Piping Flexibility and Stress Analysis

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Thc most basic rcquircmcnt of piping strcss anaIysis is to cnsurc adcquatc cxibiIity in thc piping
systcm for absorbing thc thcrmaI cxpansion of thc pipc. Prior to thc nucIcar powcr cra, aImost aII
discussions and trcatmcnts of pipc strcss wcrc conccntratcd in piping cxibiIity anaIysis. Thc works
by SpicIvogcI [1], KcIIogg [2], OIson and Cramcr [3], and Brock [4] arc somc of thcsc carIicr cxampIcs.
Ivcn nowadays, dcspitc thc fact that strcss anaIysis covcrs much morc than cxibiIity anaIysis, cngi-
nccrs stiII tcnd to rcgard pipc strcss anaIysis as |ust a fancy tcrm for pipc cxibiIity anaIysis. In any
casc, piping cxibiIity rcmains as onc of thc most important tasks in piping cnginccring and strcss
anaIysis.
3.1 THERMAL EXPANSION FORCE AND STRESS
Thc pipc cxpands or contracts duc to tcmpcraturc changcs in thc pipc. In this discussion, thc tcrm
cxpansion impIics cithcr cxpansion or contraction. Whcn a pipc cxpands it causcs thc cntirc piping
systcm to makc room for its movcmcnt. This crcatcs forccs and strcsscs in thc pipc and on its con-
nccting cquipmcnt. If thc piping systcm docs not havc cnough cxibiIity to absorb this cxpansion, thc
forcc and strcss gcncratcd can bc Iargc cnough to damagc thc piping and thc connccting cquipmcnt.
An idcaIizcd straight pipc as shown in Iig. 3.1(a) wiII bc uscd to invcstigatc thc potcntiaI magnitudc
of thc forcc and strcss that can bc gcncratcd [5].
3.1.1 Ideal Anchor Evaluation
Iigurc 3.1(a)(1) shows a straight pipc conncctcd to two idcaI anchors. An idcaI anchor has inhnitc
stiffncss such that no anchor movcmcnt is gcncratcd rcgardIcss of thc magnitudc of thc forcc appIicd.
Thc anchors impIcmcntcd in computcr programs arc mostIy idcaI anchors. In our cxampIc, whcn
thc tcmpcraturc of this two-anchorcd straight pipc changcs, it causcs thc pipc to cxpand. Howcvcr,
thc anchors at thc cnds prcvcnt it from cxpanding. Thc rcsistancc of thc anchor gcncratcs forcc on thc
anchors from which thc samc forcc is rccctcd back to thc pipc. Iigurc 3.1(a)(2) shows that whcn onc
cnd of thc pipc is Ioosc, thc pipc has a frcc cxpansion cquaI to % = "1(T
2
' T
1
), whcrc " is thc thcrmaI
cxpansion ratc of thc pipc and (T
2
' T
1
) is tcmpcraturc changc. Thcrc is no forcc or strcss gcncratcd
in thc frcc cxpansion statc. Howcvcr, bccausc ncithcr cnd is Ioosc in this two-anchorcd casc, thc forcc
gcncratcd on thc anchor is cquivaIcnt to thc forcc rcquircd to push thc frcc cxpandcd cnd back to its
originaI position. Thc squcczing movcmcnt is cquaI to thc strain timcs thc Icngth. That is,
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=
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C
62 Chaptcr 3
or

= , <7 %K
/
( K
.
&) J , < %Q
/
( K
.
& (3.1)
whcrc E is thc moduIus of cIasticity of thc pipc matcriaI, A is thc cross-scction arca of thc pipc, F
is thc anchor forcc, and S is thc axiaI strcss. With idcaI anchors, thc forcc and strcss gcncratcd arc
indcpcndcnt of thc Icngth of thc pipc. Thc forcc and strcss gcncratcd arc hugc cvcn for a smaII pipc
scction with onIy a modcratc tcmpcraturc changc. Ior cxampIc, incrcasing thc tcmpcraturc of a 6-in.
standard waII carbon-stccI pipc from 70BI ambicnt condition to 300BI opcrating condition crcatcs an
axiaI strcss of 45,000 pounds pcr squarc inch (psi) and an axiaI forcc of 250,000 pounds (Ibs) in thc
pipc and on thc anchors.
Thc forcc and thc strcss arc cxccssivc cvcn though thc tcmpcraturc is onIy 300BI. This shows that
a straight-Iinc dircct piping Iayout is gcncraIIy not acccptabIc. Thc idcaI anchor simuIation aIso shows
that thc magnitudcs of thc forccs and thc strcss arc thc samc rcgardIcss of pipc Icngth. This idcaIizcd
concIusion somctimcs bccomcs a handicap whcn dcsigning a cIoscIy spaccd and tight piping systcm.
3.1.2 The Real Anchor
Iquation (3.1) shows thc potcntiaI magnitudcs of thc forcc and thc corrcsponding strcss that can bc
gcncratcd by a tcmpcraturc changc in thc pipc. Thcsc quantitics arc indcpcndcnt of thc Icngth of thc
pipc. This is thc concIusion that cnginccrs normaIIy obtain from a thcorcticaI trcatmcnt on thc sub|cct.
In thc rcaI worId, howcvcr, thc stiffncss of thc anchor is Iimitcd. A stiffncss of 10
6
Ib/in. is aIrcady
vcry difhcuIt to achicvc duc to thc cxibiIity of thc structurc, foundation, and attachmcnts thcmscIvcs.
Dcpcnding on pipc sizc, thc practicaI anchor stiffncss morc IikcIy rangcs from 10
4
to 10
7
Ib/in.
Iigurc 3.1(b) shows an intcraction of a rcaI anchor with an cxpanding straight pipc. Hcrc, onIy onc
cnd of thc pipc is conncctcd to a rcaI anchor with a stiffncss k. Thc othcr cnd is stiII conncctcd to an
idcaI anchor of inhnitc stiffncss. Bccausc of its cxibiIity, thc rcaI anchor wiII absorb part of thc pipc
cxpansion, %
1
, and thc pipc itscIf absorbs thc rcst of thc cxpansion, %
2
. Thc combination of %
1
and %
2

is thc totaI cxpansion, %. Bccausc both anchor and pipc rcccivc thc samc forcc, F?, wc havc
FIG. 3.1
THERMAL EXPANSION FORCE
ThcrmaI Ixpansion and Piping IIcxibiIity 63
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(3.2)
Iquation (3.2) shows that with a rcaI anchor, thc forcc gcncratcd is dcpcndcnt on thc Icngth and
anchor stiffncss. Ior short pipcs, thc forcc is roughIy proportionaI to thc Icngth of thc pipc. Thc cqua-
tion incIudcs an additionaI tcrm, EA/k1. Anothcr cquivaIcnt tcrm wouId havc bccn Iikcwisc incIudcd
if both cnds of thc pipc wcrc conncctcd to rcaI anchors. This tcrm is important whcn dcaIing with
short pipcs. Takc thc 6-in. pipc discusscd prcviousIy, for cxampIc; a 5-ft pipc with onc cnd conncctcd
to an anchor having a stiffncss of 10
5
Ib/in. wiII rcsuIt in a forcc of 8800 Ib and a strcss of 1600 psi.
Whcn both cnds arc conncctcd to rcaI anchors, thc forcc is furthcr rcduccd to 4500 Ib and thc strcss
to 800 psi. Thcsc numbcrs arc roughIy |ust 1/30 and 1/60, rcspcctivcIy, of thc numbcrs obtaincd by
idcaI anchors.
Irom thc abovc, it is cIcar that thc stiffncss of thc anchor has a vcry grcat cffcct on thc forccs and
strcsscs gcncratcd. This is cspcciaIIy truc for cIosc Iayouts at modcratc tcmpcraturc rangcs. In an ac-
tuaI anaIysis, it is important to obtain as accuratc as possibIc thc stiffncss of thc anchors and rcstraints.
Howcvcr, obtaining accuratc anchor and rcstraint stiffncss is a vcry compIicatcd proccss invoIving thc
structuraI anaIysis of thc support structurc, foundation, and attachmcnt. It is not fcasibIc for a routinc
piping strcss anaIysis to incIudc thc accuratc anchor and rcstraint stiffncss. CcncraIIy, thc idcaI anchor
and rcstraint arc uscd in con|unction with cnginccring |udgmcnt.
3.2 METHODS OF PROVIDING FLEXIBILITY
Thcrc arc two main catcgorics of mcthods for providing piping cxibiIity: thc cxibIc |oint mcthod
and thc pipc Ioop mcthod. IIcxibIc |oints, incIuding cxpansion |oints, baII |oints, and othcrs, arc
discusscd in Chaptcr 7. This chaptcr discusscs thc mcthod of using pipc Ioops and offscts to providc
cxibiIity.
Irom Iig. 3.1 wc know that thc hugc thcrmaI cxpansion forcc and strcss on an anchorcd straight
scction of pipc arc thc rcsuIt of squcczing thc frcc cxpansion axiaIIy back to thc pipc. This is vcry dif-
hcuIt, as wc can cxpcricncc by squcczing thc cnds of a woodcn stick. Instcad of this dircct squcczing,
wc can absorb thc samc amount of movcmcnt much casicr by bcnding thc stick sidcways. This is thc
principIc of providing piping cxibiIity. Thc cxibiIity is providcd by adding a portion of thc piping
that runs in thc dircction pcrpcndicuIar to thc straight Iinc connccting two tcrminaI hxation points.
Iigurc 3.2 shows an cxpansion Ioop uscd in a Iong straight pipc run. With thc Ioop, thc pipc cxpands
into thc Ioop by bcnding thc Icgs of thc Ioop instcad of squcczing thc pipc axiaIIy. Thc Iongcr thc Ioop
Icg, thc Icsscr thc forcc gcncratcd in absorbing a givcn cxpansion. Irom thc basic bcam formuIa givcn
in TabIc 2.1, wc know that thc rcquircd forcc is invcrscIy proportionaI to thc cubc of thc Icg Icngth,
and thc gcncratcd strcss is invcrscIy proportionaI to thc squarc of thc Icg Icngth. A smaII incrcasc in
Ioop Icg Icngth has a considcrabIc rcduction cffcct on forcc and strcss.
3.2.1 Estimating Leg Length Required
Thc rcquircd Icg Icngth can bc cstimatcd via thc guidcd cantiIcvcr approach. Thc mcthod is cx-
pIaincd by using thc L-bcnd givcn in Iig. 3.3 as an cxampIc.
64 Chaptcr 3
Whcn thc piping systcm is not constraincd and is frcc to cxpand as in Iig. 3.3(a), points B and
C wiII movc to B? and C?, rcspcctivcIy, duc to thcrmaI cxpansion. Thc cnd point C movcs %
x
and %
y

amounts in x and y dircctions, rcspcctivcIy, but no intcrnaI forcc or strcss is gcncratcd in thc abscncc
of a constraint. Howcvcr, in thc actuaI casc, thc cnds of thc piping arc aIways constraincd as in Iig.
3.3(b). This is cquivaIcnt to moving thc frcc cxpandcd cnd C? back to thc originaI point C, and forcing
point B to movc to point BD.
Thc dcformation of cach Icg can bc assumcd to foIIow thc guidcd cantiIcvcr shapc shown in Iig.
2.14(b). Irom a cxibiIity point of vicw, this is conscrvativc bccausc thc cnd rotation is ignorcd. Thc
forcc and strcss of cach Icg can now bc cstimatcd by thc guidcd cantiIcvcr formuIa. Ior this simpIc
L shapc, Icg AB is a guidcd cantiIcvcr sub|cct to %
y
dispIaccmcnt, and Icg CB is a guidcd cantiIcvcr
sub|cct to %
x
dispIaccmcnt. Thc strcss at cach Icg is mainIy thc bcam bcnding strcss causcd by thc
cxpansion dispIaccmcnt. Irom thc cantiIcvcr bcam formuIa, wc can cstimatc thc strcss at cach Icg as
foIIows

J ,
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C
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c
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e
3< c
0
e
C
/
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3<c
C
/
/ ,
0<;
C
/
/ (3.3)
FIG. 3.2
PIPE EXPANSION LOOP
FIG. 3.3
EXPANSION STRESS BY GUIDED CANTILEVER APPROACH
Thc approximatc formuIas Z = 'r
2
i and I = 'r
3
i arc uscd, rcspcctivcIy, for thc scction moduIus and
momcnt of incrtia of thc pipc cross-scction. Iquation (3.3) is a convcnicnt formuIa for quick cstima-
tion of thc cxpansion strcss. By substituting E = 29.0 F 10
6
psi and S = 20,000 psi, Iq. (3.3) rcduccs
to Iq. (3.4a) for hnding thc Icg Icngth rcquircd for stccI pipcs

C ,
0<;
J
/ , 33 O;/ (3.4a)
Iquation (3.4a), aIthough dcrivcd from psi units of E and S, is appIicabIc to aII consistcnt units. 1,
D, and - can bc cxprcsscd in inchcs or in miIIimctcrs.
3.2.2 Inherent Flexibility
Piping in a pIant gcncraIIy runs through a fcw turns bcforc connccting to a hxation point such as
a vcsscI or rotating cquipmcnt. Thcsc turns and offscts gcncraIIy providc cnough cxibiIity to absorb
thc cxpansion dispIaccmcnt without causing cxccssivc strcss in thc pipc. Thc Amcrican Socicty of
McchanicaI Inginccrs (ASMI) B31 piping codc [6] has providcd a critcrion as a mcasurc of adcquatc
cxibiIity, sub|cct to othcr rcquircmcnts of thc codc. Thc codc statcs that no formaI thcrmaI cxpan-
sion cxibiIity anaIysis is rcquircd whcn "Thc piping systcm is of uniform sizc, has not morc than two
anchors and no intcrmcdiatc rcstraints, is dcsigncd for csscntiaIIy non-cycIic scrvicc (Icss than 7000
totaI cycIcs), and satisfy thc foIIowing approximatc critcrion:
(1) IngIish units

