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Path Integral Formulation of Quantum Mechanics

Notes
Hemanta Bhattarai
CDP,TU
October 31, 2012
1
This notes is based on the things that Ive learnt about the path integral
formulation of quantum mechanics from the book Quantum Mechanics and
Path integrals by R.P Feynman and A R Hibbs.This note is just the basic
about path integral. Id like to say that this note is just a prerequirement
to study above mentioned book and other book on path integral approach to
quantum mechanics.
Contents
1 General Introduction: 3
1.1 Thought experiment: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.2 Probablity concept: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.3 Profs Nightmare: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
2 Quantum mechanical law of motion: 7
2.1 Classical Action: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
2.2 Quantum Amplitude: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2.3 Sum over path: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2.4 Quantum limits to classical motion: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
2.5 Event occuring in succession: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
3 Schrodinger Equation: 14
4 Perturbration theory: 16
4.1 First order pertubration: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
4.1.1 First order pertubration interpretation: . . . . . . . . . . 18
4.2 Second Order pertubration: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
4.2.1 Interpretion of the second order perturbation: . . . . . . . 20
4.3 Integral expression for K
v
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
4.4 Wave function expansion: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
2
Chapter 1
General Introduction:
1.1 Thought experiment:
Richard P. Feynman in his, Lecture on Physics Vol III, has wisely indicated
the misterious nature of the quantum mechanics.He has shown this bizzare na-
ture of QM via the thought experiment which is explained below. I think we
are familar with the Youngs Double Slit experiment in our high school while
studying the interference of light waves. In this experiment a source is placed in
front of the double slit barrier and a screen behind it.If the light is illuminated
then we can see the interference pattern in the screen.
Let us consider a light source be replaced by a electron gun. The interference
patten is seen as in the case of the light but if we determine the slit though which
the electron passes using a greater wavelenght photon the interference pattern
vanishes. So, we can deduce that the interference is seen before measurement
and it vanishes after measurment. This is most bizzare nature of the quantum
particle.
For detail study of this thought experiment its good to go through Lecture on
Physics Vol III by Richard P.Feynman.
1.2 Probablity concept:
The probablity concept in quantum mechanics is not a new concept it is similar
to that of the classical probablity concept,but only the dierence is the method
for the calculation of the probablity amplitude. Let the probablity amplitude
of nding a partilce at position x be (x) and the probablity density of nding
the particle at x is given by |(x)|
2
.The method of obtaining (x) is dealt in
upcomming chapter. In this section we are just learning concept to combine
dierent probablity amplitude.
3
CHAPTER 1. GENERAL INTRODUCTION: 4
Figure 1.1: Figure of double slit experiment of electron
Let,
1. (S O) = ,be the probablity amplitude of nding the particle at O.
2. (S A
1
O =
1
, be the probablity amplitude of nding the particle
at O passing through the slit A
1
when the slit A
2
is closed.
3. (S A
2
O) =
2
, be the probablity of nding the particle at O
passing through the slit A
2
when the slit A
1
is closed.
When slit A
1
is closed then:
=
1
When slit A
2
is closed then:
=
2
When both slits are open:
=
1
+
2
Probablity density of getting particle at O when slit A
2
is closed is |
1
|
2
and the probablity density of getting particle at O when slit A
1
is closed
is |
2
|
2
. When both slit is open the probablity density of getting particle
at O is given by:
||
2
= |
1
+
2
|
2
= |
1
|
2
+|
2
|
2
CHAPTER 1. GENERAL INTRODUCTION: 5
So, interference pattern is seen when both the slits are open.
Figure 1.2: With more slits added
In the above gure;
(S A
1
B
4
O) = (S A
1
)(A
1
B
4
)(B
4
O)
More generally
(S A
i
B
j
O) = (S A
i
)(A
i
B
j
)(B
j
O) And the
probablity density for a partilce to be found in O is
(S O) =

