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Food Eng Rev (2011) 3:121135 DOI 10.

1007/s12393-011-9040-x

REVIEW ARTICLE

Computational Simulation and Developments Applied to Food Thermal Processing


Roberto A. Lemus-Mondaca Antonio Vega-Galvez Nelson O. Moraga

Received: 4 July 2011 / Accepted: 9 September 2011 / Published online: 3 November 2011 Springer Science+Business Media, LLC 2011

Abstract New challenges to improve food processing have created an incentive in the potential use of computeraided engineering for simulating thermal processes in foods as a viable technique to provide effective and efcient design solutions. Mathematical conjugated and nonconjugated models used along suitable numerical methods such as nite differences, nite elements, and nite volumes in predicting food freezing, dehydration, and sterilization are discussed in this review. The application of computational simulation should be used in combination with conventional techniques such as physical experiments and analytical solutions in order to enhance the knowledge of uid mechanics, heat and mass transfer in foods. Keywords Food engineering Convection/diffusion Dehydration Freezing Sterilization Numerical modeling List of symbols C Mass concentration (kg/m3) Cp Specic heat (J/kg K) D Mass diffusion coefcient (m2/s)
R. A. Lemus-Mondaca (&) Department of Mechanical Engineering, Universidad de Santiago de Chile, Santiago, Chile e-mail: roberto.lemusm@usach.cl; rlemus@userena.cl R. A. Lemus-Mondaca A. Vega-Galvez Department of Food Engineering, Universidad de La Serena, La Serena, Chile e-mail: avegag@userena.cl N. O. Moraga Department of Mechanical Engineering, Universidad de La Serena, La Serena, Chile e-mail: nmoraga@userena.cl

fpc g h hls hlv hm k L n N p q00 R T t uv xy P UV XY Gr Pr Ra Re Ri Sc

Liquid phase-change fraction Gravitational acceleration (m/s2) Heat transfer coefcient (W/m2 K) Latent heat of solidication (J/kg K) Latent heat of vaporization (J/kg K) Mass transfer coefcient (m/s) Thermal conductivity (W/m K) Height of the cavity (m) Normal direction to the food surface Temperature/concentration ratio (dimensionless) Pressure (Pa) Heat ux (W/m2) Universal gas constant (J/mol K) Temperature (K) Time (s) Velocity components (m/s) Rectangular coordinates (m) Dimensionless pressure Dimensionless velocity components Dimensionless coordinates Grashof number (=gbTDTL3/m2) Prandtl number (=m/a) Rayleigh number (=GrPr) Reynolds number (=Luo/m) Richardson number (=Gr/Re2) Schmidt number (=m/D)

Subscripts ls Liquid to solid lv Liquid to vapor max Maximum min Minimum o Inlet pc Phase change ref Reference

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Greek symbol a Thermal diffusivity (m2/s) bT Thermal expansion coefcient (1/K) bC Mass expansion coefcient (1/m3) q Density (kg/m3) m Kinematic viscosity (m2/s) s Dimensionless time r Stress tensor (Pa) _ c Shear rate (1/s) g Apparent viscosity (Pa s) h Dimensionless temperature u Dimensionless concentration

Introduction Currently, many countries have recorded increasing agroindustry production of both fresh and products processed. The three main thermal processes used in the food conservation are dehydration, freezing, and sterilization (canning). Historically, the research, development, and innovation regarding new technologies applied to food processes have been designed to achieve better quality and greater added value compared to raw materials. Furthermore, the challenges in the new environmentally friendly food industry require consistent quality, optimal productivity, process safety based on energy efcient processes. Adequate mathematical modeling combined to efcient computational simulation allow food thermal processes transport phenomena prediction leading to better equipment design and process control improvement for the food industry [1]. In the last decades, new advances in the computational simulations have been used to improve the numerical solution of partial differential equations, especially those of the convectiondiffusion type found in food processes [2]. Finite numerical methods are powerful simulation tools for analyzing and describing uid ow processes with complex geometries in food processing [3, 4]. This is due to the advantage in using physics-based modeling to make predictions from the food physical properties combined with the kinematics and dynamics for each specic process [5]. Finite differences, nite volumes and nite elements methods are among the most popular techniques for solving uid mechanics and heat and mass transfer problems. However, under the same assumptions it is well recognized that only the nite volume method offers conservative balances at any discretization level for a single control volume, a group control volume, or across the entire solution domain [6, 7]. The FVM has been found to be more accurate than the nite difference method (FDM) and nite element method (FEM) in coupled diffusion-convection problems where numerical tests indicate that it is more stable [69].