;P
#C( L$
/
H -)-0 (3.4b)
(2) SI units

;P
#C( L$
/
H /-5)0 (3.4c)
Iquations (3.4b) and (3.4c) arc in convcntionaI units
whcrc
D = nominaI pipc sizc, in (mm)
Y = rcsuItant of movcmcnt to bc absorbcd by piping systcm, in (mm)
1 = dcvcIopcd Icngth of piping systcm bctwccn two anchors, ft (m)
U = anchor distancc (Icngth of straight Iinc |oining anchors), ft (m)
Iquations (3.4a) and (3.4b) arc practicaIIy cquivaIcnt whcn consistcnt units arc uscd. If thc surpIus
Icngth (1 ' U) is considcrcd as thc Icg Icngth pcrpcndicuIar to thc Iinc of cxpansion, Iq. (3.4b) can bc
convcrtcd to Iq. (3.4a) with a constant of 69 instcad of 66.
3.2.3 Caution Regarding Quick Check Formulas
During thc cra whcn cxibiIity anaIysis of a rathcr simpIc systcm couId takc a coupIc of wccks of
hard work by a spcciaIist cnginccr to accompIish, quick formuIas such as Iq. (3.4a) wouId mcan thc
diffcrcncc bctwccn whcthcr a pIant couId bc constructcd on schcduIc. Thcsc formuIas havc bccn
cxtcnsivcIy taught in various training cIasscs. Howcvcr, in this agc of high-spccd computcrs, thcsc
formuIas havc onIy vcry Iimitcd usc. Thcy might bc uscd by hcId spcciaIists whcn survcying a pIant for
probIcm instaIIations, or occasionaIIy by dcsign cnginccrs at a rcmotc sitc. Howcvcr, at an opcrating
66 Chaptcr 3
pIant or an cnginccring ofhcc, thc anaIysis is bcttcr pcrformcd by using a quick and accuratc computcr
program. An accuratc anaIysis of a fairIy compIicatcd piping systcm takcs onIy an hour or so to prc-
parc thc data and to run with a computcr program.
By Iimiting thc pipc strcss to about 20,000 psi, Iqs. (3.4a), (3.4b) and (3.4c) arc adcquatc for
protccting thc piping itscIf. Howcvcr, bccausc piping is aIways conncctcd to ccrtain cquipmcnt, this
20,000-psi strcss wiII most IikcIy gcncratc too much Ioad for thc cquipmcnt to takc. Morcovcr, as wiII
bc discusscd Iatcr in this chaptcr, somc piping componcnts arc associatcd with strcss intcnsihcations
that arc not incIudcd in thc cquations aIthough a componcnt, such as a bcnd, that has signihcant
strcss intcnsihcation may aIso posscss signihcantIy addcd cxibiIity. This mutuaI compcnsation of
strcss intcnsihcation and thc addcd cxibiIity vaIidatcs thc uscfuIncss of thc cquations. Howcvcr, it is
worth noting that not aII strcss intcnsihcations comc with addcd cxibiIity.
3.2.4 Wall Thickness and Thermal Expansion Stress
Bccausc cxpansion strcss is caIcuIatcd by dividing thc momcnt, M, with thc scction moduIus, Z, cn-
ginccrs might bc wrongIy tcmptcd to incrcasc thc waII thickncss to rcducc thc cxpansion strcss. An in-
crcasc in waII thickncss incrcascs thc scction moduIus, but aIso proportionaIIy incrcascs thc momcnt
of incrtia. Thc scction moduIus is dchncd as Z = I/r
o
, which is dircctIy proportionaI to thc momcnt
of incrtia. Thcrcforc, thc hrst conscqucncc of incrcasing thc waII thickncss is an incrcasc in bcnding
momcnt undcr a givcn thcrmaI cxpansion. This incrcascd momcnt dividcd by thc proportionaIIy in-
crcascd scction moduIus cnds up with thc samc strcss as bcforc, prior to thc incrcasc of thc thickncss.
Thc thickcr waII thickncss docs not rcducc thc thcrmaI cxpansion strcss. It onIy unfavorabIy incrcascs
thc forccs and momcnts in thc pipc and at thc connccting cquipmcnt. Thcrcforc, as far as thcrmaI
cxpansion is conccrncd, thc thinncr thc waII thickncss thc bcttcr it wiII bc for thc systcm.
3.3 SELF-LIMITING STRESS
Thc strcss gcncratcd by thcrmaI cxpansion is scIf-Iimiting in naturc. This scIf-Iimiting strcss bchavcs
quitc diffcrcntIy from thc sustaincd strcss causcd by wcight and prcssurc. Iigurc 3.4 shows thc diffcr-
cnccs bctwccn thcsc two typcs of strcsscs.
Iigurc 3.4(a) is a pipc sub|cct to wcight Ioad, thus gcncrating sustaincd strcss in thc pipc. By in-
crcasing thc wcight graduaIIy, thc strcss and thc accompanying dispIaccmcnt aIso incrcasc accord-
ingIy. Whcn thc strcss rcachcs thc yicId point of thc matcriaI, thc strcss maintains thc samc magnitudc,
but thc dispIaccmcnt incrcascs abruptIy by a Iargc amount. (This is an ovcrsimpIihcation, bccausc
thc bcnding strcss docs not cxactIy bchavc this way.) In sustaincd Ioading, thc strcss gcncratcd has
to bc in static baIancc with thc appIicd Ioad that is, strcss is aIways proportionaI to thc Ioad, but
dispIaccmcnt dcpcnds on thc charactcristics of thc matcriaI. In this casc, if thc strcss, S
w
, cxcccds thc
yicId strcngth sIightIy, a Iargc strain, e
w
, wiII bc crcatcd. This strain is so Iargc that it rcsuIts in a gross
dcformation in thc systcm. Thcrcforc, sustaincd strcss is gcncraIIy Iimitcd to vaIucs Iowcr than thc
yicId strcngth of thc matcriaI.
Iigurc 3.4(b) shows thc casc for scIf-Iimiting strcss. Whcn thc pipc is sub|cct to thcrmaI cxpansion
or othcr dispIaccmcnt Ioad, thc mcchanism of baIancc shifts to thc strain that is, thc strain aIways
corrcsponds with thc amount of cxpansion or dispIaccmcnt. Oncc thc dispIaccmcnt rcachcs its po-
tcntiaI magnitudc, thc whoIc thing stops bccausc thc dispIaccmcnt has onIy that much. Thc gcncratcd
strcss dcpcnds on thc charactcristics of thc matcriaI. Ior instancc, whcn thc strain corrcsponding to
thc dispIaccmcnt cxcccds thc yicId strain, it stays thcrc without any furthcr abrupt movcmcnt. This po-
sition hxing naturc is caIIcd scIf-Iimiting. Thc strcss duc to thcrmaI cxpansion is scIf-Iimiting strcss.
ScIf-Iimiting strcss has thc foIIowing charactcristics: (1) CcncraIIy, it docs not brcak ductiIc pipc in
onc appIication of thc Ioad. (2) Its modc of faiIurc is fatiguc rcquiring many cycIcs of appIications. (3)
Iatiguc faiIurc dcpcnds on strcss rangc, mcasurcd from thc Iowcst strcss to thc highcst strcss in thc
opcrating cycIcs. (4) Strcss can rcach yicId strcngth without causing faiIurc or gross systcm dcforma-
tion. (5) Whcn dcaIing with strcsscs at or bcyond yicId strcngth, thc faiIurc is cvaIuatcd by thc strain
rangc rathcr than thc strcss rangc.
3.3.1 Elastic Equivalent Stress
Thc actuaI strcss of a scIf-Iimiting strcss rarcIy cxcccds thc yicId strcngth. As shown in Iig. 3.4(b),
cvcn if thc scIf-Iimiting strain cxcccds thc yicId strain, thc actuaI strcss is stiII cquaI to thc yicId strcngth.
This naturc makcs it difhcuIt to cvaIuatc thc cffcct of scIf-Iimiting strcss using thc actuaI strcss. Ior
instancc, points 1, 2, and 3 aII corrcspond to thc samc strcss, yct wc know point 3 is much morc criti-
caI than thc othcrs. Thcrcforc, it is naturaI that scIf-Iimiting strcss shouId bc cvaIuatcd by thc strain
rathcr than by thc strcss. Howcvcr, bccausc thc anaIyscs arc traditionaIIy sct up to caIcuIatc strcss
and thcy arc aIso donc by cIastic mcthods, thc dctcrmination of thc actuaI strain is vcry compIicatcd.
To ovcrcomc this shortcoming, thc cIastic cquivaIcnt strcss is uscd to mcasurc thc strain. Thc cIastic
cquivaIcnt strcss is simpIy thc product of thc strain and moduIus of cIasticity. This is cquivaIcnt to
rcpIacing thc actuaI strcss-strain curvc with a straight Iinc cxtcnding from thc initiaI straight portion of
thc curvc that is, thc cIastic cquivaIcnt strcss for strain e
I
is S
I
, and for e
I2
it is S
I2
, ctc. This cIastic
cquivaIcnt strcss can bc scvcraI timcs highcr than thc yicId strcss, yct thc actuaI strcss is stiII thc samc
as thc yicId strcss.
3.4 STRESS INTENSIFICATION AND FLEXIBILITY FACTORS
A piping systcm consists of many diffcrcnt componcnts such as bcnds, cIbows, rcduccrs, tccs, vaIvcs,
and angcs. Howcvcr, in thc anaIysis wc normaIIy idcaIizc thcsc various componcnts into two typcs of
cIcmcnts: thc straight pipc bcam cIcmcnt and thc curvcd pipc bcam cIcmcnt.
FIG. 3.4
SUSTAINED VS. SELF-LIMITING STRESSES
68 Chaptcr 3
3.4.1 Ovalization of Curved Pipes
A piping systcm dcpcnds mainIy on its bcnding cxurc to absorb thcrmaI cxpansion and othcr
dispIaccmcnt Ioads. Whcn a straight pipc is sub|cct to bcnding, it bchavcs Iikc any straight bcam: its
cross-scction rcmains circuIar and thc maximum strcss occurs at thc cxtrcmc outcr hbcr. Howcvcr,
undcr a bcnding momcnt, a curvcd pipc cIcmcnt bchavcs diffcrcntIy from that of a soIid curvcd bcam.
Whcn sub|cct to a bcnding momcnt, thc circuIar cross-scction of thc bcnd bccomcs ovaI. This is thc
famous ovaIization wc arc aII awarc of. Iigurc 3.5 shows thc ovaIization associatcd with in-pIanc
bcnding. An out-of-pIanc bcnding, on thc othcr hand, produccs an obIiquc ovaIization incIining at an
angIc with thc ma|or axcs. Thc ovaIization tcndcncy of thc curvcd pipc has rcsuItcd in thc foIIowing
pccuIiar phcnomcna:
(1) Incrcasc of cxibiIity. OvaIization is causcd by thc rcIaxation of thc cxtrcmc outcr hbcr of thc
bcnd. Without thc propcr participation of thc cxtrcmc outcr hbcr, thc cffcctivc momcnt of in-
crtia of thc cross-scction is rcduccd. This rcduction in cffcctivc momcnt of incrtia incrcascs thc
cxibiIity of thc bcnd ovcr thc non-ovaIizcd thcorcticaI bcnd by a factor [6] of
k = 1.65/h (3.5)
whcrc k is thc cxibiIity factor and h = iR/r
m
2
is thc bcnd cxibiIity charactcristic.
(2) Incrcasc of IongitudinaI bcnding strcss. Thc rcIaxation of thc cxtrcmc outcr hbcr has shiftcd thc
maximum IongitudinaI strcss duc to bcnding to a Iocation away from thc cxtrcmc outcr hbcr
Iocation. This rcduction in thc momcnt rcsisting arm of thc high strcss portion is cquivaIcnt to
rcducing thc cffcctivc scction moduIus of thc cross-scction. Thc maximum IongitudinaI strcss
is, thcrcforc, grcatcr than thc maximum strcss obtaincd by thc cIcmcntary bcnding thcory. Thc
ratio of thc two strcsscs is thc strcss intcnsihcation factor (SII). That is,

Z ,
J
D* Q
(3.6)
Thc thcorcticaI IongitudinaI SIIs arc rcIatcd to thc bcnd cxibiIity charactcristic as [2]

Z
Ib
,
-)51
Y
/*0
_hk bg*ieZg^ [^g]bg`
(3.7)
FIG. 3.5
OVALIZATION OF BEND UNDER EXTERNAL BENDING

Z
Ih
,
.)-5
Y
/*0
_hk hnm*h_*ieZg^ [^g]bg`

(3.8)
(3) Crcation of circumfcrcntiaI shcII bcnding strcss. Squcczing thc circuIar cross-scction into an
ovaI shapc gcncratcs bcnding on thc pipc waII. This, in turn, crcatcs a high circumfcrcntiaI
bcnding strcss on thc pipc waII. Bccausc this shcII bcnding strcss is non-cxistcnt on a circuIar
cross-scction, thcrc is no dircct comparison with thc non-ovaIizcd bcnd. Ior thc sakc of con-
vcnicncc, thc strcss is comparcd with thc cxurc bcnding strcss of a circuIar cross-scction as
shown in Iq. (3.6).
Thc thcorcticaI SIIs for thc circumfcrcntiaI strcsscs arc [2]

Z
@b
,
.)5-
Y
/*0
_hk bg*ieZg^ [^g]bg`
(3.9)

Z
@h
,
.)2-
Y
/* 0
_hk hnm*h_*ieZg^ [^g]bg` (3.10)
Thc cxibiIity factor givcn in Iq. (3.5) is uscd by ASMI codcs for both in-pIanc and out-of-pIanc
bcnding. Thc thcorcticaI SIIs givcn by Iqs. (3.7), (3.8), (3.9), and (3.10) arc uscd onIy in CIass 1
nucIcar piping [7]. Ior othcr ASMI piping codcs, onIy onc-haIf of thc thcorcticaI vaIucs arc uscd
instcad.
3.4.2 Code SIFs
IarIicr piping strcss anaIyscs wcrc mainIy conccrncd with thc cxibiIity of piping sub|cct to thcrmaI
cxpansion. As prcviousIy discusscd, thc faiIurc modc of scIf-Iimiting cxpansion strcss is fatiguc duc
to rcpcatcd opcrations. Thcrcforc, to vaIidatc thcsc SIIs, thc most dircct and IogicaI approach is thc
fatiguc tcst. Aftcr many tcsts and rcscarchcs, MarkI and othcrs [810] havc found that thcorcticaI SIIs
arc consistcnt with thc tcst data. Howcvcr, tcsts pcrformcd on commcrciaI pipc aIso rcvcaIcd an SII
of aImost 2.0 against a poIishcd homogcncous tubc with rcgard to fatiguc faiIurc. This factor is mainIy
duc to thc unpoIishcd wcId cffcct, or cIamping cffcct at hxing points, combincd with thc Icss than
pcrfcctIy homogcncous commcrciaI pipc. To simpIify thc anaIysis proccdurc, thc appIicabIc SIIs arc
takcn bascd on thc commcrciaI girth wcIdcd pipc as unity. This, in cffcct, rcduccs thc appIicabIc SIIs
to |ust onc-haIf of thc thcorcticaI SIIs givcn by Iqs. (3.9) an (3.10). That is, for bcnds wc havc:
- In-pIanc bcnding SII

