit period and may (depending on the information to be transmitted) have a transition at the start of the period also. The direction of the mid-bit transition indicates the data. Transitions at the period boundaries do not carry information. They exist only to place the signal in the correct state to allow the mid-bit transition. Although this allows the signal to be self-clocking, it doubles the bandwidth requirement compared to NRZ coding schemes In the Thomas convention, the result is that the first half of a bit period matches the information bit and the second half is its complement. Convetions for representation of data

encoding of 11011000100 in Manchester code There are two opposing conventions for the representations of data. It specifies that for a 0 bit the signal levels will be Low-High (assuming an amplitude physical encoding of the data) - with a low level in the first half of the bit period, and a high level in the second half. For a 1 bit the signal levels will be High-Low. The second convention is also followed by numerous authors) as well as by (token bus) and lower speed versions of (Ethernet) standards. It states that a logic 0 is represented by a High-Low signal sequence and a logic 1 is represented by a Low-High signal sequence.

If a Manchester encoded signal is inverted in communication, it is transformed from one convention to the other. This ambiguity can be overcome by using differential Manchester
Polar Quaternary NON- Return to zero format:This format is derived by grouping the message bits in blocks of two using four amplitude levels to represent the four possible combinations 00, 01, 10 & 11 so these four combinations are the following four amplitude levels are assigned: Message Combination 00 -3A/2 X(t)=ak

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01 10 11 -A/2 A/2 +3A/2

First combination of two bits is 10 hence it is represented by a level of A/2. The second combination is 11 represented by a level of 3A/2. Gray Code:For loading the quaternary format there is another scheme which is known as gray code. In this scheme the adjacent bits are arranged in such way that they are differ by only one bit. This csheme is illustrated in following table Message Combination 00 01 10 11 Procedure:Apply clock of transmitter to data formatting and carry modulator transmitter trainer Now connect the output of PCM transmitter to data formatting transmitter and to PCM receiver. Apply output of data formatting transmitter to carrier demodulation and data reformatting receiver Trainer Select error check code selector switches according to condition of each format on the transmitter. Connect CRO CH-II at the output side. Switch on the power supply. Observe various data format blocks on the CH-II of CRO. Observe the effect on timing frame on CRO as you vary DC-1 & DC-2 controls on trainer kit. Precautions: 1. All the circuits should be according to circuit diagram. 2. All the connections should be tight. 3. The trainer kit should be switched off until the complete connections are made. Switch off the trainer kit when not in use X(t) -3A/2 -A/2 A/2 +3A/2

49 Experiment -- 13 AIM:- To study the time division multiplexing (TDM) & demultiplexing PAM & Demodulation Apparatus:-Time division multiplexing (TDM) & demultiplexing kit, CRO, Function Generator,
Power Supply & Connecting wires.

Theory:Time division multiplexing is technique of transmitting more than one information on the one channel. This no activity time interrupt can be used to include the sample from other channels as well. This means that several information signals can be transmitted over single channel by sending samples from different information sources at different movements at a particular time. This technique is known as Time division multiplexing (TDM). TDM is widely used in digital communication system to increase the efficiency of transmission medium. TDM can be achieved electronically switching the samples with such a way that they interleave sequentially at correct instance in a time without mutual interface. The concept of TDM is illustrated in diagram. The multiplexer here is a single pole rotating switch or commutator. It may be electronic switch. The commutator has two functions: to

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take narrow sample of each input message at a rate of fs. Which is higher than 2w and to sequentially interleave the sample inside the interval Ts=1/fs. The multiplexed signal at the output of commutator is applied to amplitude modulator, which converts the PAM pulses into form suitable for transmission over the communication channel. The input message signals are passed through low pass filter before applying them to commutator. These filters are actually the anti aliasing filters. The multiplexed PAM signals can be received properly only if transmitter & receiver commutators are synchronized to each other in terms of the speed & position. Here synchronization is most essential and critical part of TDM. At the receiver end the received signal is applied to a pulse amplitude demodulator which performs the reverse operation of pulse amplitude modulator. Here is one more commutator, which is used for demultiplexing. The low pass filters at the receiving end are used to reconstruction of original signals. Procedure:1. Connect signals from function generator to section CH-I of transmitter trainer kit. 2. Connect CRO to CH-I at input side & CH-II output side of kit. 3. Switch on the power supply. 4. Observe the input and output wave shapes at CRO screen. 5. For demodulation connect the output of modulator to demodulator and check output of demodulation of CRO screen. Precautions: 1. All the circuits should be according to circuit diagram. 2. All the connections should be tight. 3. The trainer kit should be switched off until the complete connections are made. 4. Switch off the trainer kit when not in use.