Computational simulation plays an important role in food engineering; in particular where the visual simulation obtained is important in order to enhance thermal processes optimization and improvement [10]. Results obtained for velocity vectors, streamlines, temperature, pressure, and species concentrations in either solid or liquid foods surrounded by heating or cooling uids can be animated with visualization tools, thus aiding in the interpretation of the simulated physical phenomena [11]. The measure of success is how well the results of numerical simulation agree with experimental results in cases where careful laboratory experiments can be designed and how well the simulations can predict highly complex phenomena that cannot be accomplished in the laboratory [12, 13]. The application of numerical methods in food process engineering can provide useful answers to complex problems that neither analytical nor empirical solutions can achieve. Datta [14, 15] performed a wide review of porous media approaches on food processes with simultaneous heat and mass transfer. The author mentioned that analytical and empirical solutions are only available for very limited cases such as the use of the simple heat and mass diffusion equation [16] with constant thermophysical properties [17], constant convective coefcients [18], and regular geometries [19]. New challenges in the food industry have created an incentive to explore the potential of recent advances in computer-aided engineering. The advanced techniques with suitable numerical methods are included in novel software packages for the complete study of main food preservation techniques: freezing, dehydration, and sterilization [2022]. Also, mathematical modeling and numerical simulation can be successfully applied to food equipment design and development, including new production lines [23, 24]. Computer-aided engineering has been used successfully for the simulation, optimization, and control in food industry processes [25]. However, in these processes, the complexity of the nonlinear mathematical models, the use of appropriate initial and boundary conditions, together with the complex geometries and variable thermophysical properties make the solution procedures very complicated [2628]. Therefore, the development of suitable mathematical models along with the use of efcient numerical methods and object-oriented programming is a good approach to enhance the prediction capabilities for the food industry. The application of mathematical modeling and computational simulations can provide useful information that can effectively and precisely contribute to generate new knowledge and provide the foundations to achieve better processes and new developments in the agrofood industry [29]. To this end, the main motivation of this work is to present a review including mathematical modeling, computer-based nite numerical methods, uid mechanics, heat

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and mass transfer results, discussions, and examples related to the formulation of two mathematical models: nonconjugated cases and conjugated studies applied to food dehydration, freezing, and sterilization processes. In this context, the information contained in this overview can be useful for students, professors, and researchers in the area of food science and technology.

Physical Layout Analysis The principles of many thermal processes in solid foods are based on heat and mass exchanges between a solid food and the surrounding uid. Heat transfer in solid foods is normally modeled by the transient heat diffusion described by Fouriers law, while the mass transfer is described by Ficks law of mass diffusion [30]. Continuity and Navier Stokes equations are used to model Newtonian uid ow [6]. A successful approach to describe transport phenomenon in the food industry can be achieved by combining the use of analytical models with numerical methods and selected physical experiments [1]. The methodology proposed is based on simultaneous calculation for the uid mechanics, convective/diffusion heat and mass transfer in the surrounding uids and liquid/

solid foods, by using nonconjugated and conjugate models. The examples shown in this review are related to food dehydration, freezing, and sterilization processes for 2D laminar ows of Newtonian and non-Newtonian liquid foods [28]. Due to the fast advance in hardware [25], the use of the proposed methodology to other food nonthermal (high hydrostatic pressure, pulsed electric elds, oscillating magnetic elds, ultraviolet, and ultrasound) and thermal (microwave, evaporation, refrigeration, pasteurization, and distillation) processes [30], either for laminar or turbulent ows in 2D and 3D, applied to solid, liquid, and mixed (solid/uid treated as porous media) foods [14, 2022] can be expected in the near future. Nonconjugated convection/conduction mathematical models are those in which either solid or liquid foods, with constant or variable thermophysical properties, are used to describe heat and mass transfer with prescribed Dirichlet, Neumann, or Robin boundary conditions on the food surface [31, 32]. Then, a more general physical situation, where liquid and solid foods are studied along with the surrounding uid, is dened as a conjugated convection/ convection or convection/conduction problem [33, 34]. Table 1 provides a list of authors that have carried out research regarding thermal processes using conjugated or nonconjugated models.

Table 1 Foods and processes classied according to type of model used Food Apple Apple Banana Beef Beef Beef patty Beef soup Carrot Carrot Carrot soup CMC CMC Eggs Kiwi Mango Meat Pineapple Potato Potato Rice Rice Salmon Process Drying Drying Drying Freezing Freezing Freezing Sterilization Drying Drying Sterilization Sterilization Sterilization Cooling Drying Drying Freezing Sterilization Drying Drying Drying Rehydration Freezing Solution method Finite differences Finite differences Finite volumes Finite differences Finite elements Finite volumes Finite volumes Finite elements Finite elements Finite volumes Finite volumes Finite volumes Finite volumes Finite volumes Finite elements Finite volumes Finite volumes Finite differences Finite differences Finite differences Finite elements Finite volumes Type of model Nonconjugated Nonconjugated Conjugated Nonconjugated Nonconjugated Conjugated Nonconjugated Conjugated Nonconjugated Nonconjugated Nonconjugated Nonconjugated Conjugated Nonconjugated Nonconjugated Nonconjugated Conjugated Nonconjugated Nonconjugated Nonconjugated Nonconjugated Conjugated References Hussain and Dincer [31] Oztop and Akpinar [76] Lamnatou et al. [36] Wang et al. [53] Huan et al. [49] Ho et al. [64] Ghani et al. [92] Curcio et al. [21] Aversa et al. [74] Ghani et al. [84] Varma and Kannan [89] Farid and Ghani [97] Ho et al. [64] Kaya et al. [33] Janjai et al. [32] Moraga et al. [59] Ghani and Farid [40] Oztop and Akpinar [76] Hussain and Dincer [31] Zare et al. [73] Bakalis et al. [75] Moraga and Medina [39]

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Equipment: freezer, drier or sterilizer Know boundary condition: Surrounding fluid: (h,T f ) ; (hm ,C f ) y b

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(x , y = b , t ) = H (( x , y = b ,t ) f n

= T or C
H = h or h m

External surface

Unknown variables: Solid food: T(x,y,t)=T; C(x,y,t)=C Liquid food: V(x,y,t)=V a

Fig. 1 Physical situation of food and surrounding uid with nonconjugated boundary conditions

