Teaching is -What

You Get

Learners to Do

by
Jay C. Powell Ph.D.;D.B.A.

Thismaterial hasbeen prepared foraworkshop in instructionaldevelopmentdelivered to the science departmentofthe

Northern Collegiate Instituteand Vocational School on August 29, 1989.

Powell Consulting Services, 1989

Teaching is - What We
Get Learners to Do

-/herehas been along tradition in education of the teacher as the

possessor of special knowledge and the skill to impart that knowl edge to thosewho lack it This "sage on the stage" approach to teaching has many ad vantages. First, it is efficient Many people can receive the same message simultaneously. The teacher functions as an "ambiguity reducer" in the same way that a news reporter does in other mass
communications media.

Second, it is conservative. This approach to teaching is essen tially "instructional". That is, it builds cognitive structures and skills into the heads of the learners. It works within the existing

cultural norms of the current societyand tends toward conserving ratherthan challenging the traditions of the mainstream of thatsociety.

Third, itisinexpensive.Learners can haveidentical instruction

and media materials. They can be taught in as large groups as their

social maturityandtheinstitutional facilities will permit. Similarly,

theirachievement can be measured in uniform contexts, using mul

tiple-choice machine-scored recall-based tests. They can be moved in groups, keeping supeivisions costsand tracking costs to a mini
mum.

In effect, the educational system has adopted the "assemblyline" model from industry, making large numbers of interchange able learners to fill machine-dominated production positions in
business and industry.

This approach to education has served us well. Our current technological successes have been achieved using this approach.
1

Ouronlyproblemwithit is that the interchangeable knowledge and skills this approach creates are becoming programmable. Comput
ers can deliver thern more cost-effectively than people. Technolog ical success is now overrunning the basis for its achievements.

Thisthen, is the challenge facing education into the 1990'sand beyond. How do we redesign education to provide for greater outcomeflexibilitywithout astronomical increases in delivery costs? Refer to Figure 1. The task is given with the figure. It is illuminating to share the reasoninginvolved in the making of these
Figure 1
choices.

*)

This multiple-choice "test" item is very different from the one which is usually used in

schooling. There isno "right" an

k
d>

swer to it There is. however, a

hierarchy of reasoning involved

in the selection of each alterna tive. The most obvious and most
common selection is alternative

M
*>

"b" (the triangle) because it is the only object in which all its edges are straight lines. The least com

mon choiceis "e" which the only object with two concave edges.
It is not yet clear why this al
ternative should be selected so in

From the fivefigures shown above,

select the one that is different frorfl
all the others.

frequently. There may be some

connection between the visual

Source: RogervonOech,^4WW;A: on the Sideof the Head.

complexity of this object and its

avoidance. In this case, a connec-

tion between artistic ability and its selection may exist. It may be related to the difficulty of defining the attributes of this figure for non-mathematical testees. It may be related to visual scanning strategiesor to the numberofanalytical steps taken. Those that use more than one analytical stepwill realize immediately that there is
NO SINGLE RIGHT ANSWERTO THE ITEM.

The realization, which comes from this figure and the exercise of reviewing the answers selected, opens the door to an alternative

approach to teaching. A further realization, whichcomes from the

reasoningreports. isthat metacognitive objectives can be measured

usinga multiple-choice format To achievethis alternative end, the one rightanswer constraint mustbe relaxed and someway of determmmgtheraisoningbehindanswerselections mustbe initiated.

More to Answering

than Getting them Right

Jx is atruism that merely being "right" is insufficient for effective

useofknowledge. Itis also true that people need access to the facts
inordertobeable to use them.

At a time, not too long ago, when human knowledge seemed stable and an intelligent person could acquire much of it in a life time, the instructional (information transmission) approach to schoolingwas entirely reasonable. The users of knowledge could acquirethedeeper(metacognitive) understandings as they applied whatthey know.Figure 2 (overleaf) presents this issue graphically.

Thisfigure isderived from the horizontal rotation of the graph of an hyperbola. Time is scaled along the curve of the hyperbola. ITiesidesofthe resulting trumpet shape remains relatively parallel foraconsiderable time,making knowledge appear to be stable. The holders ofconsiderable knowledge, were scarce, making its possessionvaluable.

 < *.i . Jhi - .!!><

ml.

kmi.tm

I.

I I tllllillMAl

.1 i

<

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Figure 2

Ihl/fiBUTNEVERGElS THERE.

Pkf/7 <?>

AbMute

77E35F

From now

on, know

ledge will expand rapidly.

The old ways

no longer apply.

Knowledge
was stable
for thousands

800 BC 10 Comma)lAments

* 1,000 BC
Great

of years.
:c) Po^cii, iwi.
.

Pyramid
* 1,500 BC

Withthe information explosion however, tlieability of anyone

person to encompass much of this knowledge disappeared. The conseivative person, who tends to rely heavily on personal knowl4

edge, will now fall behind in the ability to apply current knowl
edge

In the place of the conservative knowledge holder, a new cen tral skill is emerging, that of the flexible knowledge/procedure finder. Such a knowledge or information worker is not easily de velopedwithin theinstructional approach to schooling. This problem aiises for several reasons. First, we learn what we practice. In the mass communication approach, the informa

tion/procedure finding and ambiguity reduction is done by the

teacher.The learners are encouraged to acquire, ata recognition or recitation level, the simplified version of this information as pre pared bythe teacher. Learners practice recall and, to a lesser extent, verbalfluency skills. Very little else is learned.

Moreover,testing acquired knowledgeusingmultiple-choice

and short answer tests and scoring them right-wrong tends to mea sure only recall. Essaytests scored holistically, also measure verbal fluency.The more generic skills are neither practiced nor assessed
for their acquisition. A Fundamental Problem

Actually, the problem goes deeper than this. At the heart ofthe
issueis our apprehension of reality. Whenwe use the term "facts"

wetypically treat thecontent of this class of elements as though it

has some form of absolute truth value. Let. us coasider this matter

more closely. There are actually three kinds of fact:

1) 2) 3)

factsof record, factsof observation and factsofinterpretation.

Thereisabsolutely noproblem withfacts ofrecordintermsof "truthvalue." The recordsmaybewrong, but it is none-the-lessin disputable that the recordsshow SOMEI1IING. Detecting errors in
recorded information is a powerful skill. In the information trans

mission approach to schooling, however, the information given in

the records is rarely considered for accuracy seldom disputed -

almost neverexamined directly. Learnershave little opportunityto

recognize theexistence oferrordetecting sltills, let alone practice

them. Proofreading is the most notable exception to this general
statement

The second source for information is direct observation. Facts

of observation have the aura of incontrovertability. However, in his

seminal paperwhichmade currenttechnology possible, Heisenberg indicated that the waywe observe predetermines the conclusions
weareableto draw. This "uncertainty principal" is central to quan tum mechanics, relativity theory and to the current perspective within the philosophy ofscience. An important part of effective observation therefore, involves using morethan One approacli, including having learners developtheir own observation techniques. The different answers given to the multi ple-choice item in Figure 1 reflect underlying observation techniques.

