This article was downloaded by: [informa internal users] On: 26 March 2009 Access details: Access Details:

[subscription number 755239602] Publisher Taylor & Francis Informa Ltd Registered in England and Wales Registered Number: 1072954 Registered office: Mortimer House, 37-41 Mortimer Street, London W1T 3JH, UK

Energy Sources, Part A: Recovery, Utilization, and Environmental Effects

Publication details, including instructions for authors and subscription information: http://www.informaworld.com/smpp/title~content=t713770930

Review of Hydrocarbon Prospectivity in the Ionian Basin, Western Greece

A. Mavromatidis a a Petroleum Development Oman LLC, Muscat, Sultanate of Oman Online Publication Date: 01 January 2009

To cite this Article Mavromatidis, A.(2009)'Review of Hydrocarbon Prospectivity in the Ionian Basin, Western Greece',Energy Sources,

Part A: Recovery, Utilization, and Environmental Effects,31:7,619 632

To link to this Article: DOI: 10.1080/15567030701746943 URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/15567030701746943

PLEASE SCROLL DOWN FOR ARTICLE

Full terms and conditions of use: http://www.informaworld.com/terms-and-conditions-of-access.pdf This article may be used for research, teaching and private study purposes. Any substantial or systematic reproduction, re-distribution, re-selling, loan or sub-licensing, systematic supply or distribution in any form to anyone is expressly forbidden. The publisher does not give any warranty express or implied or make any representation that the contents will be complete or accurate or up to date. The accuracy of any instructions, formulae and drug doses should be independently verified with primary sources. The publisher shall not be liable for any loss, actions, claims, proceedings, demand or costs or damages whatsoever or howsoever caused arising directly or indirectly in connection with or arising out of the use of this material.

Energy Sources, Part A, 31:619632, 2009 Copyright Taylor & Francis Group, LLC ISSN: 1556-7036 print/1556-7230 online DOI: 10.1080/15567030701746943

Review of Hydrocarbon Prospectivity in the Ionian Basin, Western Greece

A. MAVROMATIDIS1
1

Petroleum Development Oman LLC, Muscat, Sultanate of Oman

Abstract Ionian Zone in western Greece is a possible hydrocarbon producing area. Oil seeps are abundant in the area and the zone is a continuation of the Albanide tectonic zones with active oil elds. The Ionian Zone is composed of Triassic evaporites and carbonates that are overlain by Jurassic-Cretaceous carbonates and Cretaceous-Tertiary clastics. The units under the evaporites are believed to host the most attractive plays in the area. However, these units have never been reached. This article summarizes the lithological description of units that come from areas around the Ionian Zone and some geophysical evidence in an attempt to unravel this unknown lithology. Tectonic movements in Miocene to Pliocene times have a serious effect on this lithology and the role of the evaporites in the tectonics is highly underlined. Maturity modeling shows that the units under the evaporites produce hydrocarbons and hence comprehensive studies aiming to target these plays are more than essential. Keywords carbonates, clastics, evaporates, maturity, prospectivity, tectonics

Downloaded By: [informa internal users] At: 16:31 26 March 2009

Introduction
The Ionian Zone has a long history of exploration and hosts numerous oil seeps on its surface including the Katakolon oil-gas eld (Figure 1). The oldest sediments recognized are Triassic evaporites. However, the evaporites have never been fully penetrated and the stratigraphy under the evaporites is unknown. Understanding the role of the evaporites in tectonics is important because they control the structural style and can produce hydrocarbon seals above folded possible reservoirs. Traps below allochthonous evaporites are particularly attractive because they are deeply buried so that a good quality of hydrocarbons is preserved. Success is dependent on an understanding of the geological development and the factors controlling thrusting. In this article it is attempted to summarize and discuss evidence from previous exploration activities in published and unpublished literature and the results of a maturity study in the Ionian Zone. The scope of this article, using the available data, is to instigate further exploration activity in the area and emphasize that western Greece merits attention from the petroleum industry.

Regional Geological and Tectonic Framework

Geology of the Ionian Zone The Ionian Basin is located within the western parts of the Hellenide fold and thrust belt, which was developed during the collision and continued convergence of the African and
Address correspondence to Dr. Angelos Mavromatidis, Petroleum Development Oman LLC, P.O. Box 81, Postal Code 113, Muscat, Sultanate of Oman. E-mail: angelos97@hotmail.com

619

620

A. Mavromatidis

Downloaded By: [informa internal users] At: 16:31 26 March 2009

Figure 1. Study area and countries where stratigraphic evidence under the evaporites has been reported.