Z
b
,
-)6-
Y
/*0
(3.11)
- Out-pIanc bcnding SII

Zh ,
-)42
Y
/* 0
(3.12)
Thc prcccding cquations arc for bcnds. Ior othcr componcnts, MarkI [10] has succccdcd in using
cquivaIcnt bcnds as shown in Iig. 3.6 [12] to arrivc at SIIs that arc comparabIc with thc tcst rcsuIts.
Ising thc cquivaIcnt cIbows and making ad|ustmcnts for actuaI crotch radius and thickncss, a sct of
SIIs [11] for various componcnts was constructcd with a singIc cxibiIity charactcristic paramctcr, h.
Thc SII for a wcIding tcc, for cxampIc, can aIso bc cxprcsscd by Iq. (3.11) by sctting thc cxibiIity
charactcristic, h = 4.4i/r (rcccntIy rcviscd to h = 3.1i/r), from thc cquivaIcnt cIbow charactcristics.
Howcvcr, in contrast to smooth bcnds, thc SII for out-of-pIanc bcnding is gcncraIIy grcatcr than that
for in-pIanc bcnding in mitcr bcnds, wcIding tccs, and othcr branch conncctions.
70 Chaptcr 3
AIthough thcy rcmain mostIy unchangcd, thcsc SIIs havc ncvcrthcIcss bccn continuousIy rcviscd
through thc ycars. Thc vaIucs givcn in thc currcnt cdition of thc appIicabIc codc shouId aIways bc
uscd.
Stress intensihcation factors. SIIs arc onIy onc-haIf of thc thcorcticaI factors, and arc intcndcd for
usc onIy on scIf-Iimiting strcsscs. By using thc commcrciaI pipc with an unpoIishcd girth wcId as thc
basis, thc codc SIIs as givcn by Iqs. (3.11) and (3.12) arc onIy onc-haIf of thc thcorcticaI SIIs. Thc
adoption of this basis is mainIy attributcd to practicaIity. If thc thcorcticaI SII wcrc uscd, thcn an
anaIysis wouId havc to idcntify aII girth wcId Iocations for appIying thc SII. This is not vcry practicaI
whcn Iargc amounts of piping componcnts arc invoIvcd. CurrcntIy, onIy CIass 1 nucIcar piping uscs
thc thcorcticaI SII.
Whcn an SII is invoIvcd, thc strcss caIcuIatcd using thc ASMI B31 codc formuIa is onIy onc-haIf
of thc thcorcticaI strcss. This docs not causc probIcms if cvcrything is donc within thc rangc spccihcd
by thc codc, bccausc thc aIIowabIc strcss has aIso bccn ad|ustcd accordingIy. Howcvcr, thcrc arc occa-
sions whcn somcthing outsidc thc codc has to bc rcfcrcnccd. Ior instancc, whcn dcaIing with stcady-
statc vibrations, pipc strcss has to bc cvaIuatcd with a fatiguc curvc that is gcncraIIy constructcd with
thcorcticaI strcsscs. In this casc, thc strcss caIcuIatcd by thc B31 codc has to bc doubIcd bcforc bcing
appIicd to thc fatiguc curvc.
By comparing Iqs. (3.11) and (3.12) with Iqs. (3.9) and (3.10), it is cIcar that thc codc SII is thc
mcasurc of thc circumfcrcntiaI strcss. IaiIurc Iocations on spccimcns uscd in fatiguc tcsts aIso showcd
that thc SII is duc to thc circumfcrcntiaI strcss. Bccausc circumfcrcntiaI strcss is a shcII bcnding
strcss that docs not providc any static cquiIibrium to thc Ioad appIicd, it has IittIc signihcancc in thc
sustaincd Ioad. Thcrcforc, thc codc SIIs dcrivcd from fatiguc tcsts and thcorcticaI circumfcrcntiaI
strcsscs arc onIy appIicabIc to scIf-Iimiting Ioads that producc fatiguc in thc pipc.
Sustained loads! Ior sustaincd Ioads, a scparatc sct of SIIs is rcquircd. This scparatc sct of SIIs for
thc sustaincd Ioad has bccn uscd in CIass 2 and CIass 3 nucIcar piping [7]. Howcvcr, for non-nucIcar
piping systcms, a scparatc sct of SIIs is not providcd for sustaincd Ioads. To this cnd, thcrc arc scvcraI
practiccs uscd in various industrics to dcaI with this mattcr. Onc of thcsc practiccs aIso uscs thc samc
codc SII for sustaincd Ioads. This is a conscrvativc approach uscd by non-discriminating cnginccrs.
Anothcr practicc compIctcIy ignorcs thc SII for sustaincd Ioads. This is suggcstcd mainIy by cngi-
nccrs who havc bccn invoIvcd in thc carIicr dcvcIopmcnt of SIIs. Thc rationaIc is that codc SIIs arc
for fatiguc onIy. Howcvcr, it is rccognizcd that somc typc of SII is nccdcd for sustaincd Ioading. Onc
approach is to usc thc samc sct of SIIs intcndcd for scIf-Iimiting Ioads (codc SIIs) appIicd with a
constant modihcation factor, which is somcwhat Icss than 1.0. This approach, aIthough not accuratc,
is in thc propcr practicaI rangc.
FIG. 3.6
EQUIVALENT ELBOWS
Thc SII for sustaincd Ioad is morc cIoscIy rcIatcd to thc Ioad-rcsisting IongitudinaI strcsscs givcn
by Iqs. (3.7) and (3.8). Thcsc IongitudinaI strcsscs havc thc samc mathcmaticaI format as thc circum-
fcrcntiaI strcsscs givcn in Iqs. (3.9) and (3.10), cxccpt that thcir rcIativc strcngths arc switchcd. On
circumfcrcntiaI strcsscs, in-pIanc bcnding produccs grcatcr strcss, whcrcas with IongitudinaI strcsscs,
out-of-pIanc bcnding produccs a Iargcr strcss. Thcrcforc, thcorcticaIIy, it is not possibIc to usc a con-
stant modihcation factor to rcIatc thcsc two scts of strcsscs. Howcvcr, if onIy thc grcatcr strcss intcnsi-
hcations on cach sct arc uscd, thcn it is possibIc to conscrvativcIy usc a constant modihcation factor.
This is thc approach uscd by ASMI B31.1 [6], which uscs a modihcation factor of 0.75. Ior othcr
ASMI B31 codcs that usc diffcrcnt in-pIanc and out-of-pIanc SIIs, thc constant modihcation factor
approach may not bc suitabIc.
Tables for exibility factors and SIFs. Iach codc has a tabIc or tabIcs that Iist and cxpIain thc
cxibiIity factors and SIIs for most of thc common componcnts uscd in a piping systcm. AIthough
cxibiIity factors, uscd to caIcuIatc thc piping forccs and momcnts, arc aII simiIar, SIIs diffcr sIightIy
bctwccn thc codcs. This is attributcd to thc uniquc charactcristics of thc |urisdictionaI industry scrvcd
by cach codc.
To show thc function of thcsc tabIcs, wc usc ASMI B31.3 tabIcs as shown in TabIcs 3.1 and 3.2
as an cxampIc. Thc B31.3 tabIc is somcwhat morc compIicatcd than thc othcrs. It shows in-pIanc
and out-pIanc catcgorics of SIIs for cach typc of componcnt. Thc purposc is to appIy diffcrcnt strcss
intcnsihcation on diffcrcnt oricntation of momcnt. Thcsc tabIcs arc uscd as foIIows. Ior cach compo-
ncnt, wc hrst havc to caIcuIatc thc cxibiIity charactcristic, h. Irom this cxibiIity charactcristic, thc
cxibiIity factor and SIIs arc caIcuIatcd. It is cIcar from thc tabIc that for aII thc diffcrcnt componcnts
onIy thc cxibiIity charactcristics arc caIcuIatcd diffcrcntIy. Thc cxibiIity factor and SIIs arc caIcu-
Iatcd morc or Icss thc samc way for aII componcnts. This is thc nicc thing about thc cquivaIcnt bcnd
approach mcntioncd prcviousIy. Thc cxibiIity factor is incIudcd in structuraI anaIysis to obtain pip-
ing forccs and momcnts. SIIs arc thcn appIicd to piping momcnts to caIcuIatc pipc strcsscs.
ASMI B31.1, on thc othcr hand, providcs onIy onc strcss intcnsihcation for cach componcnt. Thc
vaIuc uscd is cquivaIcnt to thc grcatcr of thc in-pIanc and out-pIanc vaIucs. Bccausc of this onc strcss
intcnsihcation approach, it is not ncccssary to distinguish in-pIanc momcnt or out-pIanc momcnt. Thc
momcnts arc considcrcd thc samc rcgardIcss of thcir oricntation. In fact, B31.1 strcss intcnsihcation
is aIso appIicabIc to torsion momcnt, which is not appIicd with any strcss intcnsihcation by B31.3 and
somc othcr codcs. Morc on strcss caIcuIation is givcn in thc ncxt chaptcr, which dcaIs with codc strcss
rcquircmcnts.
Thc strcss intcnsihcation and cxibiIity factors at cIbows and bcnds arc scnsitivc to angcd cnds
and intcrnaI prcssurc. Thc cffcct of angcd cnd is discusscd bcIow and thc cffcct of intcrnaI prcssurc
wiII bc discusscd Iatcr in Scction 3.7.
Effect of anges on bend exibility and SIFs. Thc cxibiIity factor and SII at bcnds arc mainIy duc
to ovaIization of thc cross-scction. Thcrcforc, it is naturaI to cxpcct thcsc factors to bc rcduccd by thc
stiffcning cffcct of thc angc conncctions. ASMI codc stipuIatcs that whcn onc or both cnds of a bcnd
arc attachcd with angcs, thc bcnd cxibiIity factor and SII shaII bc muItipIicd by thc factor C, whcrc
C = h
1/6
is for onc cnd angcd and C = h
1/3
is for both cnds angcd. Ior simpIicity, it docs not mattcr
which cnd is angcd whcn onIy onc cnd is angcd. Thc rcduction factor is uniformIy appIicd to thc
whoIc bcnd rcgardIcss of which cnd is angcd.
3.5 ALLOWABLE THERMAL EXPANSION STRESS RANGE
As discusscd in thc prcvious scction, thc faiIurc modc of thcrmaI cxpansion is fatiguc faiIurc rcquir-
ing many cycIcs of rcpcatcd opcrations. In cvaIuating fatiguc faiIurc, thc strcss rangc cncompassing
thc minimum and thc maximum strcsscs in cach cycIc has to bc considcrcd. This is thc rcason why
72 Chaptcr 3
TABLE 3.1
B31.3 FLEXIBILITY FACTORS AND STRESS INTENSIFICATION FACTORS [6]
Description
FIexibiIity
factor, 5
Stress intensihcation factor FIexibiIity
characteristic,
3 Sketch
Out-pIane, 4
o
In-pIane, 4
i
NW^V[`Y#W^Tai#
ad#b[bW#TW`V
,)10
+
+)20
+
-* .
+)4+
+
-*.
/^&
-
-
?âeW^k#
ebSUWV#_[fWd#
TW`V##
.#9#-#%.#(#fS`!&
,)0-
+
0*1
+)4+
+
-*.
+)4+
+
-*.
S_d
-
$
/^.
-
-
K[`Y^W#_[fWd#
TW`V#ad#i[VW^k#
ebSUWV#_[fWd#
TW`V##
.#E#-#%.#(#fS`!&
,)0-
+
0*1
+)4+
+
-*.
+)4+
+
-*.
, % S_d
-
$
/^
-
NW^V[`Y#fWW#
bWd#=KFA#
>.3+6
. +)4+
+
-*.
.
/ ,_ % ,) /
.),
/ ^
-
JW[`XadUWV#
XSTd[USfWV#fWW#
i[fZ#bSV#ad#
eSVV^W
. +)4+
+
-*.
.
/ ,_ % ,) /
/^ %
/b
-
0*-
- /
.*-
^
M`*dW[`XadUWV#
XSTd[USfWV#fWW
. +)4+
+
-*.
.
/ ,_ % ,) / /^
-
AjfdgVWV#
iW^V[`Y#fWW
. +)4+
+
-*.
.
/ ,_ % ,) /
, %
-h
-
/^
-
NW^VWV*[`#
Ua`fagd#[èWdf
. +)4+
+
-*.
.
/ ,_ % ,) /
.),
/ ^
-
>dSÙZ#
iW^VWV*a`##
"ff[`Y#
%[`fWYdS^^k#
dW[`XadUWV&
. +)4+
+
-*.
+)4+
+
-*.
.).
/^
-
strcss rangc rathcr than static strcss is considcrcd in cvaIuating thcrmaI cxpansion and othcr
dispIaccmcnt strcsscs. As for thc aIIowabIc strcss, suggcstcd vaIucs and thcir rationaIcs havc bccn
thoroughIy discusscd by Rosshcim and MarkI [11, 13]. Thcir suggcstcd vaIucs havc bccn uscd by thc
codcs [6] sincc 1955 with onIy minor intcrmittcnt modihcations.
As discusscd in Scction 3.3, scIf-Iimiting strcss dosc not causc thc abrupt gross structuraI dcforma-
tion whcn it rcachcs thc yicId strcngth of thc pipc. Thcrcforc, if aIIowcd by fatiguc, thc strcss rangc
can cxcccd thc yicId strcngth. Thc starting point of invcstigation is an cIastic cquivaIcnt strcss rangc
at twicc of thc yicId strcngth. (Thc sum of thc hot yicId strcngth pIus thc coId yicId strcngth, instcad of
twicc of thc yicId strcngth, wouId havc bccn a morc accuratc statcmcnt hcrc.) This is aIso cquivaIcnt
to a strain rangc, e
I
, of twicc thc yicId strain. Thc background for sctting thc aIIowabIc strcss rangc can
bc cxpIaincd by thc hcIp of thrcc possibIc opcrating conditions (Iig. 3.7), dcscribcd as foIIows:
(1) No co/d spring and no siress re/axaiion. As shown in Iig. 3.7(a), this piping systcm hcats up
from thc zcro strcss, zcro strain point, 0, cxpanding graduaIIy to rcach thc yicId point at hot
condition, a, and continucs on to thc hnaI point, b. This hnaI point corrcsponds to e
I
with an
cIastic cquivaIcnt strcss of thc sum of thc coId and hot yicId strcngths. At modcratc opcrating
tcmpcraturc with no, or vcry IittIc, strcss rcIaxation cxpcctcd, thc piping stays at point b for thc
whoIc opcrating pcriod.
Whcn thc systcm cooIs down, thc pipc contracts, cIasticaIIy rcducing thc strcss from point b
to point c whcrc strcss is zcro, but thc cooIing proccss is onIy haIfway compIctc. As thc cooI-
down continucs, thc sign of thc strcss rcvcrscs. An initiaIIy tcnsiIc strcss bccomcs comprcssivc
from this point on. Thc opcration cycIc cnds at point d whcn thc tcmpcraturc rcturns to thc prc-
opcration tcmpcraturc. Thc totaI contraction strain is thc samc as thc totaI cxpansion strain.
Thc hnaI pipc strcss is cquaI to thc coId yicId strcngth, assuming thc comprcssivc strcss-strain
curvc is thc samc as thc tcnsiIc onc. Thc ncxt opcrating cycIc starts from point d, and gocs cIasti-
caIIy to point b without producing any yicIding. Thc subscqucnt opcrating cycIcs aII foIIow thc
cIastic Iinc from d-b and back with b-d. Ixccpt for thc initiaI yicIding crcatcd by thc hrst opcr-
ating cycIc, no yicIding is produccd in any subscqucnt opcrating cycIc. This couId signify that
an cxpansion strcss rangc bcIow thc sum of hot yicId strcngth and coId yicId strcngth probabIy
wouId not producc a fatiguc faiIurc for an idcaI matcriaI.
Whcn thc pipc cooIs down to ambicnt condition at point d, thc systcm rctains a rcvcrscd
strcss cquivaIcnt to thc coId yicId strcss. This strcssing at coId condition is cquivaIcnt to thc
cffcct of a coId sprung systcm. This situation is caIIcd se/f-spring. ScIf-spring causcs angcs to
suddcnIy spring apart as thc Iast boIts arc rcmovcd, on a Iinc bcing disconncctcd aftcr a pc-
riod of scrvicc. A gap is crcatcd bctwccn thc angcs whcn thc Iinc is disconncctcd. Thc gap is
cquivaIcnt to thc coId spring gap that wiII bc discusscd in Scction 3.6, aIthough thc Iinc was not
initiaIIy coId sprung.
(2) Fifiy perceni co/d spring wiih no siress re/axaiion. Bccausc it is gcncraIIy dcsircd that no yicIding
in thc piping is produccd during thc coId spring proccss, a 50" or Icss coId spring is donc for
an cxpcctcd cxpansion strcss rangc that is twicc thc yicId strcngth. Iigurc 3.7(a) shows thc casc
with 50" coId spring. Thc piping is hrst cut short to form a gap that is cquaI to 50" of thc
TABLE 3.2
FLEXIBILITY FACTOR AND STRESS INTENSIFICATION FACTOR FOR JOINTS [6]
Description FIexibiIity factor, 5 Stress intensihcation factor, 4
>gff#iW^VWV#\a[`f)#ad#iW^V#
`WU]#!S`YW
. .+-
@agT^W#iW^VWV#e^[b*a`#!S`YW . .+/
B[^^Wf#iW^VWV#\a[`f)#ad#eaU]Wf#
iW^V#"ff[`Y
. .+0o/+.
ESb#\a[`f#!S`YW#%i[fZ#>.3+6#
^Sb#\a[`f#efgT&
. .+3
LZdWSVWV#b[bW#\a[`f)#ad#
fZdWSVWV#!S`YW
. /+0
?addgYSfWV#efdS[YZf#b[bW)#ad##
UaddgYSfWV#ad#UdWSeWV#TW`V
2 /+2
74 Chaptcr 3
cxpcctcd cxpansion, and thcn thc cnds of thc gap arc puIIcd togcthcr to prc-strcss thc systcm.
With thc cxpansion strcss rangc of twicc thc yicId strcngth as thc bcnchmark, a 50" coId spring
wiII producc a rcvcrsc strcss cquaI to thc coId yicId strcngth at point cs. Thc systcm starts opcr-
ating from this point, cs, cIasticaIIy in a straight Iinc aII thc way to thc hot yicId point, a, without
crcating any yicIding on thc pipc. Thc strcss at this hnaI point is onc-haIf of thc cxpansion strcss
rangc. Thc systcm cooIs down cIasticaIIy from point a, again back to originaI point cs. Thc samc
cycIc rcpcats through thc Iifc of opcration without crcating any yicIding on thc pipc.
By comparing Iinc cs-a and Iinc d-b, a coId sprung systcm opcratcs csscntiaIIy thc samc as a
non-coId-sprung systcm, cxccpt without thc initiaI yicIding. Bccausc thc initiaI yicIding of thc
non-coId-sprung systcm has vcry IittIc cffcct on fatiguc, coId spring has no cffcct on fatiguc.
Thcrcforc, no crcdit on thc cxpansion strcss rcduction is aIIowcd for coId spring. Thc cxpansion
strcss rangc is thc onc that is countcd.
(3) 1iih siress re/axaiion. In high tcmpcraturc cnvironmcnts, thc strcss rcIaxcs with timc whcn
yicIding or crccp occurs in thc pipc. Iigurc 3.7(b) shows a non-coId-sprung systcm with a strcss
rcIaxation at opcrating condition. As givcn in casc (1), thc opcration rcachcs point b, at op-
crating tcmpcraturc. Owing to tcmpcraturc cffcct, thc strcss graduaIIy rcIaxcs to point r whiIc
opcrating. Whcn thc pipc cooIs down, both strcss and strain rcducc cIasticaIIy from point r to
point d to rcach thc coId yicId strcngth bcforc thc cooI-down is compIctcd. As thc cooI-down
continucs, it produccs pIastic strain d-f to rcach thc ambicnt tcmpcraturc. In thc subscqucnt op-
crating cycIc, thc proccss foIIows f-b-r-d-f, again producing a d-f pIastic strain. Bccausc our goaI
is to avoid producing pIastic strain in cvcry cycIc, thc coId yicId strcngth pIus hot yicId strcngth
bcnchmark strcss rangc is not suitabIc for situations with strcss rcIaxation.
To prcvcnt thc gcncration of pIastic strain in cvcry opcrating cycIc undcr strcss rcIaxation
condition, thc bcnchmark strcss rangc has to bc rcduccd to coId yicId strcngth pIus thc stabi-
Iizcd rcIaxation rcsiduaI strcss, S
r
. This bcnchmark strcss rangc is shown as S
IB
in Iigurc 3.7(b).
With this modihcd bcnchmark strcss rangc, thc pipc wiII opcratc aIong f-r ? pass indchnitcIy.
Howcvcr, thc probIcm is that thc stabiIizcd rcIaxation rcsiduaI strcss is not rcadiIy avaiIabIc for
most matcriaIs.
FIG. 3.7
STRESS BEYOND YIELD POINT, COLD SPRING, AND STRESS RELAXATION
Irom thc prcccding dcductions, thc bcnchmark aIIowabIc cxpansion strcss rangc can bc sct as thc
sum of thc coId yicId strcngth and hot yicId strcngth at bcIow crccp rangc. At crccp rangc, it wiII bc
thc sum of thc coId yicId strcngth and thc crccp strcngth at cxpcctcd pIant Iifc. MarkI [11] suggcstcd
that it appcars to bc conscrvativc to makc it thc sum of thc coId yicId strcngth and 160" of thc strcss
producing 0.01" crccp in 1000 hours at thc opcrating tcmpcraturc. Thc bcnchmark strcss rangc can
bc writtcn as
S
IB
= (S
yc
" S
yhx
) (3.13a)
whcrc
S
yc
= yicId strcngth at coId condition
S
yhx
= is thc Icsscr of thc yicId strcngth at hot condition and 160" of thc strcss producing 0.01"
crccp in 1000 hours at thc opcrating tcmpcraturc
Thc strcss producing 0.01" crccp in 1000 hours is onc of thc critcria of sctting thc hot aIIowabIc
strcss. In tcrms of ASMI B31.1 aIIowabIc strcsscs, which was originaIIy sct at no grcatcr than 5/8 of
thc yicId strcngth at corrcsponding tcmpcraturc, thc abovc cquation can bc writtcn as
S
IB
= 1.6(S
c
+ S
h
) (3.13b)
whcrc S
c
is coId aIIowabIc strcss and S
h
is hot aIIowabIc strcss. Thc bcnchmark strcss rangc, S
IB
, is
considcrcd thc maximum strcss rangc to which a systcm couId bc sub|cctcd without producing pIastic
ow at cithcr coId or hot Iimit. In ASMI B31.3 codc and thc rcccnt B31.1 codc, bccausc of thcir usc
of highcr aIIowabIc strcss bascd on 2/3 of thc yicId strcngth, thc bcnchmark strcss rangc has bccomc
S
IB
= 1.5(S
c
" S
h
) (3.13c)
Thc abovc dcrivation of thc non-yicIding bcnchmark strcss rangc rcquircs furthcr |ustihcation bcforc
bcing uscd. Thc hrst thing that nccds to bc cIarihcd is thc fact that thc codc strcss is onIy onc-haIf of
thc thcorcticaI strcss whcn an SII is invoIvcd, as discusscd in Scction 3.4. Thcrcforc, thcorcticaIIy thc
constants in Iqs. (3.13b) and (3.13c) havc to bc haIvcd to avoid any yicIding. Howcvcr, bccausc onIy
thc IocaI pcak strcss and shcII bcnding strcss arc haIvcd, thc diffcrcncc bctwccn thc codc strcss and
thc thcorcticaI strcss affccts onIy thc hnaI fatiguc cvaIuation. Iquations (3.13b) and (3.13c) cnsurcs
that thc main Ioad rcsisting mcmbranc strcss wouId not cxcccd thc yicId. This is important in avoiding
gross structuraI dcformation, and in cnsuring thc vaIidity of cIastic anaIysis commonIy uscd.
Thc othcr thing that nccds to bc workcd out is thc actuaI appIication of thc bcnchmark strcss rangc.
This mainIy invoIvcs thc sctting of thc safcty factor. If thc ASMI B31 codc had uscd thc thcorcticaI
SII, thc bcnchmark strcss rangc wouId havc rcprcscntcd thc strcss rangc Iimit for unIimitcd opcrating
cycIcs. In actuaI appIications invoIving Iimitcd numbcr of opcrating cycIcs, MarkI suggcstcd a totaI
aIIowabIc strcss rangc of
S
A
" S
PW
= 1.25(S
c
" S
h
) (3.14)
whcrc S
A
is thc basic aIIowabIc strcss rangc for caIcuIatcd thcrmaI cxpansion strcss and S
PW
is thc sus-
taincd strcss duc to prcssurc and wcight. By comparing with Iqs. (3.13b) and (3.13c), this rcprcscnts
78" and 83" of thc bcnchmark strcss rangc. This may not bc vcry signihcant as wc arc comparing
thc caIcuIatcd strcss with a thcorcticaI strcss. Howcvcr, thc important thing is whcthcr this aIIowabIc
strcss providcs cnough safcty factor for systcms opcrating at Iimitcd numbcr of cycIcs. Bccausc thc
IongitudinaI strcss duc to prcssurc and wcight is gcncraIIy aIIowcd to rcach hot aIIowabIc strcss, that
is, S
PW
= S
h
, thc aIIowabIc strcss rangc for thcrmaI cxpansion onIy, S
A
, bccomcs
76 Chaptcr 3
S
A
$ f (1.25S
c
" 0.25S
h
) (3.15)
whcrc f is a strcss-rangc rcduction factor varying from f = 1.0 for N < 7000 cycIcs, to f = 0.5 for N >
250,000 cycIcs. Howcvcr, thc ncwcr fatiguc data has shown that thc f vaIuc may bc considcrabIy
smaIIcr than 0.5 whcn N > 250,000 cycIcs. Thc cxact vaIuc uscd by thc codc wiII bc discusscd in an-
othcr chaptcr dcaIing with codc dcsign rcquircmcnts. Scc aIso Chaptcr 13 on vibration anaIysis for
high cycIc fatiguc. Thc strcss-rangc rcduction factor, f, has bccn rcccntIy rcnamcd strcss rangc factor
bccausc it rcduccs thc aIIowabIc strcss, and not thc strcss rangc.
Bascd on thc cxpcrimcntaI data, thc aIIowabIc cxpansion strcss rangc givcn in Iq. (3.15) rcprcscnts
an avcragc safcty factor of 2 in tcrms of strcss, and a safcty factor of 30 in tcrms of cycIic Iifc. Howcvcr,
bccausc of thc sprcad in individuaI tcst data, thc potcntiaI minimum safcty factor can bc as Iow as 1.25
in tcrms of strcss and 3 in tcrms of Iifc. This cmphasizcs thc nccd for making a conscrvativc cstimatc
of thc strcss and thc numbcr of opcrating cycIcs. It shouId bc notcd, howcvcr, that thcsc safcty factors
wcrc bascd on thc originaI (1955) aIIowabIc strcss, which was takcn as
5
/8 of thc yicId strcngth instcad
of thc currcnt /
of thc yicId strcngth.