In that pellicular case, either exphcitly or implicitly developing de

scriptor lists and using contrast (or mismatch) rules for making dis tinctionswill show immediately thata 11 are different in at least one
respect

In that item, we could also have asked, "In what ways aie

these figures alike?" In this case the analysis of the descriptors lists would use a comparison (or matching) strategy. The answer would invent rules for inclusion and develop a list,of matching attribute classes. For instance, all black, closed figures, etc. Partial matches
6

are also possible.For instance, "b" and "d" are both bounded byat
least one straight line.

The generation and searching of data bases suchas isrequired with Figure 1 is a generic skill composed of a number of content
independent subskills, such as labelling, com paring or contrasting.
In this case content becomes a vehicle for skill demonstration or

developme&trather than an end in itself.

The third type of "fact", involves facts of interpretation, have their own problems. Let us consider how the scientist works.

It really makes no difference whether the scientist starts with an observation whicharousescuriosity, (such as "Newton's apple") or from a theory to support (such as alchemy). Under Bacon's in

ductiveapproach, the systematicelimination of possibilitiesis the underljingtechnique. Figure 3illustrates thisconcept.

The right-hand frame of Figure 3 shows a reduction in the un explained variabilitywith an improvement in theoretical formula tion. Figure 2 showed this reduction to be asymptotic. There will always be room for "better" explanations. He&ce, although an in terpretation maybe effectiveand fit the existingculture in theway thatan earth-centeredcosmology fitted a Man-centered theology, it
is none-the-less inevitably UNTRUE.

Figure 3
The Scientific Method

Peopleobviously interpret observations or events in particular ways. This fact of observation does not make the interpretation, in
itself, true.

Put simply,truth, in anyabsolute sense, is unknowable. There is no such thing as a "right" answer outside of the constraints of these three typesoffactjustpresented. The solutions to algorithms
are "true" in the sense that 1 +1 * 2. However logic has no refer ence to reality. Its use may provide, useful interpretative analogies. However, these analogies may well be coincidental as a more so phisticatedinterpretation inevitably will show.
A Human Performance Model

1 hus, we live in a reality we have constructed for ourselves.

Much of this is based upon the unstated and often invisible as sumptions underlyingour culture. Suchconcepts as "herbivores are good"and "carnivores are bad" penetrate deeply into our Western psyche. Education, which literally means "to lead out" (Latin ex
ducere: "to lead from or out from ") is the opposite to instruction.

The teacher in this second construct is the "guide by the side". If we learn what we practice, we need practice in finding facts of record and observation, the procedures useful with them and the er
rors inherent in them.

We need to learn how to observe in a variety of ways, includ ingobseiving dispassionately our ownactions and their effects. We need to know how to interpret, to compare, contrast, simplify, ex trapolate from,etc.interpretations of data. We need to learn how to fit such interpretations to the other forms of available fact in the
search forbetter interpretations.
8

A cybernetic system model is useful for us here. Figure 4

illustrates this approach.

Figure 4
The Learner as a

Cybernetic System

FEEDBACK
Observing
oar t>wn

Observing
our otfn

Reactions,
Actions,
etc

RxpeclJitlons

TasssaaasxsxSk

tbvat omr

Feelings,
etc.

INPUT
Seeing Hearing Teaching
etc

PROCESS
Peeling Thinking Planning

OUTPUT
Renting Acting Explaining
etc.

Selection

Filter

In essence, this model suggests thatwe abstract from the available inputs from the environment those elementswe have learnedare useful

to us and which support our current interrelation of reality. Only rarely do we find individuals who systematically seek experiences which contradict their personal mterpretations.
Somewhat more common are people whose experiences and interpretations of them contradict the dominant cultural norms. We
need to learn how to become sensitive to environment events which

require the needforalternativeinterpretations. Directed practice in bypassing our selection filtens at input is essential to effective learning. The best motivation to leam is a perceived inconsistency

between what we expected and what happened, about which we feel we can do something, if we learned how.
9

Once abstracted, we process this information. Typically, we have not practiced processing it in several ways. As a result we

tend to jump to conclusions based upon unfounded assumptions.

Practice in alternative ways of processing the abstracted informa tion isneeded in addition to practice in alternative waysof observ

ing. (SeeAppendixC for a presentation of suchstrategies.)

Once we have drawn our conclusions, we decide upon a

course of action (including doing nothing). In extreme cases, we act too quickly, actually reacting to the situation. In this case we
transfer control of the situation from within ourselves to some

outside agent At the other extreme we procrastinate until the op portune moment has past We need to learn how to fonmdate and deliver effective interventions in a wide variety of situations. For effective education we need to provide learners with practice in formulating and enacting effective outputs.

Finally, the best available feedback comes from ourselves, if we

liave learned how to self-monitor effectively. This skill involves fo cusing upon results and avoiding the extremes of self-indulgence on the one hand and self-deprecation on the other. Ideallywe build our feedback into our actions. An example of this approach in volves the imaging process, wherein we outline the characteristics of the desired outcome and then plan actions designed to bring about this outcome. We then check each intermediate step for its progressive closure upon the objective.

A good illustration of this strategy is found in algebra wherein x = is the desired final form for the solution of an equation. A se ries of manipulations which maintain equality are undertakento elimi nate from the equation terms and factors which are extraneous to
thisimage.
10

This strategy, however, is not content bound and is equally powerful in many other contexts. Also, if an error in decision and
action is made, then it will not have the desired effect, which be

comesimmediatelye\ident to those observing the feedback.

An Approach to Teaching
We began with the underlying idea that we learn what we

practice. If we accept thisoperating hypothesis as useful, we need

to have a set of skills which the learners can practice. Figure 5 pro
vides such a set.

Figure 5
Skills which Learners can

Develop with Explicit Practice

\x ACTIVITY
\
ATING MODALITIES

LEVEL ONE
Instruction
Basic

LEVEL TWO

LEVELS
\ \

Ejqploration
Elaborative

OPEH- \
Aural/Oral

Inter

Implem
entation

Receptive
Stalls
Lintcithg

pretive
Skills
Vocabulary Buldinf
Vimal

Skills
Organizing
Planning

Stills
Reporting Discover: Jig Ieventing

S
S

Visual
KineioTactile

Oberuing Sawing

Decoding
Manipu

Designing

lating
Remembering Relating
Information/
Procedure
Outcome

<- Cognitive

Monit

Finding

oring
Value

QC O Affective
Expressive
5 D
Productive

Value

Tolemtiiw

Viluc

RecojJiizing Reciting

Adopting

Applying
Enoo ir-

Sotvfcj
Cr-natrueing
Collator

li.dp. lining

Copying
Empathizing

Ejjoying
Aasertiu^

Perfanni.lg Consllting

Inters
personal
FEEDBACK:

iting

Except i 3 the highest activities feedback ie uooi dim ted b; the te achef and ia. therefore, Hot ahoiVn here

._.

11

Theleft marginal headingsconnectsthisfigurewiththe model inFigure 4.Feedback isscattered throughout the table rather than
having a separate category.

The top margin, or horizontal axis, expresses a hierarchy sim ilar in some ways to Bloom's Taxonomy. The idea is that both ac

tivity complexity and the proportion of decisionload born by the

learner increases aswe move from left to right.