j
(S A
i
B
j
O)
(S O) =

j
(S A
i
)(A
i
B
j
)(B
j
O)
CHAPTER 1. GENERAL INTRODUCTION: 6
1.3 Profs Nightmare:
When I was reading Quantum Field Theory In NutShell by A.Zee I
was very interested on reading a section named Professors Nightmare:
A wise guy in a class,here Im going to share it.
When a Prof.Joe was giving lecture about the bizzare nature of quantum
mechanics. He told his students that the probablity amplitude of getting
a particle at O is given by:
(S O) = (S A
1
O) + (S A
2
O)
Then,a curious student stood up and asked a question What,if we drill
a third hole?. The prof replied Inlcude the propabablity ampliude of
the particle passing from that point in the sum. The student again asked
What, if we drill fourth or fth or sixth hole?.Prof. in angry voice replied
No matter how many holes you drill, just add the individual probabality
amplitude..The class was silent for sometime. Again, the boy raised his
hand and asked What,if we drill innite number of holes, which means
there wasnt the slit at all?.The class was silent and the prof. was in the
deep thought about the logic posed by the curious boy.
According to the curious student logic, the probablity amplitude of the
particle found at any point is just the sum over all the probablity amplitude
of the particle passing through the individual hole(though hypothetical in
case of free space).
Chapter 2
Quantum mechanical law
of motion:
2.1 Classical Action:
The mechanics of a classical particle is governed by a simple rule called
Hamiltons Principle which states that:
The motion of the system from time t
1
to time t
2
is such that
the line integral (called the action)
S =
_
t2
t1
Ldt (2.1)
has a stationary value for the actual path of the motion.
S = 0 (2.2)
Here L is the lagrangian of the system.
Considering L(q, q, t) and using (2.1),(2.2) and variational principle we get
the Euler-Lagrange equation:
d
dt
_
L
q
_

L
q
= 0 (2.3)
Any solution to (2.3) fully describes the system whose lagrangian is L(q, q, t)
For example: let us consider we are trying to describe the mechanics of
simple pendulum of lenght a, the lagrangian of the simple pendulum
L(,

, t) is:
L =
1
2
ma
2

2
mga(1 cos)
7
CHAPTER 2. QUANTUM MECHANICAL LAW OF MOTION: 8
From (2.3)and above lagrangian we get;

+
g
a
sin = 0 (2.4)
This equation describes the dynamics of the simple pendulum and for
small angle approximation sin .So,

+
g
a
= 0
This shows the motion is simple harmonic and the time period is ;
T = 2
_
a
g
And the motion of the pendulum is the solution of(2.4) i.e
= Asin(t + )
where =
_
g
a
and A, are obtained from the initial condition of the
pendulum.
Consider a free particle, we are going to determine its stationary ac-
tion.Let us suppose x(t
a
) = x
a
and x(t
b
) = x
b
. Here the lagrangian
L =
1
2
m x
2
(2.5)
Using (2.5) and(2.3) (qx) we get;
x = 0 (2.6)
On solving this equation and using the condition x(t
a
) = x
a
and x(t
b
) = x
b
we get;
x =
x
a
x
b
t
a
t
b
(2.7)
x =
x
a
x
b
t
a
t
b
t +
x
a
t
b
x
b
t
a
t
a
t
b
(2.8)
Now the stationary action can be found from (2.1)and (2.7) i.e
S =
_
t
b
ta
1
2
m x
2
S
cl
=
1
2
m(x
b
x
a
)
2
(t
b
t
a
)
(2.9)
CHAPTER 2. QUANTUM MECHANICAL LAW OF MOTION: 9
Then we can easily show that
p(x
a
) =
_
L
x
_
x=xa
=
S
cl
x
a
(2.10)
E(x
a
) =
_
L x
a
L
x
_
x=xa
=
S
cl
t
a
(2.11)
Path integral approach is the approach to indroduce the fundamental
concept of classical mechanics, the action, to the quantum mechanics via
quantum amplitude.
2.2 Quantum Amplitude:
In classical mechanics only the path that has the action stationary de-
scribes the motion of a classical particle but in the quantum mechanics
action of all the possible path contributes to the motion of the quan-
tum partilce. The information of the quantum particle can be obtained
solely from the quantum amplitude whose sqaure gives the probablity den-
sity.Let,K(b,a) denotes the quantum amplitude for a particle to start from
position a and found at the position b.Then;
K(b, a) =