In nonconjugated models the convective heat and mass transfer coefcients are required as a needed input to the model [36]. The accurate values for these local coefcients may not always be easily found in literature for nonlinear transient models since they change in time and space. Food freezing, drying, and non-Newtonian uid sterilization are three examples of food processes that have been studied using the nonconjugated approach [2]. The physical, mathematical, and computational aspects of these processes have been examined by using numerical methods such as nite differences, nite volumes, and nite elements [37]. The alternative boundary conditions applied along the food surface that can be used to assess heat transfer are: First kind Dirichlet): T Tref Second kind Neumann) : k Third kind Robin) : k oT q00 on 1 2

Non conjugated model


Step 1. Known food characteristics Given: Geometry and dimension

oT h Twall Tfluid hm hlv on Cwall Cfluid 3

Step 2. Known initial conditions Given: Velocity, pressure, temperature, concentration in food

Step 3. Known thermophysical properties Solid food: , Cp, k, D Liquid food: , Cp, k, D, , = ( ), T, C

Step 4. Known boundary conditions Heat transfer: h, T f Mass transfer: hm, C f

The symbols used are: k, thermal conductivity (W/m K); Tref, reference temperature (K); q00 , heat ux (W/m2); n, normal direction to the food surface; Twall, food wall temperature (K); Tuid, uid temperature (K); Cwall, mass concentration at the wall (kg/m3); Cuid, uid mass concentration (kg/m3); h, heat transfer coefcient (W/m2 K); hm, mass transfer coefcient (m/s); and hlv, latent heat of vaporization (J/kg K). The evaporation at the food surface included in the last term of Eq. 3 couples heat and mass transfer unsteady diffusion equations. Conjugated Problems The predictions of heat transfer in foods using numerical methods have been accomplished in the past mainly based on the use of a mathematical model that includes the heat diffusion equation inside the food with external heat convection incorporated in the boundary conditions by means of a heat transfer convective coefcient, which is neither always available nor easily extrapolated to physical problems of interest [38]. The accurate quantication of conjugate uid mechanics and heat transfer can lead to improvements in the characterization and description of drying, sterilization, and freezing processes. The successful use of this type of models applied to food industry can contribute to reduce energy consumption, experimental cost, and working time. In this approach the complexity of the mathematical model increases but the introduction of heat transfer convective coefcients (global and/or locals) that affect the uncertainty in the calculations is not required [39]. Furthermore, recent advances in modern computing power allows the use of nite numerical methods (differences,

Step 5. Solve PDEs inside the food - Unsteady heat conduction eqn. - Unsteady coupled mass diffusion eqn.

Step 6. Find dependent variables Inside the food: V(x,y,t); P(x,y,t); T(x,y,t); C(x,y,t)

Fig. 2 Flow diagram of the nonconjugated model

Nonconjugated Problems The nonconjugated models that involve uid mechanics, heat and mass transfer have been used in cases where the food is either a solid or a canned liquid, in which the mathematical model includes rst- (Dirichlet), second(Neumann), or third- (Robin) kind boundary conditions at the food surface (Fig. 1) [35]. Figure 2 shows, in a ow sheet, the information needed as input: type of food, thermal properties required, initial and boundary conditions in order to calculate the dependent relevant variables inside the food, temperatures and species concentration for solid and liquid foods, and also velocity and pressure elds for liquid foods.

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volumes, elements) to attempt a simultaneous solution for the transport phenomena inside the food and in the surrounding uid [30] using the conjugated model approach. The conjugate heat and mass transfer mathematical model can be described by two coupled systems of equations, one for the surrounding air and the other for the food to freeze, dry, or sterilize (Fig. 3) [21, 34, 39, 40]. In addition, Lamnatou et al. [36] established that for modeling and simulating the thermal process one should take into account the interaction between momentum, heat and mass transfer within the solid and liquid food and the transfer to the surrounding uid. These authors explained that conjugated models do not require prior knowledge of convective heat and mass transfer coefcients on the surface of the solid and liquid foods, where these coefcients can be evaluated as a part of the computational simulation. Thus, a more accurate description about the uid mechanics, heat and mass transport phenomena occurred during the food conservation processes can be obtained in any domain where both food and surrounding uid are interacting [28, 36]. Also, conjugated models could automatically exclude the need to use surface transfer coefcients in processes simulation; however, these local surface transfer coefcients can be obtained as post-processing after temperature and concentration distributions have been obtained for both the surrounding liquid and for the solid or liquid food. For convenience, Fig. 4 shows a ow sheet with the 6 steps needed when solving a food process with the conjugated model. Examples of conjugate boundary conditions for heat transfer between food and uid in normal direction to the wall are indicated in Eq. 4. In addition, local convection heat transfer coefcients can be calculated from the temperature elds in the food and in the surrounding uid as indicated in Eq. 5:

Conjugated model
Step 1. Known food and equipment characteristics Given: Geometry and dimension

Step 2. Known initial conditions Given: Velocity, pressure, temperature, concentration, etc. in food and surrounding fluid

Step 3. Known thermophysical properties Solid food: , Cp, k, D Liquid food: , Cp, k, D, , ( ), T, C

Step 4. Known external thermophysical properties Surrounding fluid: , Cp, k, D, , ( ), T, C

Step 5. Solve PDEs in food and surrounding fluid Inside the food: - Unsteady heat conduction eqns. - Unsteady coupled mass diffusion eqns. Surrounding fluid: - Continuity eqn. - Linear momentum eqn. in each direction - Energy eqn. - Unsteady convective/diffusion mass eqn.