The labels are selected with the intention that they be largely

self-explanatory. However, the range of activities implied may be

facilitated from tlieir definitions. I have, therefore, included a listof

descriptors for these learner activities in Appendix A. This list is

not exhaustive. It is intended, instead to represent a balanced list

which a teacher might employ to aid in provoking higher order skillsamonglearners.

To achieve these ends, as teachers, we need a set of skills

whichenableustoeducate the learnersin our charge. Figure6 (op posite) provides such a list.

Once again the list is not exhaustive. It is instead designed to emphasize thetransition from instructional toward exploratory ap proaches to schooling. Appendix B provide the descriptors for the entries in this Figure.
Research on this observation protocol shows that a frequency count of the variety of activities engaged in by learners in Figure 5 need to be at least 18 (out of 32) for a 1/2 day of activities before effective exploratoryteaching is being initiated. This same research

suggests a score of at least 30 (out of a possible 60) is needed from the Figure 6 list for the Same conclusion. I have found this survey
to be a useful self-assessment tool for teachers. Because it is de12

Fig ure

Skills which can be Demonstrated

by a Teacher during an Observation

\
\

ACTIVITY
\

LEVELS
TEACHER CENTERED

LEARNER CENTERED

GROUP CENTERED

SK1LL\
CATEG-X

OR1ES

SelfConfid
ence

Motiv

Standards

Activity
Encour aging
B2. Learners
define the

ating
Skills
A-t Paces in
structional

Setting
BL Records

Standards Devel

oping
CL Learners evaluate
their own

Elaborativc Focus
C2. Learners
set (lie out

A ctivity Management

A L Prepares
or selects ef fective in structional

flew effec

are kept sys tematically.

problem
themselves.

come objec-

tively

performance.

Jecoves.

mateiab.
A2. L'fles instruc tional malerata B3. Lcarneri collect the data. B4. Lea men*

adaptivcly. A3. Anticipates

outcomes in

classroom

design the solution ap proach.

D2. Arouses and
main rains

planning.

Task Orientation

DL Maintains learners' focus

on Last

EL Seta clear

activity objec
tives.

learner
interest.

Ft Provides E3. Fades sup port for leam- for contin uity in learn cn'activities

F3. Uses openended activ

ities effect'

appropriately.
E2. Sets clear

ing.

iveiy.

D3. Encourages
learner iden tification with task.

B4.Recognizes
and uses learn

F2. Provides
for transfer

performance Quality objec

tives.

ers' point-ofview.

ability of learn
era'skills.

Performance

GL Distributes

HL Ranges ques
tions across the

WA. Provides

Enabling

questions

appropriate
emotional

broadly and appropriately.

across the cog nitive hierarchy

I'l. Encourages 3. Encourages social respon indrvidual sibility among creativity.

learners.

suppon.

G2. Recognizes
and u&ca ibe

H2. Asks an ap
propriate ma

12.Encourages 14.Encourages
effective in group cre

teachable
moment.

of questions. H3. Sequences questions ef fectively.

terpersonal
and intergroup commuTjication.

ativity.

signedto be diagnostic, it is not recommended that it be used in a

stand-alone manner for the performance assessment of teaching
staff.

Implementing the Change

For teachers to move away from the mass communication ap

proach to the learning activities approach to schooling requires more than a change in perspective by teachers. It also involves a change inclassroom management style.
13

Most good teachers have developed manyof the needed skills fromexperience. Theyhavenot, to myknowledge,been systemati
callytaught theseskills in any teacher preparation program.

Theunderlying idea is present in Figure 7.

Figure 7
A Model for

Transfer Learning

Mediated

Content Dependent Skills

I
2
3 4

Content Independent Skills

nit

by

5]>

II

(,

...

Teacher

2
X,

3)
X r'

Teacher/

\jSKTM
Int.5ractior.

\
^
iC/-"*

Learner/
Learrter lnt\ver notion

X )

Learner

IX

Learners
Teach Themselves

W0^

Learner*
Learn by Sharing

typical 1 1
Tutorial Instruction

Typical T|
Didactic
Institution

Teacher's Goal: To help each learner to be come self-instructional and co-opletative in learning as quickly
as

possible in all skills*

Tileteachers clone themselveswith listening centers and other typesofwork centers whichhavesufficient support materials to be largelyself-instructional.
14

They undertake direct instruction in the most complex skills currently being developed. This instruction can be with the whole class if everyone is ready, orwith selected groups, while others are otherwiseengaged.
At the other extreme, those things which learners can learn by themselves are made their responsibility. In all cases, the topics being studied and the learningresources nedd not change from the
more traditional curriculum.

In effect, the teacher regards class members as a resource for the teacher and for each other. Marking, information procedure finding, planning and even presentation to the class can be off loaded from the teacher to the learners as they show themselves ca pable.
Teachers teach how to mark, to research, to plan and to present

as part of their instructional activities. Learners not only act as markers, they assess each other, plan and use assessment proce
dures and, ultimately, participate in the overall classroom activity design.

They develop interpersonal skills both as participants and as leaders. They develop tutorial and ultimately consultation skills in relation to their emergingabilities and special interests.

Summing Up
Thisoverall pattern was first presented inBreakthrough (Pow ell, 1987)and is best summarized as .shown in Figure 8.

This pattern with six hierarchical steps integrates all of the concepts presented here. It presents both the strengths and main weaknessof each approachwhen used in isolation.
15

Figure 8
A Modelfor Effective Teacher Directing and Assessing Learning
LEVEL

Learning Teaching Principle Approach

Subject

Testing
Approach
Total-Correot Scores

1 Tests
Measure

Main Weak

nessof Approach
Does not Identify Content Strength
and Weaknesses

Exposure
co Content

ll1-3
ni

Matter Awareness

General Content

Familiarity
Directed Practice in
Criterion Referenced Test Scores Concent

Subject
Matter

Does not Distin

Strengths
and Weak
nesses

guish between
Memomorized and Understoo< Content
Does not Observe Self- Initiated

Fluency

Prespecified Objectives
Exploring
Ideas in Novel

Subject
Matter

Multiplealternative or

Learner Under

if
1
V

Application

or Unfamiliar

standing
A Transfer

Learning

Settings Adaptive Implement

ation

Setting Testa
Learner De

Encouraging A Enabling
Personal

signed A Ex
ecuted Pro

Learer Self-initi ated

Dees not Observe

Interpersonal
Skills

Risk-taking
Collabor ative Action

jects
Group De signed A Ex
ecuted Pro

Learning Interper
sonal Skills

Sharing
Personal Resources &

Does not Observe

ti
y f vi
Facilitating
Others

Competence

jects
Socially Respon sibility

Social Respon sibility

Carrying out Complex Co Projects- with operative"Win-Win" Outcomes

Task Obser vation

*?????

1|

The principal weakness of the Facilitative step is not yet

known as I have not yet seen this level in action to any degree. It is probable that the ability to communicate what is happening witjin

thegroupswith non-participants outside the facilitator groups may be lacking. Without this latter step, the whole system may lack or lose public support It is critical that public support be sought and
maintained to assure that the changes proposed here achieve their fullimpact
16

Those who have worked with this approach in the past have metwithconsiderable learner gains, enthusiasm and support. Con vincing a skeptical public of its value when the teacher is not "up front" all the time has often been more problematic.