Thc strcss-rangc rcduction factor cuts off at 7000 cycIcs with no incrcasc in aIIowabIc strcss-rangc
pcrmittcd whcn thc opcrating cycIcs arc Icss than 7000. With f =1.0 at 7000 cycIcs, thc aIIowabIc strcss
has aIrcady rcachcd thc bcnchmark strcss Iimit. Any strcss bcyond that might producc gross yicIding
in thc systcm, thus invaIidating thc cIastic anaIysis. Thcrcforc, thc actuaI safcty factor incrcascs as thc
numbcr of cycIcs rcduccs. Thc 7000 opcrating cycIcs rcprcscnts 1 cycIc/day for 20 ycars. This numbcr
is morc than most piping systcms cxpcricncc nowadays whcn batch-opcrating proccsscs rcquiring
daiIy turnaround arc rarc.
Somc cnginccrs may bc puzzIcd that thc aIIowabIc strcss rangc as givcn in Iq. (3.15) can rcach as
high as thc uItimatc strcngth of thc pipc matcriaI. Wc want to rc-cmphasizc hcrc that thc strcss caI-
cuIatcd and rcfcrrcd to is thc cIastic cquivaIcnt strcss as discusscd in Scction 3.3. Thc actuaI strcss is
aIways Icss than thc yicId strcngth of thc matcriaI. It is aIso bc cmphasizcd that corrosion in thc pipc
can substantiaIIy rcducc fatiguc Iifc at an unprcdictabIc ratc. Thcrcforc, propcr controI of corrosion
with somc ad|ustmcnt of thc aIIowabIc strcss may bc rcquircd. Iurthcrmorc, whcn a piping systcm
is conncctcd to dcIicatc cquipmcnt, such as a pump, turbinc, or comprcssor, thc aIIowabIc strcss is
govcrncd by thc aIIowabIc rcaction forccs and momcnts of thc cquipmcnt. Thc aIIowabIc cquipmcnt
rcaction corrcsponds to thc static strcss, which may bc rcduccd by coId spring. Thc aIIowabIc strcss
for thc piping conncctcd to a piccc of dcIicatc cquipmcnt can bc as smaII as onIy a fraction of thc aI-
IowabIc strcss rangc givcn in Iq. (3.15).
3.6 COLD SPRING
CoId spring, prc-spring, and coId puII aII rcfcr to thc proccss that prc-strcsscs thc piping at instaI-
Iation or coId condition in ordcr to rcducc thc forcc and strcss undcr thc opcrating or hot condition.
CoId spring is oftcn appIicd to a piping systcm to: (1) rcducc thc hot strcss to mitigatc thc crccp dam-
agc [14]; (2) rcducc thc hot rcaction Ioad on connccting cquipmcnt; and (3) controI thc movcmcnt
spacc. Howcvcr, at thc crccp rangc thc strcss wiII bc cvcntuaIIy rcIaxcd to thc rcIaxation Iimit cvcn if
thc pipc is not coId sprung. Thc gcncraI bcIicf is that thc additionaI crccp damagc causcd by thc initiaI
thcrmaI cxpansion strcss is insignihcant [11] if thc totaI cxpansion strcss rangc is controIIcd to within
thc codc aIIowabIc Iimit. Thc rcaI advantagc of coId spring has bccomc thc rcduction of thc hot rcac-
tion on thc connccting cquipmcnt. Ior instancc, a 50" coId spring wouId spIit thc rcaction forcc into
haIvcs. Onc-haIf of it is rcaIizcd at coId condition as soon as thc pipc is coId sprung. Thc morc criticaI
hot rcaction is rcduccd to onIy onc-haIf of thc totaI rcaction that othcrwisc wouId havc bccn imposcd
by a non-coId-sprung systcm.
AIthough coId spring offcrs unqucstionabIc bcnchts, its adoption varics among industrics. In powcr
pIant piping, coId spring is donc normaIIy for most of thc ma|or piping systcms such as main stcam,
hot rchcat, and coId rchcat Iincs. On thc othcr hand, coId spring is scIdom uscd in pctrochcmicaI
proccss piping. Thc pctrochcmicaI industry shics away from coId spring mainIy duc to thc bcIicf that
thc intcndcd bcnchts of coId spring may not bc rcaIizcd duc to inadcquatc spccihcations and poor
supcrvision of hcId crcction proccdurcs. This has bccomc thc cuIturc of thc two industrics partIy duc
to thc much Iargcr amount of piping invoIvcd in a pctrochcmicaI pIant than in a powcr pIant. Without
propcr spccihcations and instaIIation proccdurcs, no coId spring shouId bc attcmptcd. In somc cascs,
cvcn thc scIf-sprung gap is cIoscd by cutting-and-pasting thc piping rathcr than coId springing it back
for conncction. NcvcrthcIcss, cvcn in thc pctrochcmicaI industry, a onc-dimcnsionaI cut-short on
yard piping to controI thc corncr movcmcnt is occasionaIIy pcrformcd. This cut-short on yard piping
rcquircs no spcciaI proccdurc duc to thc smaII forcc invoIvcd in a vcry cxibIc systcm.
Thc coId spring proccss invoIvcs Iaying out thc piping somcwhat shortcr than thc instaIIing spacc
to crcatc a gap at thc hnaI wcId or hnaI boIting Iocation, as thc systcm is crcctcd without straining.
Thc systcm is thcn puIIcd or pushcd according to a prcdctcrmincd proccdurc to cIosc thc gap and to
hnish thc hnaI |oint.
3.6.1 Cold Spring Gap
Thc sizc of thc coId spring gap dcpcnds on thc coId spring factor dcsircd. Thc sizc of thc gap for
a 100" coId sprung systcm is thc totaI amount of systcm cxpansion modihcd with thc diffcrcntiaI
anchor movcmcnt. Ior cxampIc, takc thc simpIc systcm shown in Iig. 3.8, whcrc a thrcc-dimcnsionaI
gap is gcncraIIy rcquircd to achicvc a uniform coId spring. Cap sizc can bc caIcuIatcd form thc ovcraII
dimcnsions, 1
x
, 1
y
, and 1
:
, pIus thc diffcrcntiaI cffcct of thc anchor dispIaccmcnts. Thc proccdurc
can bc quitc confusing in a gcncraI thcc-dimcnsionaI systcm. Thcrcforc, it is rccommcndcd to usc a
systcmatic proccdurc that docs not rcquirc visuaI intcrprctation. Bcforc caIcuIating thc gap, wc nccd
to dchnc thc gap oricntation hrst. This gap oricntation is rcquircd for cntcring thc coId spring gap
data into a computcr program. CcncraIIy, thc gap is considcrcd as running in thc samc dircction as
thc scqucncc of nodc points. In this sampIc piping systcm, wc arc dcscribing thc systcm from point A
to point B; thcrcforc, thc gap is running from point G
A
to point G
B
. A minus gap mcans running from
G
A
to G
B
in thc ncgativc coordinatc dircction. Ior thc x dircction, thc gap is caIcuIatcd by
FIG. 3.8
COLD SPRING GAP
78 Chaptcr 3