possible paths
[x(t)] (2.12)
And
[x(t)] = Ae
(

h
)S[x(t)]
(2.13)
where A is a constant choosen to normalize K(b,a).
From (2.12) and (2.13) we can deduce that all probablity amplitude for
dierent possible path contributes equally but all of these are at dierent
phase. The phase of each probablity amplitude is equal to action on that
path measured in units of h
2.3 Sum over path:
As we have learnt in undergraduate level the integration
_
b
a
f(x) can be
written as the limiting case of the sum of the rectangles dened by the
graph y=f(x) i.e
_
b
a
f(x) = lim
h0

i
hf(x
i
) (2.14)
CHAPTER 2. QUANTUM MECHANICAL LAW OF MOTION: 10
Let us interpret K(b,a) using (2.12) and(2.13) as a integral.Let t
a
and t
b
be divided into N parts such that
N = t
b
t
a
x
0
= x
a
= x(t
a
)
x
N
= x
b
= x(t
b
)
t
0
= t
a
t
N
= t
b
CHAPTER 2. QUANTUM MECHANICAL LAW OF MOTION: 11
Now from (2.12) we have
K(b, a) =

all paths
A[x(t)]

all pathexcluding x1

x1
(a x
1
b)

all pathexcluding x1

x1
(a x
1
)(x
1
b)

all pathexcluding x1
_
dx
1
(a x
1
)(x
1
b)

all pathexcluding x1 and x2

x2
_
dx
1
(a x
1
)(x
1
x
2
)(x
2
b)

all pathexcluding x1 and x2


_
dx
1
_
x
2
(a x
1
)(x
1
x
2
)(x
2
b)

_ _
. . .
_ _
. .
all space
dx
1
dx
2
. . . dx
N1
[x(t)]
= A
_ _
. . .
_ _
. .
all space
dx
1
dx
2
. . . dx
N1
e

h
S[x(t)]
The value of A determined by the normalization condition.For the la-
grangian dened in 2.5 value of A is B
N
, where B=
_
2 h
m
_1
2
K(b, a) =
1
B
_ _
. . .
_ _
dx
1
B
dx
2
B
. . .
dx
N1
B
e

h
S[a,b]
(2.15)
where S[a, b] =
_
t
b
ta
L(x, x, t). In most general way we can write;
K(b, a) =
_
b
a
e

h
S[a,b]
Dx (2.16)
and this is called a path integral.We shall rarely encounter to the equa-
tion (2.15).
CHAPTER 2. QUANTUM MECHANICAL LAW OF MOTION: 12
2.4 Quantum limits to classical motion:
From (2.12) and (2.13) we see that all the possible path contributes to
the total probablity amplitude.For, classical motion the action seems to
be small for the neighbouring path but as compared to the h it is very
huge so the phase oscillates rapidly for the classical motion and canel the
overall contribution.But for the path in the neighbouhood of the stationary
action is constant upto rst order so they dont cancel eachother.So, the
contribution to the amplitude only comes thorugh the path for which
the action is stationary for the classical motion.However,for the quantum
motion the action is not so signiciant as comparedt to h i.e S h,so the
phase do not oscillate rapidly and dont cancel each other due to which all
the possible paths contribute to the probablity amplitude of the motion.
2.5 Event occuring in succession:
Let in between a and b positions introduce a position c then
S[a, b] = S[a, c] + S[c, b]
CHAPTER 2. QUANTUM MECHANICAL LAW OF MOTION: 13
Then; from (2.16)
K(b, a) =
_
b
a
Dxe

h
S[a,b]
=
_
b
a
Dxe

h
(S[a,c]+S[c,b])
=
_
b
a
Dxe

h
S[a,c]
e

h
S[c,b]
The integration is done from a to c and then c to b but integration must
be done for all points c.So,
K(b, a) =
_
b
a
Dx
_
b
a
dx
c
e

h
S[a,c]
e

h
S[c,b]
=
_
b
a
dx
c
K(b, c)K(c, a)
If time scale is divided into three points c,d and e such that t
c
< t
d
< t
e
then we can write
K(b, a) =
_
b
a
_
b
a
_
b
a
dx
c
dx
d
dx
e
K(b, d)K(d, c)K(c, a)
Note:
(a) K(c,d)=0 if t
c
< t
d
(b) K(i + 1, i) =
1
B
e

h
L

x
i+1
x
i

,
x
i+1
+x
i
2
,
t
i+1
+t
i
2

(c) For a system with many variables


K(x
b
, y
b
, z
b
, t
b
; x
a
, y
a
, z
a
, t
a
) =
_
b
a
e
{

h
L(x,y,z, x, y, z,t)}
Dx(t)Dy(t)Dz(t)
(d) For a separable system:S[x,X] = S
x
[x] + S
X
[X] then
K(x
b
, X
b
, t
b
; x
a
, X
a
, t
a
) = K
x
(x
b
, t
b
; x
a
, t
a
)K
X
(X
b
, t
b
; X
a
, t
a
)
(e) (x
2
, t
2
) =
_

