CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background Until the end of the 19th century, it was believed that Newtons three Laws of Motion and the associated ideas about the properties of space and time provided a basis on which the motion of matter could be completely understood. However, the formulation by Maxwell of a unified theory of electromagnetism disrupted this comfortable state of affairs the theory was extraordinarily successful, yet at a fundamental level it seemed to be inconsistent with certain aspects of the Newtonian ideas of space and time. Ultimately, a radical modification of these latter concepts, and consequently of Newtons equations themselves, was found to be necessary. As an eager young student of physics in the 1890s, Albert Einstein was troubled by a difference between Newton's laws of mechanics and Maxwell's laws of electromagnetism. Newton's laws were independent of the state of motion of an observer, but Maxwell's laws were not or so it seemed. Someone at rest and someone in motion would find that the same laws of mechanics apply to a moving object being studied, but they would find that different laws of electricity and magnetism apply to a moving charge being studied. Newton's laws suggest that there is no such thing as absolute motion, only relative motion matters. But Maxwell's laws seemed to suggest that motion is absolute. In a celebrated 1905 paper titled "On the Electrodynamics of Moving Bodies," written when he was 26, Einstein showed that Maxwell's laws can, after all, like Newton's laws, be interpreted as being independent of the state of motion of an observer-but at a cost! The cost of achieving this unified view of nature's laws is a total revolution in how we understand space and time. Einstein showed that, as the forces between electric charges are affected by motion, the very measurements of space and time are also affected by motion. All measurements of space and time depend on relative motion.

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For example, the length of a rocket ship poised on its launching pad and the ticks of clocks within are found to change when the ship is set into motion at high speed. It has always been common sense that we change our position in space when we move, but Einstein flouted common sense and stated that, in moving, we also change our rate of proceeding into the futuretime itself is altered. Einstein went on to show that a consequence of the interrelationship between space and time is an interrelationship between mass and energy, given by the famous equation E = mc 2 . These are the ideas that make up this paper, the ideas of special relativity ideas, so remote from our everyday experience that understanding them requires stretching our mind. It will be enough to become acquainted with these ideas, so be patient with ourselves if we don't understand them right away. Perhaps in some future era, when high-speed interstellar space travel is commonplace, our descendants will find that relativity makes common sense.

1.2 Problem Formulation Actually, the discussion of this study has emphasized detailed of Galilean -Newtonian Relativity, The Experiment of Michelson Morley, The Postulate of Einstein, Lorentz Transportation, and The Consequences of Special Theory of Relativity. But the most important case is how all of these matters can be explained and how to make an intact understanding of special theory of relativity.

1.3 Purpose of Study The main purpose of this study is to give a detail explanation and description of Galilean Newtonian Relativity, The Experiment of Michelson Morley, The Postulate of Einstein, Lorentz Transportation, and The Consequences of Special Theory of Relativity and to make an intact understanding of special theory of relativity.

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CHAPTER II SPECIAL THEORY OF RELATIVITY 2.1 Galilean Newtonian Relativity The principle of relativity that used by the classical physicist is based on Galileos transformation. This transformation is useful to explain the questions that have been asked before about the condition of the laws of physics in a different frame of reference. In this case, we need an inertial frame of reference, the frame of reference in which Newton's first law applies. In other words, inertial frame of reference is a frame that is at rest or moving at a constant velocity to other frames of reference in a straight line. Besides the inertial frame of reference, there is also non inertial frame of reference, the terms of reference that is in a state of acceleration toward the other frame of reference. Non inertial frame of reference will be used in the formulation of the theory of general relativity, so it wont be discussed now. Suppose that a physical event takes place in an inertial frame of reference. Therefore, the location and time of this event can be expressed by the coordinates (x, y, z, t). In Figure 1, there are two inertial frames of reference O and O. The frame O is at rest, while the frame O is moving with constant velocity v to the x+ direction relative to the frame O.

Measured Object

Figure 1. Two different frame of reference

If both frame of reference observing an object at the same initial state, when O and O coincide at first, then the two frames will be separated as far as vt after a certain time t.