Xi , 9t %K
/
( K
.
& %O
8
( O
7
& ( %;
i8
( ;
i7
&v

whcrc C is thc coId spring factor ranging from 0.0 for no coId spring to 1.0 for 100" coId spring; X
A
,
X
B
arc x coordinatcs for anchor A and anchor B, rcspcctivcIy; and D
xA
and D
xB
arc x dircction anchor
dispIaccmcnts for anchor A and anchor B, rcspcctivcIy. Thc gaps in y and : dircctions arc caIcuIatcd
with simiIar proccdurcs.
Thc casc assumcs that thc piping is opcrating at a tcmpcraturc highcr than thc construction tcm-
pcraturc. A 100" coId sprung systcm, if instaIIcd propcrIy, wiII havc thc cxpansion strcss rcduccd to
zcro whcn thc systcm rcachcs thc opcrating tcmpcraturc. It wiII bc frcc of any thcrmaI cxpansion strcss
undcr thc hot opcrating condition. This assumcs that thc strcss rangc is Icss than thc yicId strcngth.
Ior cascs whcrc strcss rangc is grcatcr than yicId strcngth, thc rcduction of rcaction and strcss at hot
condition is not that straightforward.
3.6.2 Location of Cold Spring Gap
Thc gap can bc Iocatcd anywhcrc in thc systcm with thc samc gap sizc. Howcvcr, it is important to
Iocatc thc gap at thc pIacc whcrc it is casy to work and achicvc thc intcndcd rcsuIt. InIcss othcr fac-
tors havc dcmonstratcd othcrwisc, thc gap is normaIIy pIaccd at thc Iocation ncar onc of thc tcrminaI
anchors. This aIIows thc cntirc Iinc, cxccpt a smaII part at thc anchor sidc, of cxibiIity to bc avaiIabIc
for cIosing thc gap. No puIIing is gcncraIIy rcquircd on thc short sidc of thc Iinc. Thc frcc cnd can bc
simpIy cIampcd down into position. Locating thc gap cIosc to thc tcrminaI cnd aIso cnsurcs a minimum
rotation of thc pipc. Bcsidcs thc citcd bcnchts of Iocating thc gap at points ncar onc of thc tcrminaI
cnds, thc acccssibiIity and thc amount of forcc rcquircd arc aIso considcration factors. Irom thc
standpoint of thc forccs and momcnts rcquircd, thc most dcsirabIc Iocation is thc onc that produccs
thc minimum intcrnaI pipc forccs and momcnts, cspcciaIIy momcnts undcr opcrating tcmpcraturc
without coId spring. Bccausc thc coId spring proccss csscntiaIIy has to crcatc thc rcvcrsc mirror imagc
of thc opcrating condition, a gap at a high intcrnaI forcc and momcnt Iocation rcquircs a Iargc puII-
ing cffort to crcatc thc propcr coId spring. Thc most difhcuIt Iocation is thc onc that rcquircs a Iargc
momcnt, cspcciaIIy thc torsion momcnt twisting around thc pipc axis. An anaIysis of thc opcrating
condition nccds to bc pcrformcd so thc propcr Iocation can bc scIcctcd. Anothcr factor that nccds to
bc considcrcd is whcthcr thcrc is cnough working spacc for puIIing and wcIding.
3.6.3 Cold Spring Procedure
Thc succcss of coId spring dcpcnds on thc spccihcation and cxccution of thc proccdurc. Prcpara-
tion of coId spring starts with thc assignmcnt of thc coId spring gap. Ncxt, a sct of drawings is prc-
parcd showing thc fabrication dimcnsions vcrsus thc routing dimcnsions of thc piping. Thc hangcr
and support attachmcnt Iocations arc Iaid out in rcfcrcncc to thc hnaI coId sprung Iocations. During
thc crcction of thc cut-short piping, a spaccr cquivaIcnt to thc coId spring gap is gcncraIIy cIampcd
to thc cnds of thc gap to cnsurc thc propcr gap sizc. A marking Iinc in thc axiaI dircction is drawn
across thc gap on both cnds of thc pipc. This Iinc is uscd to cnsurc thc propcr aIignmcnt against thc
twisting bctwccn thc cnds. Bascd on thc magnitudc of thc forccs and momcnts cxpcctcd at thc gap
Iocation, somc stratcgic Iocations arc scIcctcd for appIying thc puIIing forccs. In gcncraI, morc than
onc puIIing Iocations arc nccdcd for cach sidc of thc piping.
Bcforc starting thc coId spring, an anaIysis with thc gap appIicd and piping at ambicnt tcmpcraturc
has to bc pcrformcd. This anaIysis incIudcs thc piping on both sidcs of thc gap. DispIaccmcnts from
thc anaIysis arc thc movcmcnts cxpcctcd from thc coId spring. DispIaccmcnts ncar cach cnd of thc
gap show thc amount of coId spring rcquircd from cach sidc of thc piping. Thc cxpcctcd coId spring
movcmcnts arc thcn notcd on thc drawing. Thcsc movcmcnts arc subscqucntIy markcd in thc hcId as
guidcs for thc puIIing. An anaIysis for cach sidc of thc piping, with thc cut-off at thc gap, can aIso bc
pcrformcd to cstimatc thc puIIing forccs rcquircd. This anaIysis is accompIishcd by appIying a unit
forcc on cach puIIing Iocation in thc scIcctcd dircction to scc thc amount of thc gap movcmcnt duc to
cach forcc. A propcr combination of forccs can thcn bc dctcrmincd by matching thc totaI movcmcnts
against thc coId spring rcquircd on cach sidc of thc piping. As a ruIc of thumb, a thrcc-dimcnsionaI
coId spring gap gcncraIIy rcquircs thrcc puIIing forccs Iocatcd at stratcgic Iocations. Thc dircctions of
thcsc puIIing forccs arc morc or Icss pcrpcndicuIar to cach othcr. AdditionaI cffort may bc rcquircd
to prcvcnt twisting bctwccn two cnds. During thc puIIing, in addition to thc pcrmancnt hangcrs and
Iockcd spring hangcrs, somc tcmporary supports may aIso bc rcquircd. As thc pipc movcs up and
down, thc hangcr rods nccd to bc ad|ustcd accordingIy to match thc cxpcctcd coId spring movcmcnts.
Thc hnaI wcIding is pcrformcd with both sidcs of thc piping cIampcd togcthcr at thc gap.
AII spring hangcrs and rod hangcrs arc ad|ustcd aftcr thc coId spring is compIctcd. Thcy arc ad-
|ustcd in thc samc way as wouId bc donc had thc piping not bccn coId sprung. Thc spring hangcrs arc
Iockcd at thcir rcguIar coId positions untiI thc piping is hydro-tcstcd and rcady to opcratc.
3.6.4 Multi-Branched System
CoId spring for a muIti-branchcd systcm is considcrabIy morc compIicatcd than that for a two-
anchor systcm. In gcncraI, morc than onc gap is rcquircd to achicvc a uniform coId spring [15] of a muIti-
branchcd systcm. This wouId rcquirc a cIosc intcgration of dcsign, anaIysis, fabrication, and crcction
activitics. Thc proccdurc can ovcrwhcIm cvcn a wcII-organizcd company. Thcrcforc, onc aItcrnativc
is to coId spring |ust thc main portion of thc piping instcad of uniformIy coId springing thc cntirc sys-
tcm. Irom thc basic bcam formuIa, wc know that thc forcc gcncratcd by a dispIaccmcnt is invcrscIy
proportionaI to thc cubc of thc bcam Icngth that is pcrpcndicuIar to thc dircction of thc dispIacc-
mcnt. Thc forcc gcncratcd by thc cxpansion of 1
x
is invcrscIy proportionaI to roughIy thc cubc of
thc rcsuItant Icngth of 1
y
and 1
:
. SimiIarIy, thc forccs gcncratcd by thc cxpansion of 1
y
and 1
:
arc
invcrscIy proportionaI to thc cubc of thc rcsuItant Icngths of (1
x
, 1
:
) and (1
x
, 1
y
), rcspcctivcIy. This
mcans that thc Iongcst Icg in a systcm dominatcs thc rcsponsc of thc cntirc systcm. Thc Iong Icg pro-
duccs thc Iargc cxpansion, which has to bc absorbcd by thc short pcrpcndicuIar Icgs in thc systcm.
Bccausc thcsc short pcrpcndicuIar Icgs providc vcry Iimitcd cxibiIity, vcry high forccs and strcsscs
arc gcncratcd in thc systcm mainIy duc to |ust onc Iong pipc Icg. Thus, a coId spring onIy in thc dircc-
tion of thc Iongcst Icg scrvcs approximatcIy thc samc purposc as a uniform coId spring in aII thrcc
dircctions.
Iigurc 3.9 shows a simpIc thrcc-branch systcm that nccds to bc coId sprung to rcducc thc anchor
rcaction. If a uniform coId spring wcrc rcquircd, thrcc coId spring gaps wouId havc to bc providcd and
compIicatcd proccdurcs wouId havc to bc dcvcIopcd and cxccutcd, which wouId bc a rcaI chaIIcngc to
accompIish. Instcad, bccausc thc ma|or Icg Icngth is in thc x dircction, wc can simpIy coId spring thc
x dircction with thc gap as shown. This wiII achicvc thc main purposc of thc coId spring with a much
simpIcr proccdurc.
3.6.5 Analysis of Cold Sprung Piping System
Thc piping codc has spccihcaIIy stipuIatcd that thc coId spring cannot bc crcditcd for rcducing thc
cxpansion strcss, bccausc thc main faiIurc modc of thc dispIaccmcnt strcss is thc fatiguc faiIurc, which
is dictatcd by thc strcss rangc. A coId spring wiII shift somc strcss from thc hot opcrating condition to
thc coId condition, but thc strcss rangc rcmains unchangcd. Thc codc furthcr stipuIatcs that aIthough
coId spring can rcducc thc hot rcaction to thc connccting anchor or cquipmcnt, onIy /
of thc thco-
rcticaI rcduction can bc takcn. This is bccausc coId spring is a vcry compIicatcd proccdurc. A pcrfcct
coId spring is scIdom achicvcd.
Ior a uniformIy coId sprung systcm, an anaIysis undcr opcrating conditions is aII that is rcquircd
to obtain aII thc rcaction information. Howcvcr, bccausc a uniform coId spring is scIdom pcrformcd
80 Chaptcr 3
in actuaI instaIIations, morc anaIyscs arc rcquircd. In gcncraI, thc foIIowing thrcc anaIyscs rcgarding
thcrmaI cxpansion arc rcquircd:
(1) Indcr opcrating tcmpcraturc, but no coId spring gap. This is uscd to chcck thc thcrmaI cxpan-
sion strcss rangc to comparc with thc codc aIIowabIc strcss rangc.
(2) Indcr opcrating tcmpcraturc with /
of thc coId spring gap. This is uscd to hnd thc crcdibIc