Step 6. Find dependent variables Inside the food: V(x,y,t); T(x,y,t); C(x,y,t) Surrounding fluid: V(x,y,t); P(x,y,t) T(x,y,t); C(x,y,t)

Fig. 4 Flow diagram of the conjugated model

Tfood wall Tfluid wall ;     oTfood oTfluid kfluid kfood on wall on wall q00 kfood Tfood Twall ; Dn h q00 Twall Tfluid

where Tfood is the food temperature (K); kfood is food thermal conductivity (W/m K); kuid is surrounding uid thermal conductivity (W/m K); n is the normal direction to the food surface; q00 , heat ux (W/m2); and Twall, food wall temperature (K).

Mathematical Models
Equipment: freezer, drier or sterilizer Unknown variables: V (x , y , t ) ; P(x , y , t ) Surrounding fluid: T (x , y , t ) ; C (x , y , t )

y b

Unknown variables: Solid food: T(x,y,t)=T; C(x,y,t)=C Liquid food: V(x,y,t)=V a

Fig. 3 Physical situation of food and surrounding uid with conjugate boundary conditions

Fluid mechanics and heat and mass transfer in liquid foods and the surrounding cooling or heating uids are predicted and described by transport equations based on conservation of mass (continuity), linear momentum, energy and mass transfer. They are completed by adding two algebraic equations: the state equation and the constitutive equation [41]. The nonconjugated and conjugated problems are studied under the assumptions of laminar ow, incompressible uids, with negligible volume change, absence of heat generation inside the food, and negligible thermal radiation around the food. In general, laminar ows are assumed, since turbulent ow modeling would require to add one to ve additional equations depending on the turbulence model used [42, 43].

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Solid and non-Newtonian liquid foods are nonporous. In these foods, water transport is considered only due to the relatively simple phenomena of molecular diffusion [14]. Only density is allowed to change linearly with temperature according to the Boussinesq approximation. Dimensional Mathematical Model

can be used. The dimensionless dependent (v, T, C) and independent (x, y, t) variables are dened in the usual way for mixed convection [44]: x y tuo u v p Y s U V P 2 X L L uo uo quo L 11 h T Tmin Tmax Tmin u C Cmin Cmax Cmin 12

In cases where properties change with temperature, such as freezing in solid foods, the unsteady 2D mathematical model for natural convection is: Continuity equation: oq oqu oqv 0 ot ox oy X linear momentum equation: oqu oqu oqu op orxx oryx u v ot ox oy ox ox oy Y linear momentum equation: oqv oqv oqv op orxy oryy u v ot ox oy oy ox oy qgbT T Tref qgbC C Cref ! ! 7 6

and hence the dimensionless numbers involved are: Luo m m Gr Sc Ri 2 Pr Re 13 a D Re m GrT gbT L3 Tmax Tmin m2 GrC gbC L3 Cmax Cmin m2 14

In natural-convection-controlled processes, the velocity scale, dimensionless variables, and commonly used parameters are: p g L _ uo gbRTmax Tmin g c gref uo 15 pL _ cP 2 gref uo where the dimensionless numbers used are: g Cp qgbL3 Tmax Tmin Ra Pr ref k gref a

Heat transfer equation, including solidliquid phase change of water content inside food:   hls ofpc oqCpT oqCpT oqCpT u v 1 ot ox oy qCp oT    o oT o oT k k 9 ox ox oy oy Mass transfer equation:     oC oC oC o oC o oC u v D D ot ox oy ox ox oy oy 10

16

and the governing equations written in dimensionless form becomes:Continuity equation: oU oV 0 17 oX oY X linear momentum equation for mixed convection: ! oU oU oU oP 1 o2 U o2 U U V 2 18 os oX oY oX Re oX 2 oY X linear momentum equation for natural convection: r ! ! Ra oU oU oU oP o2 U o2 U U V g 2 Pr os oX oY oX oX 2 oY 19 Y linear momentum equation for mixed convection: ! oV oV oV oP 1 o2 V o2 V U V 2 os oX oY oY Re oX 2 oY Rih Nu 20

In the above equations the symbols used are: C, mass concentration (kg/m3); Cp, constant pressure-specic heat (J/ kg K); D, mass diffusion coefcient (m2/s); fpc, liquid phasechange fraction; hls, latent heat of solidication (J/kg K); g, gravitational acceleration (m/s2); k, thermal conductivity (W/ m K); r, stress tensor (Pa); q, density (kg/m3); bT, thermal expansion coefcient (1/K); bC, mass expansion coefcient (1/m3); p, pressure (Pa); t, time (s); uv, velocity components (m/s); T, temperature (K); and xy, coordinates (m). Dimensionless Mathematical Model In cases where the change of physical properties can be assumed to be negligible, such as in simplied models for solid drying and sterilization and non-Newtonian liquid foods, respectively, a dimensionless mathematical model

Y linear momentum equation for natural convection: r ! ! Ra oV oV oV oP o2 V o2 V U V g 2 Pr os oX oY oY oX 2 oY r Ra h 21 Pr