K(x
2
, t
2
; x
3
, t
3
)(x
3
, t
3
)dx
3
Chapter 3
Schrodinger Equation:
In our undergraduate level we were familiar with the a dierential
equation in quantum mechaincs known as Schrodinger Equation. We
used to set up the Schrodinger equation for a given problem and use
boundary condition to nd the energy eignen values and required
wave function. Here we are deriving same dierential equation via
path integral approach.
For any point c in between a and b we can write action as S[a, b] =
S[a, c] + S[c, b] and this gave us possiblity to derive the schrodinger
equation.
Here we will compare the wave function in the innitisally closer time
t and t+ taking only consideration up to rst order of
We know that,
(x, t + ) =
_

K(x, t + ; y, t)(y, t)dy


And
K(x, t + ; y, t) =
1
B
e

h
L(
xy

,
x+y
2
,
2t+
2
)
Let the lagrangian be:
L(x, x, t) =
1
2
m x
2
V (x, t)
Combing above equation we can write;
(x, t + ) =
_

1
B
e

h
L(
xy

,
x+y
2
,
2t+
2
)
(y, t)dy
(x, t + ) =
1
B
_

e
m(xy)
2
2 h
e

h
V (
x+y
2
,
2t+
2
)
(y, t)dy
14
CHAPTER 3. SCHRODINGER EQUATION: 15
Since (xy)
2
is in the phase, only those value contribute for whic x-y
is small else will oscillate rapidly and do not contribute to integral.
So, let us assume x = y + .
2t+
2
= t for very small . Now above
equation becomes
(x, t + ) =
1
B
_

e
m
2
2 h
e

h
V (x+

2
,t)
(x + , t)d
Since the phase in rst exponential changes by 1 for =
_
2 h
m
. So
expanding above equation upto rst order of and second order of
we get
(x, t)+
(x, t)
t
=
1
B
_

e
m
2
2 h
_
1

h
V (x, t)
_
_
(x, t) +
(x, t)
x
+
2

2
(x, t)
x
2
_
d
(x, t)+
(x, t)
t
=
1
B
_

e
m
2
2 h
_
(x, t)

h
V (x, t)(x, t) +
2

2
(x, t)
x
2
_
d
Using
_

e
ix
2
xdx = 0
_

e
m
2
2 h
d =
_
2h
m
_1
2
_

e
m
2
2 h

2
d =
h
m
we get
B =
_
2h
m
_1
2
h
(x, t)
t
=
h
2
2m

2
x
2
(x, t) + V (x, t)(x, t)
which is the required dierential equation known as Schrodinger
Equation.
This procedure can be used to derive the normalization constant B
and the Hamiltonian for any other complicated cases by comparing
the expression derived with the expression below

H = h

t
Chapter 4
Perturbration theory:
All the quantum mechanical problems cannot be solved in the closed
form. However, we can study the system approximately by the per-
tubration expansion of the small pertubrating term. Let a particle of
mass m moves in a small potentil V(x,t) then its lagrangian becomes;
L =
1
2
m x
2
V (x, t)
Now from 2.16 we get
K
v
(b, a) =
_
e

t
b
ta
L(x, x,t)dt
Dx
=
_
e

t
b
ta
1
2
m x
2
dt
e

t
b
ta
V (x(t),t)dt
Dx
Since V(x(t),t) is a pertubrating potential its very very small. On
expanding the exponential of V(x,t) we get;
e

t
b
ta
V (x(t),t)dt
= 1 +
_

h
_
t
b
ta
V [x(s), s]ds
_
+
1
2!
_

h
_
t
b
ta
V [x(s), s]ds
_
2
+ . . .
= 1

h
_
t
b
ta
V [x(s), s]ds
1
2!h
2
_
t
b
ta
_
t
b
ta
V [x(u), u] V [x(s), s] duds + . . . . . .
(4.1)
Then we can write;
K
v
(b, a) =
_
e