anchor rcaction at opcrating condition. Thc /
factor is thc fraction of thc coId spring cffcct

aIIowcd by thc codc.
(3) Indcr ambicnt tcmpcraturc with fuII coId spring gap. This is uscd to hnd thc anchor rcaction
at thc coId condition aftcr thc coId spring. This anaIysis is aIso uscd to providc dispIaccmcnt
guidcs for cxccuting thc coId spring proccss.
Thcsc thrcc anaIyscs can bc pcrformcd onc by onc, or aII togcthcr, in an intcgratcd computcr anaIy-
sis. AIthough thc piping codc docs not stipuIatc thc unccrtain puIIing cffcct on thc coId rcaction, it
shouId bc notcd that duc to Icss-than-pcrfcct puIIing, a much highcr coId rcaction than thc onc givcn
by anaIysis (3) abovc may bc obtaincd.
3.7 PRESSURE EFFECTS ON PIPING FLEXIBILITY
Bccausc of its naturc as a sustaincd Ioad, intcrnaI prcssurc is oftcn ignorcd in thc cvaIuation of
piping cxibiIity. This tcndcncy has bccn rcctihcd rcccntIy, but is stiII not widcIy apprcciatcd. Ior
instancc, prcssurc is aIso a cycIic Ioad that nccds to bc incIudcd in thc fatiguc cvaIuation. This cycIic
prcssurc, which is impIicd in Iq. (3.14), is scIdom apprcciatcd. Iurthcrmorc, prcssurc aIso has vcry
signihcant cffccts on piping cxibiIity itscIf. IIcxibiIity cffccts occur in two arcas: (1) prcssurc cIonga-
tion of thc piping cIcmcnt and (2) prcssurc cffcct on thc bcnd cxibiIity factor and bcnd SIIs.
3.7.1 Pressure Elongation
In a prcssurizcd pipc, thc cntirc insidc surfacc of thc pipc sustains a uniform prcssurc. This prcs-
surc Ioading dcvcIops a tri-axiaI strcss in thc pipc waII. Thc strcss componcnt normaI to thc pipc waII
is gcncraIIy smaII and wiII bc ignorcd in this discussion. Thc pipc waII is sub|cctcd to strcsscs S
hp
and
FIG. 3.9
LOCAL COLD SPRING
S
Ip
in circumfcrcntiaI and IongitudinaI dircctions, rcspcctivcIy, as shown in Iig. 3.10. Strcss in thc
circumfcrcntiaI dircction is gcncraIIy rcfcrrcd to as hoop strcss. Ior practicaI purposcs, S
Ip
is cquaI to
onc-haIf of S
hp
, as shown in Iqs. (2.13) and (2.14). Thc hoop strcss and thc IongitudinaI strcss gcn-
cratc strains in aII ma|or dircctions. Thc rcIation bctwccn strcss and strain is givcn by Iq. (2.8). By
substituting S
Ip
= 1/2S
hp
, thc strains in hoop and IongitudinaI dircctions bccomc

V
E
,
J
ai
<
(
J
ei
<
,
J
ai
<
%. ( -)2 &
(3.16)

V
I
,
J
ei
<
(
J
ai
<
,
J
ai
<
%-)2 ( & (3.17)
IIongation in thc hoop dircction incrcascs thc pipc diamctcr. This diamctricaI changc progrcsscs
frccIy without crcating any additionaI rcsistancc to thc piping systcm. IIongation in thc IongitudinaI
dircction, on thc othcr hand, bchavcs Iikc thcrmaI cxpansion. This cIongation, givcn by Iq. (3.17), has
a squcczing cffcct on thc piping systcm |ust Iikc thcrmaI cxpansion.
Thc signihcancc of thc prcssurc cIongation can bc bcttcr visuaIizcd by convcrting it to an cquivaIcnt
tcmpcraturc risc [16]. Iigurc 3.10 shows thc rcIationship bctwccn prcssurc cIongation in tcrms of
prcssurc hoop strcss and its cquivaIcnt tcmpcraturc risc, for Iow carbon stccI pipc. Ior pIant piping,
hoop strcss is normaIIy maintaincd at Icss than 15,000 psi (103.4 MPa). In this casc, prcssurc cIonga-
tion is cquivaIcnt to a tcmpcraturc incrcasc of 17.5BI (9.72BC). In vicw of thc high tcmpcraturc rangc
normaIIy cxpcricnccd in pIant piping, thc cffcct of prcssurc cIongation in pIant piping is insignihcant.
On thc othcr hand, hoop strcss in a cross-country transportation pipcIinc can rcach 30,000 psi (206.8
MPa) or highcr for high-strcngth pipc. Thc cquivaIcnt tcmpcraturc of this hoop strcss rangc can casiIy
cxcccd 35BI (19.44BC), which rcprcscnts a high pcrccntagc of thc dcsign tcmpcraturc risc. Thcrcforc,
prcssurc cIongation is an important factor to bc considcrcd in transportation pipcIinc dcsign.
3.7.2 Potential Twisting at Bends
Thc IongitudinaI cIongation discusscd in thc prcccding scction is aIso appIicabIc to piping bcnds,
but thc curvaturc at thc bcnds might aIso producc diffcrcnt typc of dcformations. Onc of thc imprcs-
sions that cnginccrs wouId intuitivcIy form is that thc bcnd wiII tcnd to opcn whcn prcssurizcd. Iqua-
tions havc bccn dcvcIopcd for this opcning rotation and arc impIcmcntcd in somc computcr programs.
This opcning cffcct is oftcn misquotcd as thc Bourdon tubc cffcct. It has artihciaIIy gcncratcd, on
FIG. 3.10
PRESSURE ELONGATION
82 Chaptcr 3
papcr, much biggcr twisting cffccts on thc piping than was cxpcricnccd in thc hcId. ActuaIIy, a Bour-
don tubc is an arc shapc tubc with an ovaI cross-scction. This ovaI cross-scction is thc kcy for thc
opcning rotation. Thc gcncraI bcIicf in thc piping community on piping bcnds is that if thc cross-scc-
tion out-of-roundncss is insignihcant, thc rotation of thc bcnd is not cxpcctcd [17].
DctaiIcd anaIyscs and tcsts on spcciaI mitcr bcnds [18] havc shown that in thc cIastic strcss rangc,
thc bcnds actuaIIy cIosc rathcr than opcn aftcr prcssurization. It starts to opcn onIy aftcr thc prcssurc
strcss cxcccds thc yicId strcngth. It appcars that untiI morc rigorous thcorics and tcsts provc othcr-
wisc, thc opcning of thc pipc bcnd by thc prcssurc shaII bc ignorcd.
3.7.3 Pressure Elongation Is Self-Limiting Load
Prcssurc cIongation is oftcn mistrcatcd as a sustaincd Ioad bccausc of its association with prcssurc,
which is a sustaincd Ioad. 1ust Iikc thcrmaI cxpansion, prcssurc cIongation gcncratcs a dispIaccmcnt
that is a scIf-Iimiting Ioad. Its cffcct on thc piping systcm is dctcrmincd by thc potcntiaI axiaI dispIacc-
mcnt of cach Icg of thc piping. Oncc thc dispIaccmcnt rcachcs thc potcntiaI cIongation amount, it
stops rcgardIcss of whcthcr or not thc yicIding occurs in thc piping. This prcssurc cIongation is gcn-
craIIy incIudcd in thc cxibiIity anaIysis thc samc way as thcrmaI cxpansion is. In gcncraI, prcssurc
cIongation is addcd to thcrmaI cxpansion to bccomc thc totaI dispIaccmcnt Ioad in thc anaIysis.
3.7.4. Pressure Effect on Bend Flexibility and SIFs
Thc cxibiIity factor and SII at a bcnd arc mainIy causcd by thc ovaIization of thc bcnd cross-
scction. IntcrnaI prcssurc tcnds to rcducc ovaIization, thus rcducing cxibiIity and strcss intcnsihca-
tion. Thc prcssurc cffcct on bcnd cxibiIity and SIIs has bccn wcII invcstigatcd. Onc of thc most
rccognizcd trcatmcnts is thc usc of modihcation factors cstabIishcd by Rodabaugh and Ccorgc [17].
Thcsc factors havc bccn adoptcd by thc ASMI piping codcs, and arc summarizcd bcIIow.
In Iargc-diamctcr, thin-waII cIbows and bcnds, prcssurc can signihcantIy affcct thc magnitudcs of
thc cxibiIity factor, k, and thc SII, i. Indcr prcssurizcd conditions, thc vaIuc of k caIcuIatcd from
Iq. (3.5) shouId bc ad|ustcd by dividing it with

. & 3
G
<
cf
eg
4*0
I
cf
.*0
(3.18)
And thc SIIs caIcuIatcd by Iqs. (3.11) and (3.12) may bc rcduccd by dividing thcm with