Teaching this way is both challenging and rewarding. It is an impossible undertakingwithout using the class members and fel
low teachers as a resource. That use is the first key.

The second one is effective progress tracking. As with the imag ing strategy, a thorough feedback systemis crucial. Beyond this, the teacher'sinterpersonaland political skills are fully employed build

inglearner confidence and professional and public acceptance of

the approach.

Fortunately the outcomes are well worth the effort involved In fact, they may well be essential for the learners as we move into the information society and knowledge workers continue to in crease indemand and remain in short supply.
Give each learner the keys to his or her own future and you will have done everythinggood teachers can do.

17

Selected Bibliography
ASCDStaff. (1989). Towardthethinking curriculum: Current cognitive research.Alexandria:VA. Association for Supervisionand Curriculum Development

Elgin, SuzetteHaden. (1989). Successwith thegentleartofverbal self-defence. EnglewoodCliffs: NJ. Prentice Hall.
Ferguson, Marilyn (withColeman, Win and Perrin. Pat). (1990). Pragntagic. NewYork: NY.Pocket Books/Simonand Sinister.
Hunt, David E. (1987). Beginning with ourselves: Inpractice,

theory andhuman affairs. Cambridge: MA. Brookltne

Books/OISE Press.

Powell, J. C.(1987). Quelling the invisible monsters: A com mentaryonclassroom testing procedures.Breakthrough. 5(3-4)
36-38.

vonOech, Roger. (19&6).A kickin theseat ofthepants. New York: NY.Perennial Library/Harper and Row.
. (1983).A whack on theside ofthehead.
New York: NY. Warner Books.

18

APPENDIX A

Descriptorsfor Scoring
PARTlrSKUXSPRACnCED BY LEARNERS

LISTENING The learners are required by die teacher to perform some explicit listening skill building ex
erases, such as answering questions from a taped or oral presentations, playing any of the \ arious listening games, reproducing visually concealed rhythms, etc. Simply telling the learners to listen
or providing pictorial or print sources from which they can obtain tlieir answers is not considered listening sltill development

OBSERVING

Thelearners are required to perform someexplicit Observation.il eXeicises suchasvisual dis

crimination; figure ground separation; visual sequencing practice; interpretation of pictures, dia
grams, chart;, or maps; or the identification of objects and/or concepts whether partial and compleBe from purely visual clues. Visual memory practice is to be scored under REMEMBER

INQ READING is alto stored separately. In physical education, dramatic plav, and creative
dance, activities which require children to explore theirenvironment visually or place dieir bodies by primarily visual clues can also be included, Gaines like "Simon Says" would be scored as LIS

TENING rather than obierving. Merely Using colorful visual aids dots not count hire alidiouglt
these can be counted in Part II.

SENSING

The learners are required by theteacher to perform some specific sensing exercises, whether
through motion, touch or monitoring internal states. Shadov;writing, blind tracing, and meditation

allqualify, while merely putting beads down does not, since (ha latter is a control procedure. Prac
ticing rhythms such as ball-throwing to music, creative danJe and trampoline activities also count while drills and games will be counted as MANIPULATING as art puzile solving, calligraphy, keyboartJUg and the like: as are manipulative block building, equipment set-up. Paperfolding and
the like are considered CONSTRUCTING.

REMEMBERING

The learners are required to perform some explicit memory enhancing exercises such as re
hearsal, rephrasing, or repetition. Recall must be explicitly checked before remembering cao be stored. Ideally, the inemoiy check is made with those learners least likely to remember. This statementmeans that the teacher must be recognizing and using the proficiency levels of the learn em. Memory enhancing can also be counoed, as can routine mathematical training at each child's developmental level. Simply enjoining pupils not to forget such and such or other implicit ap
proaches are not counted.

19

VALUE RECOGNIZING
The learners are explicitly induced to recognize the Value of an actor object as presented in classroom events or in narrative or expository Writing, or in musicor art appreciation. Identifying rhyming words, rhyme or rhythm patterns in poetry and thelikeare RECITING Discussions of the
outcomes of inappropriate behavior, when cast positively is also included but discussion Of Con

trasting values is TOLERATING Merely telling learners to behave or giving rewards Or punish
ments on an implicit basis do not count

RECITING
Thelearners ar* explicitly induced by the teacherto answer closed-ended questions, read jus

tifications from prose passages, or state fiom memory facts, vocabulary, poetry and the like are all
counted as RECITING. If justification location is not currently knownand must be found, this ac

tivity is INFORMATION FINDING, while quoting passages from familial! text is RECITING. Re
peating arithmetic facts, names of body p-arts and the like from memory or any other information wherein the expected source is lenrtier memory is also RECITING. This is tie most over-used
basic skill in education. It is includedso that those learner activities which require MORE than re
call will be counted appropriately,

COPYING
Thelearners arc explicitly induced by the teacher to reproduce someoutcome by imitation in whatever modality. Taking notesfrom th* board, filling blank* in a worksheetwhen the responses are supplied Inan attached list, and all other activities in which imitation is the principal compchertt
are all COPYING activities. If the learners need to generate the information for the Worksheetor

modify work-pieces forspecial purposes, SOLVING or CONSTRUCTING is counred instead. The production of work-pieces and the likewhich are skill building are counted as MANIPULATION. Copying occurs when the learners areexpected co liave all theknowledge/skills the;/ need BEFORE the production activity begins. This category is also over-used in teaching but is included to assure that those learner Activities in which khowledge/sltills are being generated by the learners as they produce the outcome will be countedappropriately.
EMPATHIZING
the learner!; are required to be explicitly supportive and understanding ol others through ac

tivities such as role playing; discussing behavior conduct; and assisting in the enforcement of these
sfandaids. The learner's behavior must be explicit and clearly under the overall instigation of the teacher in older to be counted. Normal friendship attachments, common courtesy, and actions re

quiring inordinate prompting are notto b* counted unless clearly a part of the developmental ad
vancement of these children in their Social and emotional skills.

VOCABULARY BUILDING
The learner) nre required to be explicitly engaged in vocabulary building activities at their developmental level. Such activities as reading in new topic areas forihe pupils; havingthem pre pare tlieir own "new word" lists; the exploration of alternative and figurative meanings from con
tent and structural analysis; and the utilization of new words in written production all counts in this

activity area; so do word games like scrabble; crossword puzzles; eto. Thesimpleuseof controlled

20

VISUAL DECODING
There are two asp-tcti of to be considered in this activity area. The first aspect is decoding which involves Specific developmental approaches to word attack skills. These activities must be specifically geared to the developmental proficiency of each pupil in orderto be counted. Grcle

"reading" Is Usually RECITING as it often lacks the development enhancement component The
second aspectinvolves decoding el othervisual material, Such as maps, photographs andso on..

Reading co find information is scored under INFORMATION FINDING and reading for
pleasure is ENJOYING.

Second, other forms of visual decoding, suchas map reading, photograph and pictureinter pretation, visual puzzle solving and the like may also be included here so long as the process in
volved is primarily visual rather than cognitive.

/"

MANIPULATING At the teacher's initiation, the learnersengags in the production of a Standard form artifact, n work-piece, <* any of the whole range of physical activity drills from calligraphy to game skill* in physical education, machine operation in the shop of non routine equipment setup or use in thelab

oratory are all MANIPULATING activities. Science "experiments" are often manipulation activi
tiesaswell. Learner initiative or creativity is necessary to scorea higher activity.