t
b
ta
1
2
m

x
2
_
1

h
_
t
b
ta
V [x(s), s]ds
1
2!h
2
_
t
b
ta
_
t
b
ta
V [x(u), u] V [x(s), s] duds + . . .
_
16
CHAPTER 4. PERTURBRATION THEORY: 17
which can be written as
K
v
(b, a) = K
0
(b, a) + K
(1)
v
(b, a) + K
(2)
v
(b, a) + . . . . . . (4.2)
where;
K
0
(b, a) =
_
e

t
b
ta
1
2
m x
2
dt
Dx, : free particle integral (4.3)
K
(1)
v
(b, a) =

h
_ _
t
b
ta
e

t
b
ta
1
2
m x
2
dt
V [x(s), s]ds Dx :First order pertubration
(4.4)
K
(2)
v
(b, a) =
1
2!h
2
_ _
t
b
ta
_
t
b
ta
e

t
b
ta
1
2
m x
2
dt
V [x(u), u] V [x(s), s] dudsDx :Second order pertubration
(4.5)
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4.1 First order pertubration:
K
(1)
v
(b, a) =

h
_ _
t
b
ta
e

t
b
ta
1
2
m x
2
dt
V [x(s), s]ds Dx This can be writ-
ten as;
K
(1)
v
(b, a) =

h
_
t
b
ta
F(s) ds
where
F(s) =
_
e

t
b
ta
1
2
m x
2
dt
V [x(s), s]Dx
The above integral represents the sum of the possible each weighted
by the potential. So,
F(s) =
_
e

t
b
ta
1
2
m x
2
dt
V [x(s), s]Dx
=
_
e

h
[

s
ta
1
2
m x
2
dt+

t
b
s
1
2
m x
2
dt]
V [x(s), s]Dx dx(s)
=
_
K
0
(b, s)V [x(s), s]K
0
(s, a)dx(s)
So;
K
(1)
v
(b, a) =

h
_ _
t
b
ta
K
0
(b, s)V [x(s), s]K
0
(s, a)dx(s)ds
CHAPTER 4. PERTURBRATION THEORY: 18
In a simple form it can be written as;
V[x(s),s] V(s)
dx(s) dx
s
ds dt
s
dx
s
dt
s
d
s
.
K
(1)
v
(b, a) =

h
_
K
0
(b, s)V (s)K
0
(s, a)d
s
(4.6)
4.1.1 First order pertubration interpretation:
From (4.6) we can say that the free particle moves from postition a
to position s where it encounters a potential at s i.e V(s). After in-
teracting with potential at position s it then moves from the position
s to position b as a free particle. Since, postion s can be any point
where potential V =0, so to get the rst order pertubration we must
integrate over the point s both in space and time.
S
V
b
a
Figure 4.1: Interpretion of the first order perturbration
4.2 Second Order pertubration:
By the similar process carried on above and with analogous to 4.6
we can write
K
(2)
v
=
1
2!
_

h
_
2
_ _ _
t
b
ta
_
t
b
ta
K
0
(b, s)V (s)K(s, u)V (u)K
0
(u, a)dx
s
dx
u
dt
s
dt
u
CHAPTER 4. PERTURBRATION THEORY: 19
Now; using constraint K(u, v) = 0, for t
u
< t
v
_
t
b
ta
_
t
b
ta
V (s)V (u)ds du =
_
t
b
ta
_
t
b
s
V (s)V (u)duds+
_
t
b
ta
_
s
ta
V (s)V (u)duds
The rst integral of the RHS satises above constarint and the second
integral after interchanging role of s and u it becomes
_
t
b
ta
_
t
b
u
V (u)V (s)ds du
Performing u s
_
t
b
ta
_
t
b
s
V (u)V (s)ds du
So nally the second order perturbration can be written as:
K
(2)
v
=
_

h
_
2
_ _ _
t
b
ta
_
t
b
ts
K
0
(b, s)V (s)K(s, u)V (u)K
0
(u, a)dx
s
dx
u
dt
s
dt
u
Finally;
K
(2)
v
=
_