. & 0)/2
G
<
cf
eg
2* /
I
cf
/*0
(3.19)
whcrc
r
m
= mcan radius of thc pipc
i
n
= nominaI thickncss of thc pipc
R = radius of thc bcnd curvaturc
Thc usc of Iqs. (3.18) and (3.19) varics from casc to casc. Somc spccihcations rcquirc thc appIica-
tion of thc cxibiIity rcduction factor givcn by (3.18), but not thc strcss intcnsihcation rcduction fac-
tor givcn by (3.19). Thc rationaIc is that piping tcnds to maintain its tcmpcraturc Iongcr than it can
maintain its prcssurc during shutdown. In othcr words, thc strcss intcnsihcation rcduction factor may
disappcar whiIc thc piping is stiII undcr fuII cxpansion statc.
3.8 GENERAL PROCEDURE OF PIPING FLEXIBILITY ANALYSIS
In prcvious scctions, wc havc discusscd thc fundamcntaIs of piping cxibiIity. In this scction, wc
wiII focus on thc gcncraI proccdurc for pcrforming thc piping cxibiIity anaIysis. A computcr program
is gcncraIIy uscd in thc anaIysis. Thc simpIc systcm shown in Iig. 3.11 wiII bc uscd to cxpIain thc
gcncraI proccdurc.
AIthough most computcr program wiII chcck thc adcquacy of thc pipc waII thickncss against dcsign
prcssurc, waII thickncss is actuaIIy dctcrmincd bcforc thc anaIysis is pcrformcd. Bcforc thc anaIysis,
isomctric drawings, togcthcr with aII thc data, (c.g., pipc matcriaI, diamctcr, thickncss, dcsign prcs-
surc, dcsign tcmpcraturc, and upsct tcmpcraturc), havc to bc coIIcctcd. This data is gcncraIIy con-
taincd in thc Iinc Iist and matcriaI spccihcation. Thc anaIysis covcrs thc foIIowing stcps.
3.8.1 Operating Modes
Thc systcm may havc scvcraI diffcrcnt opcrating modcs. AIthough it is possibIc to scIcct onc modc
that rcprcscnts thc most criticaI situation, normaIIy morc than onc opcrating modc has to bc consid-
crcd. In this sampIc systcm, thcrc arc thrcc possibIc opcrating modcs: (1) both hcat cxchangcr Ioops
arc opcrating; (2) onIy HX-1 hcat cxchangcr is opcrating; and (3) onIy HX-2 hcat cxchangcr is opcrat-
ing. Thc anaIyst dccidcs which of thcsc thrcc modcs nccds to bc anaIyzcd. At hrst sight, it may appcar
FIG. 3.11
SAMPLE ANALYSIS PROCEDURE
84 Chaptcr 3
that onIy thc hrst modc nccds to bc anaIyzcd. Howcvcr, a dctaiIcd invcstigation wiII show that aII thrcc
modcs arc rcquircd, and thcy havc to bc anaIyzcd in onc intcgratcd computcr run.
It is cxpcctcd that thc hrst opcrating modc with both Ioops opcrating wiII rcsuIt in thc highcst strcss
and rcaction Ioad at hcat cxchangcr conncctions 40 and 75. This hrst opcrating modc, howcvcr, cs-
scntiaIIy gcncratcs no strcss and Ioad at vcsscI conncction 15. In thc sccond opcrating modc with onIy
HX-1 opcrating, thc tcc point 20 wiII bc pushcd toward HX-2 producing signihcant strcss and Ioad
at point 15. SymmctricaIIy, thc third modc, with HX-2 onIy opcrating, wiII producc thc samc amount
of strcss and Ioad as modc 2 at point 15, but in a rcvcrsc dircction. Bccausc thc strcss rangc at point
15 is thc diffcrcncc of thc strcsscs gcncratcd from opcrating modcs 2 and 3, anaIyscs on both modcs
arc rcquircd. DiffcrcntiaI momcnts from both opcrating modcs arc takcn to caIcuIatc thc strcss rangc
rcquircd for cxpansion strcss cvaIuation. Thc strcss rangc cannot bc caIcuIatcd by subtracting thc
caIcuIatcd strcsscs. This is duc to thc normaI practicc of caIcuIating thc cffcctivc strcsscs and strcss
intcnsitics, which havc Iost thc sign of thc strcss.
3.8.2 Anchor Movements
Points 15, 40, and 75 arc tcrminaI points that can bc considcrcd anchors or vcsscI conncctions.
Iithcr way, thcrc arc movcmcnts at thcsc points attributcd mainIy to thc cxpansion of thc vcsscIs.
Thcsc movcmcnts arc caIcuIatcd by muItipIying thc corrcsponding activc Icngth with thc cxpansion
ratc pcr unit Icngth. Takc point 15, for instancc, whcrc movcmcnt is produccd by thc cxpansion of
thc vcsscI shcII from vcsscI anchor point 5 to point 15. In thc y (vcrticaI) dircction, it has a movcmcnt
cquivaIcnt to thc cxpansion from point 5 to point 10. In thc x dircction, it has a movcmcnt cquivaIcnt
to thc cxpansion of 10-15. Thcsc movcmcnts arc caIIcd frcc movcmcnts. Thcy arc thc samc as thc hnaI
dispIaccmcnts at point 15 whcn an anchor is uscd. Howcvcr, thcy can bc sIightIy diffcrcnt from thc
hnaI dispIaccmcnts at point 15 if a vcsscI conncction is uscd. VcsscI conncctions arc discusscd morc
fuIIy in a scparatc chaptcr. Thc x movcmcnt in this casc is ncgativc, bccausc it is moving in thc ncga-
tivc x dircction.
Anchor movcmcnts at points 40 and 75 arc dctcrmincd thc samc way as for point 15. Howcvcr, for
hcat cxchangcrs and horizontaI vcsscIs that arc supportcd with two saddIcs, thc support arrangcmcnt
pIays an important roIc in piping cxibiIity. Thc thcrmaI cxpansion strcss in piping diffcrs considcr-
abIy, dcpcnding on thc scIcction of thc hxcd support point. To cnsurc positivc controI of thc movcmcnt
and to offcr positivc rcsistancc to horizontaI Ioads such as wind and carthquakc, onc of thc saddIc sup-
ports is gcncraIIy hxcd and thc othcr is aIIowcd to sIidc axiaIIy with sIottcd boIt hoIcs. Thc vcsscI wiII
thcn cxpand axiaIIy from thc hxcd saddIc support. In this sampIc systcm, it is advantagcous to hx thc
support at point 50, so that it is cIoscr to conncction point 40 to rcducc thc : dircction movcmcnt. Thc :
dircction movcmcnt is in thc positivc dircction, and is moving against thc piping cxpansion. Ior thc y
movcmcnt, thc actuaI zcro-dispIaccmcnt Iocation has to bc cstimatcd. In this casc, it can bc assumcd
to bc at thc bottom of thc vcsscI shcII. Bccausc this cIcvation is roughIy thc samc as thc cIcvation of
point 40, thc y movcmcnt can bc considcrcd as zcro. In this cxampIc, points 5, 10, 45, and 50 arc not
rcquircd for thc anaIysis. Thcy arc uscd |ust for caIcuIating thc anchor dispIaccmcnts.
3.8.3 Assignments of Operating Values
Thc systcm has thrcc ma|or opcrating modcs to bc anaIyzcd. This rcquircs a propcr assignmcnt of
pipc data groups and opcrating vaIucs. It is not difhcuIt to rcaIizc that thrcc groups of pipc and opcrat-
ing data arc rcquircd. Thc hrst onc covcrs thc main Iinc from point 15 to 20 continucs on to point 22
and 62, thc sccond onc covcrs thc hrst branch from point 22 to 40, and thc third onc covcrs thc rcst of
thc piping. Thc thrcc modcs of opcration arc dchncd by thc assignmcnt of thc tcmpcraturcs for cach
of thc modcs, on cach sct of pipc data. Iach anchor or vcsscI conncction point shouId aIso bc assigncd
with thrcc scts of anchor movcmcnts, cach corrcsponding to onc of thc opcrating modcs. Ior instancc,
if a givcn branch is not opcrating, thcn thc corrcsponding movcmcnts can cithcr bc zcro or somcthing
corrcsponding to thc idIc tcmpcraturc of thc hcat cxchangcr shcII.
Thc muIti-opcrating modc anaIysis is rcquircd for thc caIcuIation of strcss rangc whcn a strcss rc-
vcrsaI is IikcIy to occur through thc changc of opcrating modcs. It is prcfcrabIc to anaIyzc aII modcs in
onc computcr run, so thc signs of thc momcnts bctwccn thc modcs can bc automaticaIIy chcckcd.
3.8.4 Handling of Piping Components
As discusscd in Chaptcr 2, a piping systcm is gcncraIIy trcatcd as a scrics of straight pipc cIcmcnts
and curvcd pipc cIcmcnts in thc anaIysis. Thcrcforc, aII componcnts in thc systcm havc to bc simuIatcd
with thcsc two typcs of cIcmcnts. Iurthcrmorc, anaIyscs arc bascd on thc ccntcrIinc of thc pipc, with
aII thc Icngths dchncd up to thc ccntcrIinc intcrscctions. Thc manncr in which thc componcnts arc
trcatcd wiII bc discusscd in thc tcxt that foIIows, starting scqucntiaIIy from point 15.
Point 15 is considcrcd an anchor or a vcsscI conncction. If it is assumcd as an anchor, thcn thc point
is considcrcd pcrfcctIy rigid, unIcss thc stiffncss or spring ratc in any of thc six dcgrccs of frccdom,
thrcc in transIation and thrcc in rotation, is spccihcd. If it is trcatcd as a vcsscI conncction, thcn thc
magnitudcs of thc stiffncss in aII six dircctions arc caIcuIatcd bascd on thc vcsscI data. In this casc,
thc vcsscI diamctcr, thickncss, and rcinforccmcnt dimcnsions havc to bc spccihcd. Thc usc of a vcsscI
conncction rcprcscnts a morc accuratc anaIysis, and gcncraIIy rcsuIts in a smaIIcr thcrmaI cxpansion
strcss. Morc dctaiIcd discussions on vcsscI conncctions arc givcn in a scparatc chaptcr. RcgardIcss of
thc typc of cnd simuIation uscd, thc samc anchor movcmcnts havc to bc spccihcd.
Point 20 is a forgcd wcIding tcc, or a fabricatcd branch conncction, as thc casc may bc. Thc con-
nccting pipc is considcrcd as cxtcnding to thc ccntcrIinc intcrscction point, without considcring thc
cxistcncc of thc branch conncction. Thc strcsscs arc caIcuIatcd at this ccntcrIinc Iocation using thc
data of thc connccting pipc. Thc onIy distinction bctwccn thc branch conncction and thc rcguIar pipc
is that in a branch conncction a kcyword or ag has to bc pIaccd to inform thc computcr to incIudc
thc propcr SII. A morc sophisticatcd anaIysis wiII considcr thc branch conncction thc samc as a vcsscI
conncction for Iargc thin pipcs whcn thc run and branch diamctcr ratio is grcatcr than 3.
Point 22 is thc cnd of a vaIvc. Thc vaIvcs, angcs, and othcr httings arc considcrcd rcguIar straight
pipc with an additionaI stiffncss addcd. It is morc or Icss a standard industry practicc to considcr thc
vaIvcs to bc thrcc timcs as stiff as thc connccting pipc of thc samc Icngth. Thc vaIvc is thcrcforc trcatcd
as a pipc with thrcc timcs thc stiffncss. To incrcasc thc stiffncss, II, cithcr waII thickncss or moduIus
of cIasticity can bc incrcascd. Thc incrcasc in thickncss wiII proportionaIIy incrcasc thc scction modu-
Ius of thc pipc, thus artihciaIIy rcducing thc strcss caIcuIatcd. An incrcasc in moduIus of cIasticity docs
not havc this shortcoming and is thc prcfcrrcd approach.
Point 23 is a support point. A rigid support docs not aIIow thc pipc to movc in thc supporting di-
rcction, and thus may signihcantIy rcducc thc systcm cxibiIity. NormaIIy, it is prcfcrrcd to support
thc piping systcm with rigid supports as much as possibIc. This is mainIy duc to cconomy as wcII as
rcIiabiIity of thc systcm. Thc rigid support is incxpcnsivc, casy to instaII, and offcrs positivc rcsistancc
to occasionaI Ioads such as wind or carthquakc. Howcvcr, thcrc arc Iocations whcrc rigid supports
arc not suitabIc duc to potcntiaIIy Iargc Ioads and strcsscs that might bc gcncratcd. A Iargc caIcuIatcd
forcc at thc support normaIIy communicatcs to thc cnginccr that thc Iocation is not suitabIc for a rigid
support. In such cascs, a spring support may bc rcquircd. OccasionaIIy, it may aIso mcan that support
at this Iocation is not rcquircd at aII. A morc dctaiIcd discussion of supports is givcn in a scparatc
chaptcr.
Point 25 is a bcnd. As discusscd carIicr in this chaptcr, thc bcnd has addcd cxibiIity and SIIs as
comparcd to a thcorcticaI circuIar bcam with a non-ovaIizing circuIar cross-scction. Thcsc factors arc
aII automaticaIIy incIudcd in a computcr program if thc gcomctricaI dimcnsions of thc band arc spcci-
hcd propcrIy. Most computcr programs rcquirc thc dimcnsions of thc tangcnt intcrscction point. Thcrc-
forc, thc data point is assigncd at thc tangcnt intcrscction point. Irom thc gcomctricaI information
86 Chaptcr 3
of thc tangcnt intcrscction point and thc bcnd radius spccihcd, thc program Iocatcs thc bcginning and
cnding points of thc bcnd. Thcsc cnd points, which may bc caIIcd 25a and 25b in somc cascs, arc thc
points uscd in thc anaIysis.
Point 40 is anothcr tcrminaI point that can cithcr bc assumcd as an anchor or trcatcd as a vcsscI
conncction. Ior hcat cxchangcrs, duc to its smaIIcr shcII diamctcr, thc conncctions arc most oftcn
considcrcd anchors. Thc discussion for point 15 is gcncraIIy aIso appIicabIc to points 40 and 75.
3.8.5 The Analysis
Thc information gathcrcd (discusscd abovc) has to bc organizcd, in a format rcquircd by thc com-
putcr program of choicc, to bccomc thc input data. Thc hrst thing that nccds to bc donc is to assign a
gIobaI coordinatc systcm that wiII aIIow aII pipc cIcmcnts and Ioads to rcfcr to a common coordinatc
systcm. Most programs rcquirc that thc y coordinatc shouId bc in thc vcrticaI dircction pointing up-
ward. This convcntion foIIows thc tradition of piping practiccs. With thc y-axis in thc vcrticaI dircction
pointing up, it has a dircct rcIation with thc cIcvation scaIc normaIIy uscd in thc pIant piping drawings.
It aIso simpIihcs thc wcight Ioad caIcuIation, as thc wcight dircction is automaticaIIy ticd to thc ncga-
tivc y dircction. With a modcrn dcsktop or Iaptop computcr, an anaIysis shouId not takc morc than a
fcw minutcs to compIctc oncc thc data is prcparcd. In gcncraI, it rcquircs morc than onc anaIysis to
rcach a satisfactory dcsign of thc systcm.
3.9 PROBLEMS WITH EXCESSIVE FLEXIBILITY
Bccausc cvcryonc is awarc of thc importancc of piping cxibiIity, cnginccrs havc a tcndcncy to
providc morc cxibiIity than rcquircd in a piping systcm. Indccd, it is widcIy bcIicvcd that thc morc
cxibiIity that is providcd, thc morc conscrvativc is thc dcsign. This is actuaIIy a vcry scrious miscon-
ccption. Today, it is prctty accuratc to say that morc piping probIcms havc bccn crcatcd by cxccssivc
cxibiIity than by insufhcicnt cxibiIity.
Onc obvious conscqucncc of cxccssivc piping cxibiIity is thc addcd cost duc to additionaI piping
providcd and thc pIant spacc rcquircd to accommodatc it. In addition to thc obvious onc, thcrc arc
many Icss obvious, but scrious, conscqucnccs. Ior cxampIc, a cxibIc systcm is wcakcr in rcsisting
wind, carthquakc, and othcr occasionaI Ioads. It is aIso pronc to vibration. AIthough somc rcstraints
and snubbcrs can bc uscd to incrcasc rcsistancc to occasionaI Ioads, thc addcd cost can bc vcry sub-
stantiaI. Thc naturc of piping cxibiIity can bc cxpIaincd with a raiIroad-construction anaIogy. Thcrc
arc four situations cncountcrcd in piping cxibiIity that rcscmbIc thc four typcs of raiIroad construc-
tion mcthods as shown in Iig. 3.12.
Iigurc 3.12(a) shows thc casc with thc raiIs Iaid cnd to cnd without any cIcarancc. Whcn thc wcathcr
gcts hot and thc raiI wants to cxpand but cannot cxpand, it gcncratcs a Iargc amount of forcc bctwccn
thc cnds. This can cvcntuaIIy buckIc thc raiIs making it inopcrabIc. This is simiIar to a situation whcrc
thc pipc is Iying straight bctwccn two anchors. This iIIustratcs thc casc of no cxibiIity, which can
causc probIcms in piping and connccting cquipmcnt.
Iigurc 3.12(b) shows thc raiIs Iaid with a smaII gap providcd bctwccn two |oining cnds. This gap
aIIows thc raiIs to cxpand into it without gcncrating any Ioad. With this smaII, but sufhcicnt gap
providcd, thc buckIing duc to thcrmaI cxpansion is cIiminatcd. Howcvcr, with a gap, no mattcr how
smaII, a sIight bouncing occurs cvcry timc thc whccI passcs ovcr thc gap. Thc raiI is safc, but thc ridc
is somcwhat bumpy. This is a compromiscd arrangcmcnt nobody shouId compIain about. Thc samc
thing happcns to a piping systcm with |ust cnough Ioops and offscts for thc rcquircd cxibiIity. Thc
cxibiIity in thc piping cIiminatcs thc potcntiaI damagc duc to thcrmaI cxpansion. McanwhiIc, thc
piping systcm aIso bccomcs a IittIc shaky, but it is toIcrabIc. This is thc dcsign wc nccd, and can Iivc
with.
Iigurc 3.12(c) shows thc conscqucncc of too much cxibiIity. RcaIizing that a propcr gap bctwccn
thc cnds of ad|accnt raiIs is ncccssary for thc safcty of thc raiIroad, somc cnginccrs might gct thc idca
of substantiaIIy incrcasing thc gap sizc to cnhancc safcty. Whcn thc gap bccomcs unncccssariIy Iargc,
thc potcntiaI damagc duc to thcrmaI cxpansion is cIiminatcd but thc whccIs of thc raiIcar may not pass
thc gap safcIy. This crcatcs a hazardous situation to thc opcration. In thc dcsign of piping systcms,
many dcsign cnginccrs bcIicvc that it is conscrvativc to providc morc cxibiIity in thc piping. This in-
dccd has bccomc a guidcIinc in somc dcsign spccihcations. Howcvcr, |ust Iikc thc raiIroad with Iargc
gaps, this so-caIIcd conscrvativc approach can aIso crcatc opcrationaI hazardous in thc piping.
Iigurc 3.12(d) shows a fuIIy rcstraincd continuousIy wcIdcd raiIroad construction. In a fuIIy rc-
straincd situation, thc raiI gcncratcs about 200 psi/BI (2.48 MPa/BC) of axiaI strcss duc to tcmpcraturc
changc. Thc strcss is comprcssivc if thc opcrating tcmpcraturc is highcr than thc construction tcmpcr-
aturc. With a maximum cxpcctcd axiaI strcss bcIow about /
of thc yicId strcngth rangc, thc raiIroad