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According to the figure 1; = = = = (1) (2) (3) (4)

Since there is no relative motion to the y and z axis, then;

And by the assumption that the time is absolute, then;

The equations (1) till (4) are well known as the Galilean Transformation. From the four equations, we can fine the velocity measured of each frames by differentiating x, y, and z to the time (t). = = =

= = =

(5) (6) (7)

2.2 The Null Experiment of Michelson Morley Isn't there some reference frame that is still? Isn't space itself still, and can't measurements be made relative to still space? In 1887, the American physicists A. A. Michelson and E. W. Morley attempted to answer these questions by performing an experiment that was designed to measure the motion of the Earth through space. Because light travels in waves, it was then assumed that something in space vibrates-a mysterious something called ether, thought to fill all space and to serve as a frame of reference attached to space itself. These physicists used a very sensitive apparatus called an interferometer to make their observations.

Figure 2. Interferometer

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In this instrument, a beam of light from a monochromatic source was separated into two beams with paths at right angles to each other; these were reflected and recombined to show whether there was any difference in average speed over the two back and forth paths. The interferometer was set with one path parallel to the motion of the Earth in its orbit; then either Michelson or Morley carefully watched for any changes in average speed as the apparatus was rotated to put the other path parallel to the motion of the Earth. The interferometer was sensitive enough to measure the difference in the round-trip times of light going with and against Earth's orbital velocity of 30 kilometers per second and going back and forth across Earth's path through space. But no changes were observed. None. Something was wrong with the sensible idea that the speed of light measured by a moving receiver should be its usual speed in a vacuum, c, plus or minus the contribution from the motion of the source or receiver. Many repetitions and variations of the Michelson-Morley experiment by many investigators showed the same null result. This was one of the puzzling facts of physics when the twentieth century opened. One interpretation of the bewildering result was suggested by the Irish physicist G. F. Fitz Gerald, who proposed that the length of the experimental apparatus shrank in the direction in which it was moving by just the amount required to counteract the presumed variation in the speed of light. The needed shrinkage factor 1
v2 c2

was worked out by the Dutch

physicist Hendricks A. Lorentz. This arithmetical factor accounted for the discrepancy, but neither Fitz Gerald nor Lorentz had a suitable theory for why this was so. Interestingly, the same factor was derived by Einstein in his 1905 paper, where he showed it to be the shrinkage factor of space itself, not just of matter in space. How much the Michelson-Morley experiment influenced Einstein, if at all, is unclear. In any event, Einstein advanced the idea that the speed of light in free space is the same in all reference frames, an idea that was contrary to the classical ideas of space and time. Speed is a ratio of distance through space to a corresponding interval of time. For the speed of light to
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be a constant, the classical idea that space and time are independent of each other had to be rejected. Einstein saw that space and time are linked, and, with simple postulates, he developed a profound relationship between the two. 2.3 Einsteins Postulates Einstein saw no need for the ether. Gone with the stationary ether was the notion of an absolute frame of reference. All motion is relative, not to any stationary hitching post in the universe, but to arbitrary frames of reference. A rocket ship cant measure its speed with respect to empty space but only with respect to other objects. If, for example, rocket ship A drifts past rocket ship B in empty space, spaceman A and spacewoman B will each observe the relative motion, and, from this observation, each will be unable to determine who is moving and who is at rest, if either. This is a familiar experience to a passenger on a train who looks out his window and sees the train on the next track moving by his window. He is aware only of the relative motion between his train and the other train and cannot tell which train is moving. He may be at rest relative to the ground and the other train may be moving, or he may be moving relative to the ground and the other train may be at rest, or they both may be moving relative to the ground. The important point here is that, if you were in a train with no windows, there would be no way to determine whether the train was moving with uniform velocity or was at rest. This is the first of Einstein's postulates of the special theory of relativity. All laws of nature are the same in all uniformly moving frames of reference. On a jet airplane going 700 kilometers per hour, for example, coffee pours as it does when the plane is at rest; if we swing a pendulum in the moving plane, it swings as it would if the plane were at rest on the runway. There is no physical experiment that we can perform, even with light, to determine our state of uniform motion. The laws of physics within the uniformly moving cabin are the same as those in a stationary laboratory.