Eurasian Plates from the Mesozoic. Deformation associated with this convergence was expressed as a progressive westward migrating deformation front, which compressed (telescoped) the previous predominantly extensional basin and platform morphology (IGRS-IFP, 1966; Clement et al., 2000). These basin and platform zones can still be identied today as isopic zones, which occur as zones parallel to the deformation. The Ionian Zone is bounded on the pre-Apulian (or Paxos) Zone on the west and on the Gavrovo Zone on its left (Figure 2). In Early Miocene times major compressional events affected the previous stratigraphy and structure style due to the westward merging of the Ionian Zone (Kamberis et al., 1996). In the Pliocene and Quaternary, continued regional compression resulted in uplift of the Ionian Zone (Kamberis et al., 1996; Zelilidis et al., 2003). The Ionian Zone has three principle lithological components: the Triassic evaporites and carbonates, the Jurassic-Cretaceous carbonates with shaly units, and Tertiary clastics (mainly ysch and molasses) and carbonates (mainly limestones) (Figure 3). Ionian Zones detailed description is reported in Rigakis and Karakitsios (1998). During the rifting stage (Jurassic to Cretaceous) the Ionian space was divided into blocks of horsts and grabens by extension normal and strike-slip faults. This reects the change in thickness of the depositional strata. Sediment thicknesses vary depending on palaeotopography, local erosional events, and local tectonic framework, e.g., thick sections in synclines and footwalls and thin sections in anticlines and hanging walls. Representative thickness derived from drilled sections and outcrops are averaged in Figure 2. Detailed examination of numerous wells that penetrated the Ionian Zone show that Mesozoic thickness varies from 1.2 to 3.8 km in north, between 1.1 km and 3.5 km in central, and from 1.5 to 3.9 km in south Ionian Zone. However, data from seismic sections (mainly from north and central Ionian Zone) show that thickness may be up to

Hydrocarbon Prospectivity in Ionian Basin

621

Downloaded By: [informa internal users] At: 16:31 26 March 2009

Figure 2. Simplied surface geology of western Greece (severe modication after IGME, 1983). Chronostratigraphic summary of different areas in Ionian Zone and pre-Apulian is also shown. Summary was derived from well reports, outcrop sections, and seismic data. Major wells and surface oil seeps are also shown (Ait-1 D Aitolikon-1, As-1 D Astakos-1, De-1 D Demetra-1, Fl-1 D Filiates-1, Ga-1 D Gastouni-1, Ka-1 D Katakolon-1, Ke-1 D Kelevi-1, Lky-101 D Loutra Kyllinis-101, Pa-2 D Parga-2, Px-1 D Paxi-1, So-1 D Sosti-1, SK-1 D South Katakolon-1, WK-1 D West Katakolon-1).

622

A. Mavromatidis

Downloaded By: [informa internal users] At: 16:31 26 March 2009

Figure 3. Stratigraphic column of north Ionian Zone. (Modied after Karakitsios, 1995.)

8 km (Mavromatidis, 2004) (Figure 4). A similar maximum value of 10 km has been reported in Albania (Velaj, 2001). Little is known about the pre-Mesozoic evolution of western Greece owing to the fact that pre-Mesozoic rocks are neither exposed at the surface, nor penetrated by boreholes. The oldest known lithology is the Triassic evaporites (Figure 2), which are heavily tectonized and dominated by anhydrite, gypsum, and halite in some wells (e.g., Astakos-1). The precise age is unknown but they have been assigned a pre-Ladinian age (Karakitsios, 1995). The thickness of the evaporites, the lithology underneath them, and the tectonic movements in western Greece are crucial to hydrocarbon exploration in the area; the following sections address these essential parameters. Lithology under the Evaporites Several wells have penetrated the evaporites in western Greece but did not drill through it. The wells Zakynthos-1 (TD 3,677 m), Sosti-1 (TD 3,952 m), the neighboring Kelevi-1 (TD 1,844 m), Paxi-1 (TD 3,753 m), reached the more-than-800-m-thick Triassic evaporite sequence; while the wells Aitolikon-1 (TD 4,575 m), Astakos-1 (TD 3,324 m), Filiates-1 (TD 3,700 m), and Demetra-1 (TD 3,900 m) have penetrated more than 1,000 m