RELATING The learners are explicitly engaged, at the teacher's initiation, in Die identification of rela

tionships among facts in either symbolic or demonstrated materials. Similar to manipulating, RE

LATlNG uses work pieces of all sorts to obtain Symbolic constructs from learners, such as routine

algebraic transformations, as distinct from physical activity, i.e. RELATING has a verbal rather
than non-verbal focus.

TOLERATING The learners art explicitly engaged, at the teacher's initiation, in activities designed to in crease their toletfcnce to inter-personal or intercultural differences Such activities as values-clarifi cation, intrcultural studies, or comparative religions, regional histories and the like all qualify as
TOLERATING as long as no single viewpoint is promulgated.

SOLVING The learners arerequired to beexplicitly engaged inarithmetical reasoning orlogical reason ing in subject: areas other than arithmetic. Skilldevelopment should be practiced in an application context Arithmetic and mathematics lessons- involving drill and practiceare RELATING, Unless
these arise incidentally from another context, or unless cleat? evidence of differential programming is in progress so that learneris acquiringnew skills at his or her own level.

21

CONSTRUCTING The learners are required toproduce some visible product insome explicit; way forthis activ ity a> be scored. These pro-ducts can range all the way from a building block house to an analogue computer and will include letteri-hapes when thechildis firstlearning calligraphy. Drawing or mu sical compositions, thatarebasically work pieces when tool skills are being developed are MANIP
ULATING; as are setting up appropriate apparauu for experiments in the physical sciences,. Routine penmanship exercises, coloring book activities or model building from precast parti are COPYING. Learners must include a component from tiieir owh pec;on*lity for CONSTRDOT1NG
to b* counted.

COLLABORATING
The learners are explicitly required to work togetlieron some project so engineered that it is necessary for them to share skill* rather than v/ork independently. These activities <>an be estab lished because of a shortage of equipment, or surfeit of information, the complexity of the task, or

the need to develop interpersonal skills or to obtain consensus. Grouping for instruction to accom modate different performance levels is scored in Part 11.

ORGANIZING
The lflamew are explicitly involved in add miry be, singly or collectively, structuring data into more thin two categories or relationships for the purpose of developing in explanation, report

etc. ORGANIZING is art activity conducted AFTER the data have been collected. If the activity is BEFORE data or procedure finding, tcore PLANNING instead. Do not score both COLLABO
RATING and ORGANIZING for the same group activity session unless the group meeting i suffi ciently long that it clearly has more than one puipose.

PLANNING
The learners are expected, alone or in concertwith others, to producen workable plan for an attemptto solve a Symbolic or a practical problem. The plan may be made in response to an assign mentby the teacher, or may arise upon tiieir own initiative. It is important that: this activity occur

BEFORE the activity of INFORMATION/?ROaSDURE FINDING If afterward score ORGAN

IZING instead. The rrter* following of a plan already developed by other* doe* not count as being

representative to this activity. The planning required to construct an artifact, invention, or prepara tion topresent a performance are bo be scored as DESIGNING.

DESIGNING

Thelearners are explicitly expected, either individually or in groups, to developa plan, de sign or procedure for the production of an artifact, invention or the preparation to pretent a per formance an all regarded as DESIGNING. Exploration of the design capabilities of computers is also included. Activities related to symbolic problems are scored as PLANNING instead As with ORGANIZING, DESIGNING occurs BEFORE the aotual construction of performance, while the

activity of producing a unique artifact is INVENTING and thatof presentation is PERFORMING.

22

INFORMATION/PROCEDURE FINDING
Thelearners are explicitly expected eitherindividually or in groups, to search for data, mate rials, or procedures to massage data after a plan or design has been developed This intermediate

step may be initiated by the teacher or tht barter* may be encouraged by the teacher ix> initiate their own searches. Practicing "research fkills'fjrom a teacher-prepared assignment Is Scored as SOLVING, while fillirtg blanks from teacher supplied resouices is COPING orREMEMBERING
depending uponwhetheror riot personal presentItnowltdge is used^.

VALUE ADOPTING The leam*rs are expected explicitly, eitherindividually or in groups, to develop socially re sponsible rules for group, oral or written presentations, and Interpersonal relationships. Values clarifying activities are to be scored as TOLERATING, while value* exploring/developing activi
ties are scored here. A distinction is tx> be made between espousal of a value (ADOFT1NCI) and be

having consistently with thatvalue (APPLYING^

EXPLAINING On* learner is explicitly required to explain an idea, describe an activity or des-cribe and/or

explain a process to one or more other pupils or to the teacher, either orally or in writing. Ine ex
planation must be new to the recipient andhave been uniquely formulated by the presenting pupil. The listener in turnmustbeable to reproduce to a reasonable level theexplanation given. Thesim

ple repetition ofexplanations already developed by the teacher or anyone els* constitutes RECIT
ING

ENJOYING
The learners aw explicitly encouraged to develop socially responsible enjoyment from both

individual and group activities. Appreciation of literature, drama, music, art, arid so on, whether the product comes from thelearners themselves or from others isinvolved.
ASSERTING To be asserting, a learnermustexplicitly challenge the point01 view of another, or present a

cliallengeable point ofview to others, insuch a manner that the issue is examined without recourse
to personalities Or undue emotionalism. This activity is distinct from explaining in that more than

one point ofview can beentertained when ASSERTING occurs. Insults, tantrums, and physical ag gression arnotc6midcred tobeASSERTING forthe purposes ofthis evaluative procedure.
REPORTING The learners art explicitly required, either individually or in group, to give either an ex tended Verbal or writtenpresentation as an outcome of a planning-finding-organiainj; sequence (i.e. from an investigation). Simply filling in blanks from teacher provided resources is COPYING. In
termediate between COPYING and REPORTING is EXPLAINING, It is expected that develop-

mentally appropriate care hasbeen taken in th*production of the report.

DISCOVERING
To be DlSODVERlNG, the learners must be explicitly involved m activities in which, ifldi-

viduilly orin groups, they are self-developing an understanding ofconcepts orrelationship NF3W
to themselves. Discovering can involve formulating and testing hypotheses and is essentially sym-

boli* in nature. Merely observing how a process works from life, film, c* slmulatiott prior to the
teacher's So-Static extraction of an explanation is scored as SOLVING instead The critical diifer-

ehce is thatin DISCOVERING die learners are developing and testing theirOWN meaning* rather
than having these supplied or regulated by the teacher.

INVENTING

To be INVENTING, tht learners are explicitly expected, either individually orin groups, to produce some form c^f artifact which has a creative component This artifact could be a device, a
story, a picture, a murical composition., or whatever and must also contain some feature or features novel to their producers. Simply building a model or the like from a kit is CONSTRUCTING. Pre

senting a dramatic recitation of a poem, monologue, or play, orof a musical composition produced
by someone other than the learners themselves Li PERFORMING

OUTCOME MONITORING The learners areexplicitly engaged eitherindividually of in group, in theactivity of evaluat ing outcome* a* these occuror upon or alter completion. In this activity process monitoring is in
volved, while elf-monitoring and critiquing are considered to be VALUE APPLYING This

activity and the next onear* tlte principal FEEDBACK components of learning. This monitoring is
expected to be teaiher facilitated and learner initiated. Teacher monitoring is not counted in Part 1

unless some instructional value isevident, in which case VALUE RECOGNIZING ismost likely.
VALUE APPLYING The learners are explicitly engaged, either individually or in group, in activities which in
volves applying a socially responfible value system to artifacts, to thtmselves, or to each other The critical issue is behavior rather than espousal for VALUE APPLYING.