h
_
2
_ _
K
0
(b, s)V (s)K(s, u)V (u)K
0
(u, a)d
s
d
u
(4.7)
Similarly n! is removed from the K
(n)
v
.
CHAPTER 4. PERTURBRATION THEORY: 20
4.2.1 Interpretion of the second order perturba-
tion:
From (4.7) we can say that the free particle moves from postition a
to position u where it encounters a potential at u i.e V(u). After
interacting with potential at position u it then moves from the po-
sition u to position u as a free particle where it again encounters a
potential at s where it is scattered.From the postion s to postion b
it moves as a free particle. Since, postion u and s can be any point
where potential V =0, so to get the rst order pertubration we must
integrate over the point s and u such that the constraint K(a, b) = 0
for t
a
< t
b
both in space and time.
u
V
b
a
v
Figure 4.2: Second order perturbration
4.3 Integral expression for K
v
From (4.2), (4.6),(4.7) we can expand K
v
as
K
v
(b, a) = K
0
(b, a)

h
_
K
0
(b, s)V (s)K
0
(s, a)d
s
+
_

h
_
2
_ _
K
0
(b, s)V (s)K(s, u)V (u)K
0
(u, a)d
s
d
u
+ . . . . . . . . .
which can be written as
K
v
(b, a) = K
0
(b, a)

h
_
K
0
(b, s)V (s)
_
K
0
(s, a)

h
_
K
0
(s, u)V (u)K
0
(u, a)d
u
_
d
s
CHAPTER 4. PERTURBRATION THEORY: 21
Let us try to develop a method for n
th
order perturbration;
K
0
(u, a) K
0
(u, a)

h
_
K
0
(u, r)V (r)K
0
(r, a)d
r
(4.8)
And from the rst order pertubration theory
K
v
(b, a) = K
0
(b, a)

h
_
K
0
(b, s)V (s)K
0
(s, a)d
s
(4.9)
Doing the substitution 4.8 in 4.9 once we get second order perturba-
tion.i.e
K
(2)
v
(b, a) = K
0
(b, a)

h
_
K
0
(b, s)V (s)
_
K
0
(s, a)

h
_
K
0
(s, r)V (r)K
0
(r, a)d
r
_
d
s
(4.10)
Substitution 4.8 in 4.10 we get third order perturbration theory.i.e
K
(3)
v
(b, a) =K
0
(b, a)

h
_
K
0
(b, s)V (s)
_

_
K
0
(s, a)

h
_
K
0
(s, r)V (r)
_
K
0
(r, a)

h
_
K
0
(r, p)V (p)K
0
(p, a)d
p
_
. .
second substitution to K0(r, a)
d
r
_

_
. .
First substition to K0(s, a)
d
s
For n
th
order perturbation we make (n1) times substitution of the
(4.8) to (4.9) and we get the expression for K
(n)
v
(b, a)
4.4 Wave function expansion:
Let K
v
(b, a) be the kernal for the particle at
textbfa to move to particle at b. Let (a) be the inital wave function
at position at a.Then the wave function at b is given by
(b) =
_
K
v
(b, a)(a)d
a
And this can be expanded as;
(b) =
_
[K
0
(b, a)

h
_
K
0
(b, s)V (s)K
0
(s, a)d
s
+
_

h
_
2
_ _
K
0
(b, s)V (s)K(s, u)V (u)K
0
(u, a)d
s
d
u
+ . . . . . . . . .](a)d
a
CHAPTER 4. PERTURBRATION THEORY: 22
which can be written as;
(b) = (b)

h
_
K
0
(b, s)V (s)(s)d
s
+
_

h
_
2
_ _
K
0
(b, s)V (s)K(s, u)V (u)(u)d
s
d
u
+ . . . . . . . . .
(4.11)
The above expansion of is known as Born series expanison of
.If only rst two terms are considered in the expansion then it is
known as First Born approximation. If rst three terms are con-
sidered in the expansion then it is known as Second Born approx-
imation.
Note:
Here, till now we have considered V(x) as the pertubrating
potential and K
0
the free particle kernel. If the total potential
is U(x)+V(x) and V(x) be pertubrating potential. Then we
can use the formula derived till now but we must replace free
particle kernel K
0
by the partilce kernal in presence potential
U(x) denoted by K
U

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