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Any number of experiments can be devised to detect accelerated motion, but none can be devised, according to Einstein, to detect a state of uniform motion. Therefore, absolute motion has no meaning. It would be very peculiar if the laws of mechanics varied for observers moving at different speeds. It would mean, for example, that a pool player on a smoothly moving ocean liner would have to adjust her style of play to the speed of the ship, or even to the season as the Earth varies in its orbital speed about the Sun. It is our common experience that no such adjustment is necessary. And, according to Einstein, this same insensitivity to motion extends to electromagnetism. No experiment, mechanical or electrical or optical, has ever revealed absolute motion. That is what the first postulate of relativity means. One of the questions that Einstein, as a youth, asked his schoolteacher was, "What would a light beam look like if you traveled along beside it?" According to classical physics, the beam would be at rest to such an observer. The more Einstein thought about this, the more convinced he became that one could not move with a light beam. He finally came to the conclusion that, no matter how fast two observers might be moving relative to each other, each of them would measure the speed of a light beam passing them to be 300,000 kilometers per second. This was the second postulate in his special theory of relativity. The speed of light in free space has the same measured value for all observers, regardless of the motion of the source or the motion of the observer; that is, the speed of light is a constant. To illustrate this statement, consider a rocket ship departing from the space station. A flash of light traveling at 300,000 kilometers per second, or c, is emitted from the station. Regardless of the velocity of the rocket, an observer in the rocket sees the flash of light pass her at the same speed c. If a flash is sent to the station from the moving rocket, observers on the station will measure the speed of the flash to be c. The speed of light is measured to be the same regardless of the speed of the source or receiver. All observers who measure the speed of light will find it has the same value c. The more

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you think about this, the more you think it doesn't make sense. We will see that the explanation has to do with the relationship between space and time.

2.4 Lorentz Transportation The Michelson-Morley experiment has resulted in the fact that observers in any condition must measure the same velocity of light c. If Galileo transformation is applied in the case, then you might find a contradiction = The main problems that exist in the Galileo transformation causing incompatible with Einstein's postulates contained in equation (1). Few reasonable guess correctly states that relations between x 'and x should be; = ( )...( 20 ) Differences in the relative direction of motion. This is accomplished by changing the sign of v to declare x to x 'and t', known as the reverse transformation, = ( + )..( 21 ) The factor k must be the same in both frame of refences O and O 'because there is no difference between them except the sign of v alone. Therefore, the Lorentz transformation is reviewing the same case as the transformation of Galileo, we do not need to distinguish the coordinates y ', y, and z, z' is perpendicular to the direction of v. But it is different for t and t ', we have to take a different value to them because of the substitution of equation (20) into equation (21) obtained = 2 + ..(22) or = +
1 2

..(23)

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y u

O (x,y,z,t)

O (x,y,z,t)

x=x

z At time t = 0, the origin both frame of references O and O 'are in the

same place. According to the initial terms, then t 'is equal to zero and the two observers should measure about the same pace, meaning x = ct [reference of O](23) x = ct [reference O]......(24) By processing some similarities, starting from equation (23) or (24), ultimately it is known; =
1
2 1

...(25)
2

Substituting the result (25) in equation (20) and (22) to obtain a complete Lorentz transformations, namely; =

2 1

(26)
2

y= y.(27) z= z..(28) =
2
2 1

...(29)

Lorentz transformation can be reduced to the transformation of Galileo if the relative speed v is very small compared to c.

2.5 The Consequences of Special Theory of Relativity 2.5.1 Time Dilatation Suppose there is the observer O stay at rest firing a beam of light toward a mirror within d from it and measure the time it takes the beam to travel the distance to the mirror and reflected back to the O turns of 2t0. Of
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course, from here we know d = ct0. Meanwhile, another observer O 'moving with a speed of v perpendicular to the beam direction O fired O.