ENCOURAGING The learners are explicitly engaged, either individually or in group, in activities which en courage others to increa*e the qualify of theiractivities, to achieve competence in all areas of per formance including discovery, inventing, outcome monitoring, Value applying, and interpersonal skills including encouraging and consulting. Both networking and mutual support system creation
are partof this activity.

PERFORMING The learners are explicitly engaged, eitherindividually or in group, in activities which re quire them to present some type of performance *uch as dramatic reading, acting, concert work, workshop conducting and thelike. It is notnecessary for tht performing lcarrter/s) to be presenting something original to themselves. It is necessary that the performance be developmental progres
sive towardprofessional level* of competence.

CONSULTING

The learners are explicitly engaged, either individually Or in group in sharing theirparticu
lar competencies with others either directly or in a tutorial role. Such requests Will bt initiated by teachers in the early stages of this skill but will later Come from peer requests or learner self- mar
keting. Asking questions about what the teacher ju*t said do not count Permissible social ex changesare scored as EMPATHIZING.

24

APPENDIX B
DESCRIPTORSFORSCORING PARTH: ACTtVTTYMANAGING SKILLS

Teacher's talk is the most common basis for instruction cur

rently observed inschools. The supporting drill-and-practice activi ties are often routine and very similar from lesson-to-lesson, subjecl-to-subject and day-to-day. If we accept the premise that learners develop the sldlls they practice, the approach to teaching

just describedisobviously substantially insufficientse. The ability

of a teacher to utilize a wide variety of learning activities becomes paramount This section addresses the issue of transferring respon sibility foractivitydevelopment from the teacher to the learners.
A TEACHERCEmEnEDACriVTTYMANAGlNGSKILLS

A.1. Prepares and Select Effective Instructive Materials.

42: Th materials selected or constructed by the teacher areof good quality. Overhead trans
parencies are easily readubl* from the rear of the room. (Thii requirement means no

more than 50horizontal characters perline of print and nomore than 30lines pertrans
parency), Diagrams are clean, and unclutoered, professional quality, if possible. Printma terials are Ideal. Photo copies of handout materials are preferred to wax bansfer or
ppsssured ink systems. "Camera rady"qualib/ is trie rule. Chalkboards are used as n

scotch pad, butWodc on them are neatly organized and presented using a good mixture fof both visual and Verbal linkage*. The day's work assignments are on each student's
de<k upon their arrival.

Hi!

Blackboard Work is neat, well organized and readable. Worksheets are clean and easV to read, with Uncluttered diagrams. A good variety of materials has been developed or se lected for praebe-* activities. Distribution is smooth and prompt.

A.2. Uses Instructional Materials Adaptively.

42: Whatever the original intent of the instructional materials employed, their educational in
tent i* cleat add is maintained throughout the lesotL The teacher commonly uses only appropriate portions of media presentations and modifies these with appropriate inter
ruptions, voice over. etft. to keep learner attention on the educational issues it hand seat-

work is on taslt, either constructed On judiciously {elected.

25

H j Teacher uses a goodvariety of materials from several sources, Practics activities aregen erally rtleVaflt to the lesson's objectives.

A3. Anticipates Classroom Outcome in Planning.

-Ht The teacher knows where the learners ate likely Id have difficulties and clearly uses this

irifoitnation in the presentation of the lesson. If Unexpected issues arise, the teacher promptly makes a notation for tin; lesson file for future reference. All equipment has
been assembled and checked for its operatingcondition, films loaded and run to the start point, and the like.

-Ht

The teacher has all equipment, displays, etc. in order and conveniently placed for easy
use. The lesson shows effort to identify the majorproblems the learners might encoun
ter The teacher has worked through all aeatwork and assignment activities.

A4. Paces and Instructions Flow Effectively.

42t C>ep*ndinij upon the attention span of the learnem involved and the intensity of attentioh required, the teacher orchestrates the pice and typt of activity in a learner-aipptopriace
cyclic fashion.

-Ht

Lessons ate crispand move smoothly v/ithout teacher created interruptions or unneces
sary delays.

B. LEARmRCENrEREDACTimYAtANAGINGSKILJLS

B.l. Keeps Records Systematically.

-ttt The teacher makes notes on dieprogres* of and problems in eachlesson. He or she keeps
a record of each learner's particular difficulties, work speed and voluntary selection of

time filling activities, books read, etc Each studenthai a file containing a thorouigli pro file of progress and problems, 'the most elaborate systems use a spread-sheet or equiva
lent to maintain a runningrecord of each learner's progress.

-Ht

Marlts areUp to date. Effort Is made 10 determine and the basis of learnerproblems.

B.2. Learners Define Problems Themselves. -f2t Ample opportunity andteacher guidancs is provided so that thelearners caudefinesome of die problems to solve themselves. Such definition is done on a person-by -person
basis. If rh*developmentof a problemsolutionis conductedas a group interactiv e activ ity, score C2.

-Hi

Teacher guides learners Uirougb the appropriate steps todevelop theirown approaches to the problem they ate given. This teacher skill is a precursor to die one describes! as +2. In both, the teacher it attempting to transferthe problem definition activity from him or
her to each learner.

26

B.3. Learners Collect the Data.

+2: From the available resource*., including computet' assisted file starching, the teacher in sists thai: the learner* eich find dieir own datawhich has bearing to the problem at hand. Such activities a? the voluntary uie of a dictionary, encyclopedia, or thesaurus while wilting are involved here. Major reference sources are at hand, and free learner move ment to these sources is permitted The learner's behavior (how that they are familiar with the us* of such res-oufces, using the freedom of Access in a responsible manner. The teacher either is providing directed practice in the effective us* of reference re sourcesand other data collection procedures (including the use of a random number gen

H.!

eratoron a computer) or is encouraging the uie of these resource). It repeated teacher intervention into the activity partem described above is required for Smooth operation,
score +1 rather than +Z

B.4. Learners Design the Solution Approach.

+2: Ample eppSitunity and teacher guidanceis provided for the learners to design their own

approaches to Solving the problem it hand. These opportunities may involve thelearners inventing alternative approaches (including computer simulation approaches) or march ingfor suchalternatives within available resources. Thi* activity should be conducted on a learnera-by-learher basis, II a group approach is being us-td woreCZ.
-tt: Eitherthe learners are being encouraged to createmore thanoneWay to solve a problem, or they are being taught how to find alternative methods of solution from the resources

available (including statistical and other numerical analysis method* with a computer).

G GROUPCENTEREDACTIVITYMANAGING SKILLS
CI. Learners Evaluate Their Own Performance,
-KJ: Standards of conduct and performance are planned arid agreed upon by the group in volved in the task. Evaluation is conducted in a responsible manner by each learner in conformity to these standards-. Groupsessions also are used te. evaluategroup procedure:! and to use the creativity of the group to help individuals who are concerned about not
meeting these Standards.