can bc constructcd continuousIy without gaps. This continuous construction aIIows for thc smooth
opcration of thc raiIcar whcn opcrating at high spccds. Howcvcr, thc thcrmaI cxpansion probIcm is
stiII thcrc no mattcr what typc of construction is adoptcd. In this typc of construction, thc thcrmaI
cxpansion probIcm is trcatcd diffcrcntIy. It rcquircs that hcavy anchors bc pIaccd to prcvcnt thc cnds
of thc raiI from moving. Sufhcicnt IatcraI rcstraints arc aIso pIaccd aIong thc Iinc to prcvcnt thc raiI
from IatcraI buckIing. With aII associatcd probIcms takcn carc of, thc rigid raiIroad systcm offcrs a
vcry smooth, safc opcration for thc raiIcars cvcn at vcry high spccds.
Thcrc arc simiIar situations in thc construction of somc piping systcms. In cross-country pipcIincs,
thc fuIIy rcstraincd construction is gcncraIIy adoptcd to rcducc thc cost and incrcasc thc rcIiabiIity.
No cxpansion Ioops or offscts arc uscd. SimiIar to thc continuous raiIroad construction, thc pipcIinc
rcquircs hcavy anchors or cquivaIcnt anchors pIaccd at cnds to controI thc cnd movcmcnts, and suf-
hcicnt IatcraI rcstraining cfforts arc providcd to prcvcnt IatcraI buckIing in pipcIincs. DctaiIs on cross-
country pipcIincs arc discusscd in a scparatc chaptcr.
FIG. 3.12
RAILROAD ANALOGY TO PIPING FLEXIBILITY
88 Chaptcr 3
3.9.1 Problems Associated With Excessive Flexibility
Ixccssivc piping cxibiIity comcs from cxccssivc Ioops and offscts in thc piping systcm. IxtcrnaIIy,
thc piping with cxccssivc Ioops is imsy and pronc to vibratc. It is wcak in rcsisting occasionaI Ioads,
such as wind and carthquakc. IntcrnaIIy, thcsc cxccssivc pipcs and bcnds gcncratc cxccssivc prcssurc
drop and cxccssivc bumps to thc uid owing insidc. Asidc from thc incrcascd opcrating cost duc to
thc cxtra powcr rcquircd, prcssurc drop can causc vaporization of thc uid opcrating at ncar-saturatc
tcmpcraturc. Thc ncar-saturatc condition occurs at aII condcnsatc Iincs and bottom uid Iincs from
distiIIation towcrs, and so forth. Whcn vaporization occurs at thc portion of piping away from thc
pumps, it gcncratcs shaking forccs duc to sIugs formcd by thc vapor. Oncc sIug formation occurs,
thc whoIc piping systcm bangs and shakcs vioIcntIy, cvcn if thc systcm is not unsafc to opcratc. Morc
discussions on sIug ow arc givcn in thc chaptcr dcaIing with dynamic anaIysis.
Thc biggcst probIcm associatcd with cxccssivc cxibiIity occurs at pumping circuits. Thc cxccs-
sivc piping Ioops in this casc arc add-ons in an attcmpt to rcducc piping Ioads on thc pump. Thcsc
Ioops arc not in thc scopc of originaI uid ow pIanning. Thcrcforc, thc addcd prcssurc drop is oftcn
not accountcd for in thc originaI systcm dcsign. To cnsurc a smooth and cfhcicnt pump opcration, a
ccrtain minimum amount of nct positivc suction hcad (NPSH) must bc maintaincd at thc pump inIct.
Othcrwisc, vaporization and cavitation might occur at thc suction sidc. This can substantiaIIy rcducc
thc pump capacity and pump cfhcicncy. Thc vapor cvcntuaIIy coIIapscs whcn prcssurc insidc thc
pump rcachcs abovc thc saturation point. This coIIapsc of vapor gcncratcs a hugc impact forcc that
can damagc thc intcrnaIs of thc pump.
Many pumps, such as condcnsatc and boiIcr fccd watcr pumps, arc opcrating at ncar-saturatc tcm-
pcraturc. It is aIrcady vcry difhcuIt to providc cnough NPSH for thcm without thc uncxpcctcd addi-
tion of ow rcsistancc. Vcry oftcn, storagc tanks on thc suction sidc havc to bc cIcvatcd to thc top
portion of thc buiIding to providc this rcquircd NPSH. In thc Iayout of a pctrochcmicaI pIant, thc
cnginccrs gcncraIIy do not havc thc Iuxury of cIcvating a storagc tank as high as nccdcd. Bccausc thc
storagc tank is oftcn thc bottom of a distiIIation or somc othcr towcr or vcsscI, to raisc it mcans cIcvat-
ing thc whoIc towcr togcthcr with aII othcr piping conncctcd to it. It might aIso invoIvc raising othcr
towcrs as thcy arc normaIIy rcIatcd by a hxcd cIcvation diffcrcncc. It is indccd vcry compIicatcd cvcn
to raisc thc cIcvation by |ust a foot or two. Bccausc of thc Iack of awarcncss rcgarding thc nccd for
Ioop, or duc to thc difhcuIty in forcsccing thc sizc of thc Ioop rcquircd, thc cxtra prcssurc drop from
thc addcd Ioops is scIdom accountcd for in thc originaI ow dcsign. This naturaIIy gcncratcs aII typcs
of opcrationaI probIcms for thc pump. Morc discussions arc givcn in Chaptcr 9.
3.10 FIELD PROVEN SYSTEMS
Thcrc arc many instaIIations that cannot bc accuratcIy anaIyzcd cvcn with currcnt tcchnoIogy. It
is cithcr duc to thc shortfaII of thc tcchnoIogy or duc to cconomic impracticaIity. Thc authors of thc
piping codc had thc vision to stipuIatc that "No formaI anaIysis of adcquatc cxibiIity is rcquircd for
a piping systcm which dupIicatcs, or rcpIaccs without signihcant changc, a systcm opcrating with a
succcssfuI rccord;. (ASMI B31.3, par. 319.4.1; aIso B31.1, par. 119.7.1).
Howcvcr, many modcrn-day cnginccrs do not apprcciatc this forcsight of thc codc. Not so many
ycars ago, whcn it was customary to construct a pIastic modcI of thc pIant for rcvicw by aII associatcd
partics, thc cnginccrs from an opcrating pIant couId casiIy spot a poorIy dcsigncd systcm. Thcy wouId
say that thcy had ncvcr sccn onc Iikc that, or that somc othcr systcms shouId bc uscd bccausc thcy
havc aIrcady provcd thcmscIvcs in thc hcId. Howcvcr, thcsc commcnts wcrc oftcn not apprcciatcd
by computcr-oricntcd cnginccrs who wouId havc insistcd that thc computcr anaIyscs had concIudcd
othcrwisc.
Thc computcr is mathcmaticaIIy corrcct in intcrprcting thc data suppIicd. In piping cxibiIity, somc
systcms in thc hcId may not bc rcadiIy anaIyzcd by thc computcr duc to a Iack of accuratc informa-
tion. Thcsc systcms incIudc somc Iow-tcmpcraturc pump piping systcms, short cquipmcnt connccting
pipcs, and othcrs that invoIvc smaII amounts of cxpansions or dispIaccmcnts. As discusscd in Scction
3.1, thc anaIysis rcsuIts of thcsc systcms dcpcnd cntircIy on thc accuratc stiffncss of thc cnd conncc-
tions. If thcsc systcms wcrc anaIyzcd through a computcr using thc idcaIizcd data, thcy wouId havc
cvoIvcd to a dcsign with cxccssivc Ioops that may hampcr thc propcr opcration of thc systcm.
This is not to say that thc computcr is not uscfuI, but rathcr to cmphasizc that onIy accuratc data wiII
producc mcaningfuI rcsuIts. Ior systcms invoIving smaII cxpansion or dispIaccmcnt, thc cxact stiffncss
of thc boundary condition is vcry important. An anaIysis assuming an anchor hcrc and anothcr anchor
thcrc wiII not do thc |ob corrcctIy. In thcsc cascs, past cxpcricncc is of thc utmost importancc.
Somc words of caution arc in ordcr, howcvcr. Thc dupIication of succcssfuIIy opcrating systcm is
onIy vaIid for systcms do not invoIvc timc-dcpcndcnt faiIurc modcs, such as crccp or mcdium cycIc
fatiguc. Ior a systcm with a timc-dcpcndcnt Iifc cycIc, it takcs ycars to |udgc whcthcr it is succcssfuI
or not.
REFERENCES
[1] SpicIvogcI, S. W., 1951, Piping Siress Ca/cu/aiions Simp/ifed, pubIishcd by author, Lakc Succcss,
NY (prcvious cditions pubIishcd by McCraw-HiII Book Company).
[2] M. W. KcIIogg Company, 1956, Design of Piping Sysiems, rcviscd 2nd cd., 1ohn WiIcy & Sons,
Ncw York.
[3] OIson, 1., and Cramcr, R., 1965, Pipe F/exibi/iiy Ana/ysis Program MEC 21S, Rcport No.35-65,
San Irancisco Bay NavaI Shipyard, Marc IsIand Division (othcr vcrsions incIudc MIC-05,
1957; MIC-21, 1960; MIL-21, 1966; MIL-40, 1968).
[4] Brock, 1. I., 1967, "Ixpansion and IIcxibiIity," Chaptcr 4, Piping Handbook, 5th cd., R. C.
King, cd., McCraw-HiII Book Company, Ncw York.
[5] Pcng, L. C., and Pcng, T. L., 1998, "Piping IIcxibiIity Basics," Chemica/ Processing, 61(5),
pp.6369.
[6] ASMI Codc for Prcssurc Piping, B31, An Amcrican NationaI Standard, BJ1.1 Power Piping;
BJ1.J Process Piping, Thc Amcrican Socicty of McchanicaI Inginccrs, Ncw York.
[7] ASMI BoiIcr and Prcssurc VcsscI Codc, Scction-III, "NucIcar Powcr PIant Componcnts",
Division 1, Subscction NB, CIass 1 Componcnts; Subscction NC, CIass 2 Componcnts; Subscc-
tion ND, CIass 3 Componcnts.
[8] MarkI, A. R. C., 1947, "Iatiguc Tcsts of WcIding IIbows and ComparabIc DoubIc-Mitrc
Bcnds, Transaciions of ihe ASME, 69(8), pp. 869879.
[9] MarkI, A. R. C., and Ccorgc, H. H., 1950, "Iatiguc Tcsts on IIangcd AsscmbIics," Transaciions
of ihe ASME, 2(1), pp.7787.
[10] MarkI, A. R. C., 1952, "Iatiguc Tcsts of Piping Componcnts," Transaciions of ihe ASME, 4(3),
pp. 287299 (discussion pp. 299303).
[11] MarkI, A. R. C., 1955, "Piping-IIcxibiIity AnaIysis," Transaciions of ihe ASME, (2), pp. 124
143 (discussion pp. 143149).
[12] Pcng, L. C., 1979, "Toward Morc Consistcnt Pipc Strcss AnaIysis," Hydrocarbon Processing,
5S(5), pp. 207211.
[13] Rosshcim, D. B., and MarkI, A. R. C., 1940, "Thc Signihcancc of, and Suggcstcd Limits for, thc
Strcss in Pipc Lincs Duc to thc Combincd Iffccts of Prcssurc and Ixpansion, Transaciions of
ihe ASME, 62(5), pp. 443464, 1uIy.
[14] Robinson, I. L., 1955, "Stcam-Piping Dcsign to Minimizc Crccp Conccntrations," Transac-
iions of ihe ASME, (7), pp. 11471158 (discussion, pp. 11581162).
[15] Pcng, L. C., 1988, "CoId Spring of Rcstraincd Piping Systcms," prcscntcd at ASMI PV&P
Confcrcncc, Pittsburgh, PA, 1unc, 1988, pubIishcd in P1P-1o/. 1J9, Design and Ana/ysis of Pip-
ing, Pressure 1esse/s, and Componenis-19SS.
90 Chaptcr 3
[16] Pcng, L. C., 1981, "An Intcrprctation on Prcssurc IIongation in Piping Systcms," P1P-1o/. 5J,
Curreni Topics in Piping and Pipe Suppori Design, ASMI PubIications.
[17] Rodabaugh, I. C., and Ccorgc, H. H., 1957, "Iffcct of IntcrnaI Prcssurc on thc IIcxibiIity and
Strcss Intcnsihcation Iactors of Curvcd Pipc or WcIding IIbows, Transaciions of ihe ASME,
9(4), pp. 939948.
[18] Rochc, V. R., and BayIac, C., 1973, "Comparison Bctwccn IxpcrimcntaI and Computcr AnaIy-
sis of thc Bchavior Indcr Prcssurc of a 90 Bcnd with an IIIipticaI Scction." Proceeding of ihe
2nd Iniernaiiona/ Conference on Pressure 1esse/ Techno/ogy, San Antonio, TX, 1973, ASMI.

Piping Flexibility and Stress Analysis

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of thc yicId strcngth.

of thc coId spring gap. This is uscd to hnd thc crcdibIc

factor is thc fraction of thc coId spring cffcct

of thc yicId strcngth rangc, thc raiIroad

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