In the observation O, the point of delivery and acceptance of this beam will be the same, and O 'are moving away from it. Another case in the view of O ', O it is moving away with velocity-v. According to him, the light beam is sent from point P through the point R and Q will be accepted at the point in time 2t then;

As a result of Einstein's postulates, then the transformation of Galileo Newton relativity does not apply anymore. This means that the relative time t is not the same as real time t0 caused both observers should measure the same speed of the beam, c. According O, 2 d = c. 2 t 0 atau d = c . According to O', the beam will travel a path PRQ which amount can be calculated by using Pythagoras theorem ( see the picture 8 ) c =. PR + RQ trajectory path. / travel time according to O '. = 2 2 + ()2 2 or = 2 + ()2

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Calculate the path lengths PRQ using Pythagoras theorem. Now we try to combine observations of O and O '. = 0 (0 )2 + ()2 and solve to obtain: =
0 1 2
2

2 = (0 )2

so, =

2 + ()2 =

This means that the observer O' is moving with relative speed of v will measure intervals longer events (time dilation) than those measured O stay at rest. However, we must pay close attention to the difference t and t0. The real time interval t0 (proper time) is the time measured by a clock at rest relative to the observer of events. While the relativistic time interval t is the time measured by a clock moving relative to the observer of events. So cannot we simply immediately determine if an observer moves with speed v it will measure the time interval t or otherwise being silent will measure the time interval t0, but depending on the circumstances of the incident in question.

2.5.2 Length Contraction Now suppose that the frame O 'moving with a constant speed of v with respect to O in the direction as shown in Figure 1.9 while O is in a stay at rest.

Figure 9. Events shrinkage (contraction) in length. A and B are the twin pair. When they are 30 years of age, B go to outside, Apparently distance L0 measured by O becomes shorter in the observation O ', the sky

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with aircraft speed 0.8c. On the anniversary of the A-50 (according to the amount L. shrinkage (contraction) length is apparently related to the concept of clock on Earth), B returned from his trip to meet with A. How old then? elongation time has been discussed previously. If we review the time observed by the observer O ', for example in the plane, then the time is measured to travel as far as L is real time (proper time) t0 which means L = v t 0. Now review the observer O, he will observe the movement distance L and O 'in the relativistic time t' so he L0 = v t. Compare the two distances,
0

2 so = 1 2

Caution, length contraction occurs only in the direction of the reference frame O 'moving parallel to the length of the observed. Observer O' will not see a shrinkage of the length of the other component (perpendicular to the direction of motion). And it must be stressed again, L0 is the length of objects measured in terms of silent observation, while L is the length of the measured object in a frame moving with the observation that the frame rate remains silent.

2.5.3 Relativistic of Mass and Momentum The concept of mass is always held in fundamental of physics. It was present in the earliest days of the subject, and its importance has only grown as physics has diversified over the centuries. Its definition goes back to Galileo and Newton, who essentially defined mass as that property of a body that governs its acceleration when acted on by a force. According to Newtonian physics or classical physics, mass is not dependent on the speed constant. However, based on Einstein's theory of Relativity say the mass of the object is relative magnitude. The mass of a moving object (m) relative to an observer will be greater than rest mass (mo) object. The mass of the object is moving with velocity (v)

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m mo

mo v2 1 2 c

..(1)

Mass changes due to motion of objects can only be ignored for objects moving at a speed that is much smaller than the speed of light. In other words, Newtonian physics only applies to objects that speed is too much smaller than the speed of light (v << c). Equation (1) is the relativistic mass transformation. It tells that measurement of the mass of an object gives a mass that increases as relative speed v increase. Since P mv and m increase with v, linier momentum is no longer directly proportional to velocity, as shown in equation (2)
P mo v v2 1 2 c

.(2)

Recall our study of momentum, we learned that the change of momentum mv of an object is equal to the impulse Ft applied to it: = , or, Ft = I1p, where p == mv. If you apply more impulse to an object that is free to move, the object acquires more momentum. Double the impulse, and the momentum doubles. Apply ten times the impulse, and the object gains ten times as much momentum. Does this mean that momentum can increase without any limit? The answer is yes. Does this mean that speed can also increase without any limit? The answer is no! Nature's speed limit for material objects is c. To Newton, infinite momentum would mean infinite mass or infinite speed. But not so in relativity. Einstein showed that a new definition of momentum is required. It is = Relativistic momentum is larger than mv by a factor of . For everyday speeds much less than c, is nearly equal to 1, so p is nearly equal to mv. Newton's definition of momentum is valid at low speeds. At higher speeds, grows dramatically, and so does relativistic momentum. As speed approaches c, y approaches infinity! No matter how close to c an object is pushed, it would still require infinite impulse to give it
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the last bit of speed needed to reach c-clearly impossible. Hence we see that no body with mass can be pushed to the speed of light, much less beyond it.