-tt:

Marking is shared and checked by peers ai well as individual telf-scoriag. Teacher re mains final arbiter and is providing developmental experiences in the production of con

duct and performance standards. Adequate jtroup time is spent in values clarification.

C2. Learners Set Outcome Objective.

VI: The expected outcomes of task Completion are collectively established by the learners in the planning stage of task commencement Conductand performance Standards are con sistent with these outcome expectations. Such expectations are also consistentwith the

capabilities of group members, or provision is made in the plan to upgrade participant

skills or enlist skills from outsiders for specified special purposes.

27

TASK ORIENTING SKILLS

Control for learning activity are three major considerations..

These are:

1.

The selection and implementation of tile activity. This aspectwas dealt within the Activity Managingsection above.

2.

The ways in which the learners are encouraged to remain connected into the activity in hand for adequate time. This is the current section
topic.

3.

The benefits derived from the "time on task" by the learners for hav ingengaged in the activities. Thiswill be the topic of the next section.

Itis presumed that each activity provides both generalized and

highly context specific benefits. As long as the general quality of learningis maintained, activitiescanbe selected quite legitimately on thebasisof theirunique learning benefits. Moving frompassive to active learner roles in the classroomrequires getting learners to inaintain participation asteachers changetheir roles from managers
to facilitators. This transition can be achieved if the activities are

interesting, meet recognized needs, or challenge the learners. Learner enjoyment is an important but not the only component of attention gaining and holding.
D. TEACIIERCENTEREDIASKORIENTING SKILLS
D.l. Maintains Learners' Focus on Task.
Ht The teacher products so much interest in the activities planned that attention it held with enthusiasm. Interruptions are discouraged by peers without teacher prompting. Point of focus aridreasons for that focus point are clearly identified. Activities- always end before
leamen have lost interest

-Hi Call-backs of attention are infrequent occur promptly when attention wanders, are deliv ered positively and constructively by die teacher and are accepted graciously by the
leamer(s)

D.2. Arouses and Maintains Learner Interest.

S-J lie* multimedia approach with skillful use of color, humor, variety, pace changes and

other attention getting and holding devices. When learners an* exploring, there is evi
denceof skillfularrangement of the teveral learning environments involved and thatstu-

28

dents are challenged and intellectually andsocially enhance<l by the activities in which they are engaging. fiU Multimedia approaches are used to introduce lesson. Some effortis evidentof the teach ers attempt! to differentiate learning environments so as to deal with tht differing per
formance levels and needs or incereut of the learners.

D.3. Encourages Learners Identification with Task.

42: Learneri have identified their personal learning needs to a point where thy recognize that the educational activities help them to meet these ne-sds. Motivation for remaining

engaged in th* bisk is, therefore, intrinsic to the learners. Tasks are meaningful rather than trivial and contain major aspects at the frontier of each leather's present knowledge/skill repertoire.
41: Tasks are intrinsically motivating and have a good balance between new and review of
content/procedures.

E. LEARNER CENTERED TASKORIENTING SKILLS

E.l. Sets Clear Activity Objectives.

42: Learners fully understand and are abl<< to explain Upon request the objectives of each ac

tivity. They recognize wherein and why the Objectives for tome learners are different
than from those for others. These objectives may b stated explicitly by the teacher or

developed by learners Or jointly produced. Both short and long-term objectives are set, and involvedivergentlevels in addition to knowledge of particularContent or procedural skills. There are severalexplicitobjectives lor each activity.
+1: All objectives are explicitly stated by the teacher and focus upon the principal learning
outcomes intended for the activities involved.

E.2. Sets Clear Performance Quality Objectives.

+2: The teacher sets, often in collaboration with the learners, explicit quality objectives. These objectives are constructed so that each learner is competing with his/herown past

performance rather than engaging in interindividual competition, except with clearly identifiable peers. The standards implied by theseobjectives are appropriate in that they
are attainable, with effort, by th* Uaniers involved. They are also sequential/hierarchical

in thatthey reflect theknc-Wn developmental sequence of the competencies involved.

+1: The teacher maintains a consistent pressure to have students' performance improvewith
each subsequent attempt

E.3. Fades Support for Learner's Activities Appropriately.

+2: Teachers can explain to the observer the level and nature Of structural support provided
to each learner and indicate, both verbally and from each learner's perfoimanc* records,
29

the nature and pace ol structure fading being employed. It should be clearthatthis pace of fading i* learner appropriate for adequate challenge within his/her stress tolerance.

41!

Teacher regularly uses open ended activities to encourage creativity and self-reliance
among learners.

E.4. Recognizes and Uses learners' Points of View.

42; The issue hereis the relevance of the learning tasks to each learnerfrom his/her p-iintot-view, Task relevancy is both circumstantial and situational. It depends both upon the major current; life events and the emergent psy*ho-socia) competence of each learner.
The best teachers discover and use these data in theit curriculum planning.

41!

The teacher gathers and responds to feedback from Hie learners in his/her charge is is
situatiohally appropriate.

E GROUP CENTERED TASKORIENTING SKILLS

F.l. Provides for Continuity In Learning.

42t The teacher encourages the leatneii to connect present learning activities with pa*t

achievements or understandings and with future objectives. The learner* themselves nraat state these linkages explicitly for 42 to be scored The observer may enquire of thelearners concerning the presence of this teaching skill.
41! Tho teachermakes regularreference to the continuity among objectives as theseare ex
emplified in the learning activities.

F.2. Provides for Transferability of Learning Skills.

42t The teacher cnoouiages the learners to Interrelate continually across content topics and disciplines. Learner understanding is assessed by theway they apply familiar constructs in unfamiliar settings. Real life or life-like situations are the basis of learnertask selec
tion and group planningactivities. 411 The teacher uses skills and content in a interdisciplinary manner when planning or select ing Itarner activities.

F.3. Uses Open-Ended Activities Effectively.

42! The teacher encourages learners to remain open in the planning and execution of tusks.

HlsA^er suggestions involve considering alternatives designed to provide new perspec

tives on the problems under study. Theteacher supports their attempts to deal with cul
turally difficult problems using socially acceptablemeans.

411

The teacher selects or encourages learners to select and to deal with learning tasks in a
open-ended manlier.

30

rives on thhe problems under study. The teacher supports Iheirattempts to dealwith cul turally difficultproblems usingsocially acceptable means.
H: Tlie teacherselects Or sncoufages learners to select iind to deal with learning task* in an
open-ended manner.

PERFORMANCE ENABLING SKILLS

It is often said that when a patient has a brain tumor, he does not want a physicianwho got "E" for "Effort" in neuro-surgery to
do theoperation. Also, it is generally assumed that each learner has a unique set of talents, which,when developed to the point of com petent delivery, serve to provide him or her with a basis for ser

vices to share with others. Educational programs which stress

minimal performance standards as a basis for accreditation tend to

underdevelop learner competence. Similarly programswhich en gage all learners in nearly equivalent routine activities tend to short-circuit theemergence of unique capabilities.
Teachercentered approaches to education, therefore, often do

little to advance the pursuit of excellence or to develop exchange

able skills for mutual enhancement and social advancement The

teacher who wishes to go beyond information and skills transmis sion in education needs to know how to facilitate competence at boththeindividual learner and at the group (interactive) level.This present section of Part II is designed to examine the teachers skill in thisvitalperformance enhancing area.
G. TEACHER CENTERED

Gl. Distribute Questions Broadly and Appropriately.