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Heat transfer equation for mixed convection: ! ! oh oh oh 1 o2 h o2 h U V os oX oY Re Pr oX 2 oY 2 Heat transfer equation for natural convection: ! ! p oh oh oh o2 h o2 h U V Ra Pr os oX oY oX 2 oY 2 Mass transfer equation for mixed convection: ! ! ou ou ou 1 o 2 u o2 u U V os oX oY Re Sc oX 2 oY 2

Nonconjugated Cases 22 The freezing process is difcult to describe due to the nonlinear heat diffusion equation in which the thermophysical properties such as density, specic heat, enthalpy, and thermal conductivity vary with temperature [49]. However, freezing as a food preservation process must achieve optimum quality of the nished product as a primary objective and hence a good prediction of freezing time and time-evolution of temperature distribution are important. The common practice to construct a mathematical diffusion model has been based on the solution of the energy and mass equations with a third-kind boundary condition on the surface. Spatial and time variations of the local convective heat transfer coefcients caused errors in the range of 515% compared to analytical models and with respect to the experimental data [5052]. In industrial practice a simplied fast predictive method is preferred and the development of simple and available software is desired [53]. Wang and Sun [54, 55] studied the two- and three-dimensional transient cooling processes of roasted and cooked meat using the FEM with variations in the food physical properties. They calculated the moisture loss rate (weight loss) during the cooling process. The convective coefcients were obtained by using an analytical equation. These coefcients were incorporated in the heat conduction model. The numerical values were validated with experimental results showing a low deviation between them. Campanone et al. [56, 57] developed a generalized mathematical model to simulate the coupled heat and mass transfer during food refrigeration in air. The developed model considers food geometry, surface water evaporation, variable physical properties, and variable external temperature and humidity. The numerical technique used was the FDM with a CrankNicolson scheme and results were compared with those obtained by analytical solutions as well as with experimental data. Wang et al. [53] carried out a study on the unsteady one-dimensional freezing in spherical and cylindrical foods. The FDM with the Crank Nicolson scheme was used in the numerical simulation. The water phase-change problem in the freezing process was solved with the apparent heat capacity approach and the physical property change was described by a quadratic curve. The predicted values were validated with a set of actual experimental values, with high correlation coefcients (r2 [ 0.99), which means that the model could be used to predict the freezing time and the temperature history of different food geometries at different cooling air temperatures. Huan et al. [49] analyzed freezing and thawing processes for food by using FEM. The authors evaluated the effect of different freezing parameters (food

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Symbols included in previous equations are: a, thermal _ diffusivity (m2/s); m, kinematic viscosity (m2/s); c, shear rate (1/s); s, dimensionless time; g, apparent viscosity (Pa s); gref, reference apparent viscosity (Pa s); g*, dimensionless apparent viscosity; h, dimensionless temperature; u, dimensionless concentration; N, temperature/ concentration ratio (dimensionless); uo, inlet velocity (m/ s); L, height of the cavity (m); P, dimensionless pressure; R, universal gas constant (J/mol K); UV, dimensionless velocity components; XY, dimensionless coordinates; GrT, thermal Grashof number (=gbTDTL3/m2); GrC, mass Grashof number (=gbCDCL3/m2); Pr, Prandtl number (=m/a); Sc, Schmidt number (=m/D); Ra, Rayleigh number (=GrPr); Re, Reynolds number (=Luo/m); and Ri, Richardson number (=Gr/Re2). Overview and Development Food Freezing Food freezing is a widely used preservation method because frozen products can be stored for long periods, due to the inhibition of the microbial growth and the reduction of biochemical and enzyme reaction rates. As a result, the food can be stored for long periods without practical alteration of the initial characteristics [45]. However, the food freezing may alter quality characteristics such as avor and texture, which in turn can affect their acceptance [46]. In the food industry, the most common way of freezing and thawing liquid and solid foods is to use either cold/hot air or cold/hot water. Inside the solid foods, heat transfer is by conduction whereas in liquid foods it is by the combined convective/conduction heat transfer mechanisms [47]. Therefore, a precise knowledge of the uid dynamic, heat and mass transfer by diffusion and convection is important to adjust the freezingthawing process variables in order to better preserve and retain the quality of the product [48].

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128 Fig. 5 Temperature distributions during the freezing of a cylindrical ground beef piece [59]

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Solid food: Find: T(r, ,t)

External boundary condition Know: T f (t ,) ; h( ,t )

shapes, freezing temperature, and air velocity) on the freezing time. The heat transfer coefcients varied with the freezing time and temperature. The nal results showed that freezing temperature and air velocity were the important factors affecting food freezing rate. Other authors such as Califano and Zaritzky [26] and Zhao et al. [58] have also found that accurate predictions can be made with the FEM for elliptical cylinders of minced beef and albacore tuna, respectively. Moraga et al. [59] used a mathematical model which shows unsteady 2D temperature distributions for freezing a cylindrical ground beef piece, with dependent temperature thermal properties and variable convective boundary conditions. These local heat transfer coefcients are a function of freezing time and space. Figure 5 shows the predicted temperature distributions calculated by the FVM, at different time intervals in ground meat cylinder. This numerical prediction of freezing curves was found to have deviations of 2.5% with respect to the experimental data due to the experimental determination of heat transfer coefcients and freezing air temperature. The accuracy obtained may allow this approach to be used as a guideline for freezing experiments, freezing equipment design, and frozen food production [39]. Similar results, as well as freezing time and temperature distributions, have been reported by Zhao et al. [58], Ohnishi et al. [60], Haiying et al. [61], Delgado and Rubiolo [48] and Li et al. [62] for