2.5.4 Relativistic of Mass and Energy Work may be done on a body to increase it kinetic energy (Ek) In classical physics, Ek 1/ 2mv2 . In relativistic physics, that expression is not generally correct, even if m is the relativistic mass. To obtain the correct expression lets start an object from rest with a net external force F in the +x direction. Then the work done by F will be stored in the form of kinetic energy,
Ek Fdx dP dx dt dv dm = (m v )dx dt dt mo mo = [( )dv vd ( )]dv 2 2 1 v / c 1 v2 / c2

= mo (1 v 2 / c 2 ) 3 / 2 vdv
0

Ek

mo c 2 1 v c2
2

mo c 2

Ek mc2 mo c 2

Ek E Eo
Ek mc 2

(3)

Where m m mo is the relativistic mass increase. Equation (3) tells us that when an object at rest in can be assigned a rest energy Eo, when an object is in motion, it will have a total energy:

E Eo Ek

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The formulae E mc2 is well-known the mathematical statement of the equivalence of mass and energy (I.B.P Mardana : 2008). 2.5.5 Doppler Effect From Junior High School we've known the phenomenon of high added tone if the source is approaching us (or we approach the source) and a decrease in pitch if the source away from us (or we are moving away from the source). Change of frequency is called the Doppler Effect and the relationship between the frequency of source f with a frequency that observers perceived f' meet the formulation: =
1+ 1

Where; V = sound velocity v' = observer velocity (+) if move close to source, or (-) if stay away v = source velocity (+) if moving to observer, or (-) if stay away If the observer in silent, its mean v' = 0 and if the source in silent v = 0 Doppler Effect for sound relies on support from the movement of each of the source or observer. However, the sound waves occur only in a material medium such as air or water and the medium itself is a frame of reference. In the case of electromagnetic waves (with the speed of light c), we do not review the medium (Remember there is no ether!) so that only the relative motion between the source and observer's means. Thus the Doppler Effect for light is certainly different from those in sound effects. Suppose an observer O became a source of radiation that emits electromagnetic waves frequency f according to his observations. Observer O ', which are moving with speed v relative to O, will measure the frequency is greater if he moves towards O. Conversely, if he moves away from the O, then he will measure the frequency of smaller ones. Review the situation from the point of view of O', to case O' motion relative to O. If T ' is the interval between two wave peaks according to O' and ' is the lambda that look from O', then the distance =

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between two wave peaks according to O' is . More details look at the picture.

Measurement time interval T' relates to the interval time T according to O according to the equation (15); Meanwhile T itself is related to the measured frequency f O (source wave) according to a relationship T = 1/f. And lambda measured o' deals with frequency f ' according to the relationship c = ' f'.

= = =

2 1

=
2

1
2

....(1)
2

Or, =
1 2 2 1

1+ 1

; > ..........................................(2)

This equation is the Doppler effect formulas that comply with both Einstein's postulates. Note that this formula does not distinguish between the motion of the source and the observer as equation (2), but rather depends only on the rate of relative v. so it doesn't matter who's moving so, whether the source or observer. In the case of relative motion away from the mutually between the source and the observer, then simply replace v with -v in the equation (2) =
1 1+

; > (3)

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CHAPTER III CONCLUSIONS

3.1 Conclusions Based on the discussion, it can be summed up as follows. 1. Special relativity postulates have two very famous postulate of invariance speed of light in vacuum and postulate about the covariance of the laws of physics. 2. Galilean transformation explained that if the two terms of observing an object at the same initial state, ie when O and O 'coincide initially, then both will frame apart vt after a certain time t. 3. Michelson-Morley experiment which found the speed of light should not depend on the frame of reference. The speed of light must be regarded as a constant for each observer and certainly should ether did not exist. 4. Einstein's postulates, namely a) The laws of physics can be expressed in terms of the same statement in all inert systems (inertial), b) Ether does not exist, then the speed of light in a vacuum is equal for all observers, irrespective of the state of the observer.

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