M: The teacher attempt! to ensure thateveryon* in the group gets at least One opportunity to respond per round of interactive exchange. The lead* and priben used are varied in an

ticipation of learner problem* and competencies derived from art intimate knowledge of
eaih learner's previous answering patterns.

31

-Ht

Tile teacher stimulates interaction by encouraging the less compstent tx> participate as fully and as often as possible.

G2 . Recognizes and Uses the Teachable Moment

Ht The teacher is responsive, receptive and flexible, searching for the Why behind unex pected answers andremaining Constantly aware of needs of both individual learners and theentire group. Negative responses to Unusual perspectives are discourag<*d

-Ht The teacheris generally receptive and flexible., trying alternative approaches when learn
ers don t understand.

// LEARNER CENTEREDPERFORMANCE
ENABLING SKILLS.

H.l. Ranges questions Across the Cognitive Hierarchy.

-tit Themix of leads, probes, andotherinteraction inducing comments made by the teacher favors application and thinking level responses designed to encourage excellence and

slreteh learner capabilities. Both synthetic and analytic responses are sought The use of elaborate answers with supporting evidence it encouraged and appropriate "think time*
is allowed.

-Ht

The teacher ask* a variety of questions which are appropriate to the performance levels

of the learners. Rephrases questions which are not answered appropriately. Encourages
participation duringgroup activities.

H.2. Asks an Appropriate Mix of Questions.

-Ht The teichersets tasks which provide for an appropriate variety of refponse type* to eh-

able the learners to practice the objectives of the lesson. These tasks or interaction in ducing actions ale distributed to leasmers according to their presentskills and learning
rates.

-Ht

The teacherdistributes questious broadly and appropriately. Learners spend a reasonable portion of theirwork time at the frontiers of theircapabilities-,

H.3. Sequence Questions Effectively.

-His The teacher uses a variety of questioning strategies to provide an effective sequence for working through die concepts/procedures being studied. Tasks are decomposed into
"chunks" is appropriate to the information management capabilities of the learner*. Learners are induced to generate their own Conclusions, generalizations or procedural
rules,

-Ht

The teacher decomposes the concepts/procedure* under study into explicit parts by the questions asked. He or she endeavor* to obtain explanations, rules, eto. from the learners rather than giving these to them.

3n

H.4. Provides Appropriate Emotional Support

+2: Commentary on performance or outcomes from either the teacher or tiie leailtei's i< pssifive, encouraging, and constructive. Learners express their self-evaluation in construc tive terms. Bcchang* n-stworics and mutual support systemsare explicitly encouraged ,
The teachet.'shows hinyherself to be caring and encourages learners to behave likewise.

41:

I.Group CenteredPerformance Enabling Skills

LI. Encourages Social Responsibility Among Learners.
+2: The primary thrust of th* mutual support system is the "protecting othert front us" appr>ach fc> socially responsible behavior. Leanurs are encouraged te developthair talenfci to a highlevel ofcompetence andto exchange Services with each othei'.
41: The teacher encourages the learners to feat each other with consideration and courtesy.

1.2. Encourages Effective Interpersonal/Intergroup Behavior.

+2: The learners display positive mutual regard toward each other and as 3 group coward

other groups of u/hatever culture. They relate to each otherfacilitativety rather than ma nipulative!)', and assertively rather than with either passive acquiescence Or with abusive self-protection or defiance, They seekconciliation when problems arise ratherthan dom ination or capitulation. Theirthrust is to mm all conflicts toward "win win" resolutions.
41: The teacher encourages the learners to respond to tacit other withoutdisparaging per
sonal or cultural diflerenc-ts.

1.3. Encourages Individual Creativity.

+2: The teacher establir.hej an atmosphere which encourages risk taking, creative solutioai to problems, acknowledgement of lack of knowledge or Skill, and the responsible accep tance of personal error. The leamsrs show considerable personal initiative plus a high
level of <elf-monitoring and outeorne monitoring.

41: The teacher provides open-ended task* requiring personal creativity forJorttpletion.

1.4. Encourages Mutual Creativity.

42: The teacher is developing aming the karnett a level Of Understanding of group dynamics which enables the free flow and "piggy-backing" of ideas during brain storming" and
other mutual task-force session*. Both the encouragement and the management of cre

ativity within the groupare encouraged so thatwell balanced Outcomes are the nil*.

44:

The teacher encourages learners to shareideas ona withanotherandto recognire and ac

knowledge a creative outcome.

33

34

APPENDIX C Strategies Strategies are actions taken with single elements or small groupof elements in a data set.
1. Simplifying drop reasonable elements from
the database to reduce amount

ofdata to consider.

2.

Generalizing

add reasonable elements to the

data base to fill missing

spaces.

3.

Comparing

combine into a subset elements

in a data set with a high degree of similarity to some predefined target.

4. Contrasting

distinguish amongmembers or subsets of a data set by separa ting them by their

differences.

5.

Inverting

reversing a relationship or orderobserved among the

transformeddata.

6.

Substituting

replace elements in a data set by other elements which may appear different, but in some wayare either equivalent or
a reasonable alternative.

These strategies can be used repeatedly or applied in any or dered sequence. The plan for the application becomes a program. We need a number of meta-strategies for the preparation of these programs. Hence, we need a program generator which, itself con
tains strategies.

A description of the properties of this program generator is given in the next list.
35

Prop-ams
1, Framing
a. Create a window on the data set with

eithersharpotrfuay edges.

b. Selectively exposeparts of the data

set through thewindow,

c. Expand or contract thewindow.

d. Move the window.

e. Change the shape of thewindow.

2. Linking

Look for patternswhich seem to imply associationor dissociation amongelements in the exposeddata .sets, eitherwithin

thewindow, betweenpairsofwindow or
among chains of window pairs.
3. Extrapolating
Choosea subset of the data which seems to

be exhibiting a mind and projectthattend.

4. Translating

Usetheconclusions generated for one dataset to interpret a set of apparently

similar data.

5.

Ordering

Arrangeelementswithin a linked part

orsetinsome form of order, either serial orl.axonomically.

6.

Structuring

Assignreasonable cross-reference links betweencomponents among ordered sets

ofelements.

7.

Imaging

Definean "ideal''state and plan a set of strategies Whichleads progressively toward

thatstate.

8.

Looping

Repeatedly applystrategies or ordered se quencesof strategies within the selected frameor an ordered sequence of frames
within the data set, with some form of mod

ification ofthedata setbetween eachap

plication.
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9.

Evaluating

a. compare predictions of outcome

with actual outcomes, and determine

proportion of agreement

b. Assess the degree to which proportions of observed data elements are explained bythe derived structure. c Assess the degree to which the semantic interpretation of the derived structure
"makes sense'" in the context from which
it was derived.

10.

Simulating

Run "games" inwhich certain aspects of the

structure are excluded, modified or replaced
to determine the outcomes when these vari
ations are introduced.

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