sh, vegetables, and beef samples, by applying different analytical and numerical methods to predict freezing times, freezing temperatures, and nal product quality. Conjugated Studies Several techniques based on discrete equations, such as FDM and FEM, have been used most frequently in freezing and melting problems for irregularly shaped foods. On the other hand, advances made in computational uid dynamics, mainly throughout the FVM, have made possible the conjugate analysis of uid dynamics and heat transfer [63]. The freezing process is difcult to predict due to the nonlinearities caused by the phase change of the water content in the food and those in the heat diffusion equation, in which the food thermophysical properties such as density, specic heat, enthalpy, and thermal conductivity vary continuously with temperature [49]. Physical, mathematical, and computational aspects of freezing and thawing processes have been examined using different numerical methods such as FDM, FVM, and FEM [37]. Moraga and Medina [39] using the FVM have achieved a good accuracy with experimental temperature data during salmon meat freezing by forced convection. The food physical properties were temperature dependent and the air temperature inside a freezing chamber varied with time. The researchers found errors in freezing time prediction between experimental and numerical data

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Food Eng Rev (2011) 3:121135 Fig. 6 Unsteady a temperature and b moisture content distribution in solid food and surrounding uid [28]
Solid food: Find: T(x,y,t);C(x,y,t) Equipment: freezer

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Surrounding fluid: Find: T(x,y,t); C(x,y,t) Find: V(x,y,t)

(a)

(b)

from 2.0 to 10%. In addition, the local convective heat transfer coefcients predicted from the numerical simulation were found to reach values between 15 and 30 W/m2 K, for different food surfaces and freezing times. Ho [64] presented a 3D conjugated heat transfer model for the analysis of food freezing, using a conjugated heat transfer method and the enthalpy method to solve the energy equation across the uidsolid interface. The results predicted by the model were compared with the experimental data available in the literature. Good overall agreement was obtained. Moraga and Barraza [28] presented a numerical simulation of uid ow and heat transfer during natural convection between air and a food in a freezer. Figures 6a, b show temperature and moisture distributions in the air and in the food for 2 time instants. Weight loss by mass transfer (water vapor) from the surface of the food toward the surrounding air was calculated. After air temperature reached a temperature of -30 C in all the freezer area at a time of 10,200 s, the liquid water had changed to ice in the lower half portion of the food. Finally, the temperature in the food was below -15 C, with a quick decreasing in the values near the surface. Food weight loss, calculated from the amount of water lost during the freezing process, was with a 1.5% of the food original weight.

avoiding potential deterioration and contamination during long storage periods at ambient temperature [19, 65]. Also, food quality is preserved, hygienic conditions are improved, and product loss is diminished [66]. Other important objectives of food dehydration are weight and volume reduction, intended to decrease transportation and storage costs [67]. However, the sensorial and nutritional quality of a conventionally dried product (hot air) can be drastically reduced compared to that of the original product [65]. Several methods or combinations of dehydration methods can be used, including solar drying, hot-air drying, freeze-drying, osmotic dehydration, spray-drying, and vacuum-impregnation, among others [68]. In addition, the consumption of dehydrated food has been increasing due to the development of new products because of the easy incorporation of dried food in prepared dishes, yogurt, and bakery and pastry products. For this reason and considering that dehydrated foods are an important source of vitamins, minerals, and ber, dried food can be also considered a component or an ingredient of functional foods [69]. Nonconjugated Cases Drying is a simultaneous heat and mass transfer process with physical, chemical, and nutritional changes, over times which are affected by parameters related to internal and external heat and mass transfer processes [70]. The parameters involved include external temperature, velocity, and relative humidity relative to ambient air, while internal parameters may include density, permeability, porosity,

Food Dehydration Dehydration is useful to preserve food quality and stability, reducing water activity by decreasing the water content, and

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130 Fig. 7 Measured and predicted center a temperature and b moisture content distribution in a rectangular food [72]

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(a)
330 Experimental 325 Numerical

(b)
Moisture content (dimensionless)
1.00 0.95 0.90 0.85 0.80 0.75 0.70 0 600 1200 1800 2400 3000 3600 4200 Experimental Numerical

Temperature (K)

320 315 310 305 300 0 300 600 900 1200 1500 1800

Time (s)

Time (s)

mass diffusivity, specic heat, and thermal conductivity [33]. Therefore, adequate mathematical models and efcient solution procedures for heat and mass transfer processes are required to improve drying conditions [71]. Hussain and Dincer [72] investigated the drying of rectangular pieces of apple and potato heated by hot air. Results computed by the FDM described the simultaneous heat and mass transfer occurring under the same drying conditions where the mathematical model used to predict the drying process considered unsteady 2D heat conduction and mass diffusion. Comparison with the experimental results shows that a good numerical prediction of the temperature and moisture at the center food was achieved with the numerical method, with deviations of the order of 2.0% with respect to the experimental values (Fig. 7). Zare et al. [73] and Aversa et al. [74] have found very accurate predictions using FDM and FEM for rectangular pieces of rough rice and carrots, respectively. These simulation models were validated by comparing the predicted results with experimental data in each case and they found that the numerical methods were reliable in predicting the moisture and temperature at the center of rough rice and carrots during the drying process. An interesting study of rice rehydration was carried out by Bakalis et al. [75] where a nonlinear dependence of effective diffusivity with respect to moisture content was found to be a critical issue to estimate cooking times. Oztop and Kavak [76] studied heat and moisture transport during apple and potato slice drying. Numerical prediction with the FVM was found to be in good agreement with the experimental results. This comparison also described that moisture showed a symmetrical distribution inside the food due to the use of a constant heat transfer coefcient on the food surface. De Lima et al. [77] presented a 2D diffusional model to predict simultaneous mass transfer and shrinkage using the FVM for banana drying. They concluded that numerical simulation provided an accurate prediction of heat and mass diffusion inside spherical foods with variable properties that were almost impossible to obtain with analytical solutions.

Da Silva et al. [78] proposed the use of the FVM to investigate the two-dimensional heat and mass diffusion for cowpea grain during drying. The diffusion equations were discretized with a fully implicit formulation, generalized coordinates, and boundary condition of the rst kind. The numerical solutions obtained were found to be in fairly good agreement with known analytical solutions. Wu et al. [79] developed a 3D theoretical model to describe the coupled heat and mass transfer by the FVM inside a single rice kernel during drying. A Fortran-90-based computer code was used to simulate the transient moisture content distributions inside a rice kernel. The authors found a very good agreement between simulated and experimental results. Conjugated Studies Heat and mass transfer in food depends on both temperature and concentration differences, but also on the surrounding air temperature, velocity, and water content which strongly inuence heat and mass transfer rates at the foodair interfaces [21]. Air temperature and velocity are difcult to measure during industrial operations because several sensors must be placed at various positions and locations of the incoming air ow. In some drying tests for several fruits it has been found that the degree of fruit dryness depended on the location within the drier, because the drying rate depended mainly on air ow (air velocity) in the drying chamber [13]. Also, air velocity gradients within the driers have been found to cause variations in the drying rates and in moisture content. Therefore, computer simulation can be used as a time-saving method to control the dynamics of the drying process with reduced costs [36, 73]. Curcio et al. [21] presented a numerical simulation using the FEM to describe the simultaneous momentum, heat and mass transfer occurring in a convective drying process under turbulent conditions around a vegetable sample, without the specication of interfacial heat and mass transfer coefcients. They also showed experimental results which were in agreement with respect to the prediction models. Figure 8

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Food Eng Rev (2011) 3:121135


Surrounding fluid: Find: T(x,y,t); C(x,y,t) Find: V(x,y,t)

131

Equipment: dryer

Solid food: Find: T(x,y,t);C(x,y,t)

z [m]
0.06 0.0 0.08 0.1 0.12 0.14 0.16 0.18

1.6 1.4 1.2

1.0 0.8 0.6 0.4

0.2 0.0

heating are desirable to achieve a predetermined level of sterility with low energy consumption, minimum destruction of nutrients, preserving the organoleptic characteristics of the food being processed [83]. Moreover, the high heat resistance of bacterial spores has a great importance in the sterilization process for low-acid foods [84]. Liquid foods are non-Newtonian and hence model uids such as bentonite suspensions and sodium carboxy methylcellulose (CMC) solutions that exhibit non-Newtonian behavior have been extensively used in heat transfer studies [27, 83]. Sterilization of food in cans has been well studied, both experimentally and theoretically [40, 85]. The effect of the heat sterilization process of canned foods on their quality and nutrient retention has been a major concern in thermal processing of food since the beginning of the canning industry [86]. Nonconjugated Cases

velocity [m/s]

r [m]

Fig. 8 Velocity eld developed close to the rectangular food [21]

shows velocity distribution on a rectangular food sample with the following characteristics: time = 60 min, food temperature = 289 K, food moisture content = 0.85 kg water/kg wet basis, velocity inlet = 1.5 m/s, air temperature = 318 K, and relative humidity of air = 20%. Lamnatou et al. [36] proposed a conjugated model using the FVM to evaluate heat and mass transfer for agricultural products drying. This particular case shows an application of the drying process in porous products. The results showed that the adequate combination of parameters such as material aspect ratio, uid ow rate, blockage type, and contact surfaces variation can lead to higher heat and mass transfer coefcients resulting in better product quality. The authors concluded that this methodology could be used to analyze the transport phenomena in any type of convective dryer, including those utilizing solar energy. In addition, it may be valuable in the optimization of drying chamber design in order to achieve a more uniform drying and higher heat/mass transfer rates. Nowadays, an efcient way to nd the local convective heat and mass transfer coefcients can be achieved by the internal/external heat and mass coupling using CFD packages (Fluent, CFX, Phoenix, CFD Design, Blue Ridge Numerics, Inc.) [1, 13, 33, 71, 80]. Other researchers, for example Mathioulakis et al. [81] and Mirade and Daudin [82], have focused mainly on providing information on air circulation inside the driers in order to improve the drying efciency.

0.1

0.08

0.06

0.04

0.02

Food Sterilization Sterilization has been the most widely used thermal process for food preservation during the twentieth century. During solid and liquid food sterilization, rapid and uniform

The accurate knowledge of the convective heat transfer coefcient is essential to predict the sterilization process [87]. However, in industrial practice the measurement of heat transfer coefcient in an operating food plant can be quite difcult due to time restrictions and the cost involved [88]. The numerical solution describing convective ow inside canned food has been developed by Varma and Kannan [89]. Natural convection induced by thermal buoyancy effects in a gravitational force eld has been observed in many applications [90]. Jung and Fryer [91] reported a potential optimization approach to be used for food quality and safety by means of the computational modeling of a continuous sterilization process. Kurian et al. [88] determined the effect of the inclination angle (ranging from 0 to 180) and Rayleigh number on an inclined cylinder on thermal internal natural convective heat transfer under buoyancy-induced ows, using simulation with a commercial CFD code. Varma and Kannan [85, 90] investigated enhancing natural convective heat transfer in canned food sterilization through container shape and orientation modication, using a CFX commercial software to solve the governing continuity, momentum, and energy equations. They used CMC as the food simulator to study the laminar ow behavior. They also determined the slowest heating zone (SHZ) temperature for three geometries. Ghani et al. [9294] studied and simulated 3D unsteady, SHZ, container shape and orientation, effects of rotation and nutrient loss (vitamin C) for canned liquid food sterilization by using the nite volume methods with the Phoenics software. Siriwattanayotin et al. [95] predicted the natural convection and changes of sugar concentration during the sterilization of canned liquid food using the CFX software. The results showed a good t between the calculated temperatures with respect to

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132 Fig. 9 Dimensionless temperature distribution, velocity vectors, and streamlines for CMC during sterilization [96]

Food Eng Rev (2011) 3:121135

External boundary condition Liquid food: Find: T(r,z,t) Find: V(r,z,t) Know: h ; T f

experimental values. Taking into account all these considerations, the use of this computational software is highly recommended to simulate the liquid food sterilization process using low CPU time for calculations. Moraga et al. [96] studied a thin cylindrical can containing a non-Newtonian liquid food: CMC suspended in water (0.85% w/w) as aqueous food simulator (Fig. 9). The can was half submerged in a uid at a constant temperature of 394 K. The liquid inside the container was initially heated by conduction where the temperature increase generates density gradients near the walls. Figure 9 shows the physical situation, dimensionless temperature distribution, velocity vectors, and streamlines during sterilization in a cylindrical can with an aspect ratio 1.56 (height/ diameter). Food sterilization, including the viscosity temperature variation, was predicted using a noncommercial computational program based on the FVM. The results show that the time required for sterilization is strongly dependent on the liquid food rheological behavior and a recirculation ow pattern was found inside the cylindrical container for the aqueous food simulator. Conjugated Studies Most mathematical models used in the past have considered food heating by conduction with prescribed convective boundary conditions [34]. The required processing time is generally determined by using either an analytical or a numerical solution for the unsteady state heat conduction equation [40]. Therefore, it is necessary to include natural convection for liquid foods, which occurs due to density gradients within the uid caused by the temperature

gradients, to nd the slowest heating point (SHZ) and thus correctly predict this critical zone [95, 97]. Ghani and Farid [40] calculated ow patterns, temperature distribution, and shapes of the SHZ during heating of solidliquid food mixtures (pineapple slices with its moisture) in a cylindrical can heated by condensing steam. The authors evaluated two congurations: (1) pineapple slices oating in the juice and (2) pineapple slices located at the base of the can. The partial differential equations describing the conservation of mass, momentum, and energy were solved numerically using a commercial software (Phoenics), based on the FVM. Saturated steam at 121 C was used as the heating medium. The liquid was assumed to have constant properties, except viscosity (temperature dependent) and density (Boussinesq approximation). The results described the action of natural convection on the heating, liquid ow patterns, and the shape and space evolution of the slowest heating zone (SHZ), which eventually was located in a region that was about 3035% of the can height from the bottom (Fig. 10). In addition, the simulations showed that the location of the solid (pineapple slices) in the can inuence signicantly the rate of heating as well as the natural convection.

Conclusions and Future Trends This review covers the application and development of computational simulation based on nite numerical methods in the food process engineering. Examples of food freezing, drying, and sterilization processes have been described by using different numerical methods, with and

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Food Eng Rev (2011) 3:121135 Fig. 10 Temperature distributions of juice ow and pineapple slices mixture: a liquid ow beneath the bottom pineapple and b pineapple seated at the bottom of the can, for a time of 2,000 s [40]
Equipment: sterilizer Liquid food: Find: T(r,z,t) Find: V(r,z,t) Surrounding fluid: Find: T(r,z,t) Find: V(r,z,t)

133

(a)
115C

(b)
93C

114C

105C

121C

121C

without the direct use of convective coefcients as an external boundary condition input for the mathematical model. A new procedure dened as conjugated model, without the use of convective coefcients in the mathematical model that includes the external environment surrounding the food, has been reviewed through different investigations which were analyzed and discussed. However, these mathematical models should be validated by physical experiments because these models use many approximations as well as a few assumptions that should be based on food science knowledge. In the following years, a considerable growth in the development and application of computational simulation in the food industry can be expected. It is noteworthy that computer simulations can reduce costs, processing time, and equipment optimization, together with allowing a more detailed physical visualization of uid dynamics and heat and mass transfer during thermal processing. All these applications and developments will contribute to enhance computational simulations to be used as a powerful engineering tool in the food processing industry in a near future.
Acknowledgments The authors acknowledge the nancial support of CONICYTChile through FONDECYT PROJECT1111067. Roberto A. Lemus-Mondaca acknowledges the nancial support given by the Doctoral National Fellowship of the Advanced Human Capital Program CONICYT-Chile and DIGEGRA-USACH.

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