Hydrocarbon Prospectivity in Ionian Basin

623

Downloaded By: [informa internal users] At: 16:31 26 March 2009

Figure 4. Geosections through onshore western Greece. Interpretation was based on seismic lines, well data, and surface geology. The location of geosections are shown in Figure 2.

thickness of Triassic evaporites. However, seismic sections in the onshore Ionian Zone imply a minimum thickness of 2,000 m (Mavromatidis, 2004) (Figure 4), which is similar to evaporite thicknesses reported in Albania (Velaj et al., 1999). In all wells there were only minor indications of hydrocarbons in the evaporitic section. Based on unpublished key well reports and seismic sections from other countries (Figure 1) and published references it has tried to unravel the lithology under the evaporites. The areas were selected on the basis of their proximity to Ionian Zone, the similar tectonic history to western Greece, and mainly on the security that comes from sources such as detailed well completion reports and seismic interpreted sections that controlled from deep wells. In Croatia, drilled Triassic sections give a mixed lithology of clastics, carbonates, and evaporites (Croatia-Dinarides, 1994; unpublished report). Well data from Italy show a mixed lithology of clastics, carbonates, and evaporites for the drilled Permo-triassic sections (Italian Onshore Wells, 1996; unpublished well reports). Tortorici and Mazzoli (1994) report that in onshore Sicily the Permo-triassic lithology is prone towards a mix between clastics and carbonates although they support a carbonaceous pre-Triassic lithology for the area. Grassi (1994) reports that onshore Sicily has a Permo-triassic carbonaceous lithology, cherty, and massive limestones. In offshore and onshore areas of Montenegro, interpreted seismic and regional cross sections give an estimate of 600 to 2,000 m for Triassic in age clastics (Montenegro and Offshore Yugoslavia, 1994; unpublished report). Well data and seismic sections from Tunisia show that the prominent lithology for the Carboniferous and Permian strata is carbonates with few clastics (Tunisian plays, 1997; unpublished report). Yilmaz et al. (1996) in their palaeogeographical maps indicate very clearly that for western Greece the carbonate lithology is the dominant one from Mid Car-

624

A. Mavromatidis boniferous to Upper Triassic (Figure 5). However, the location of the study area on the palaeogeographical maps is very relative and very general. The location of western Greece does not exclude clastic sedimentation (continental highlands, lacustrine, and uvial deposition) and hence in a Carboniferous-Permian section a carbonate/clastic lithology maybe is most representative for a palaeogeographical representation. Passive seismic tomography studies in the north Ionian Zone show a transition zone at depths of 4,000 m from evaporites to carbonates (velocities >5 km/sec) (Kapotas et al., 2003). However, high-pressure zones and hence the high velocities may have been affected from the water-saturated zones, somehow not very possible. In addition, velocities from deep wells in the Albanian Ionian Zone (Velaj, 2001) encountered values of 55.5 km/sec in the evaporitic section of these wells. Undoubtedly, nothing is simple in science and as such reconciliation is necessary between the evidence of a clear carbonate lithology (i.e., palaeogeographical maps and geophysical signatures) versus a mixed lithology of carbonates and clastics as indicated from drilled sections in neighboring Ionian Zone countries. Keeping in mind the considerations regarding the uncertainties of reconstructing palaeogeographical maps, the sensitivity of geophysical methods and the robust analogue well data, the evaporites are maybe underlain by (CarboniferousPermoTriassic in age ?) clastic sediments, followed by a thin mixed clastic/carbonaceous and nally carbonaceous series of sediments. Plateful parameter to elucidate the lithology that has underlain the evaporites is the tectonic history of the area. Regional geological cross-sections; published

Downloaded By: [informa internal users] At: 16:31 26 March 2009

Figure 5. Palaeogeography of Europe in (a) Upper Triassic, (b) Upper Permian, and (c) Lower Permian major cities and important locations are also shown (AP D Apulian Platform, EME D Eastern Mediterranean Basin, Men D Menderes-Turkey, Mn D Montenegro, Sc D Sicily, TO D Tethys Ocean, Tn D Tunis, Tr D Tirana, Vn D Venice, WG D Western Greece).

Hydrocarbon Prospectivity in Ionian Basin

625

(Monopolis and Bruneton, 1982; Kamberis et al., 1996) and unpublished seismic sections (Mavromatidis, 2004); studies from western Greece (Zelilidis et al., 2003; Karakitsios, 1995); and studies from Ionian Zone in Albania (Nieuwland et al., 2001; Velaj, 2001, Velaj et al., 1999) underline the role of the evaporites as a decollement zone in west-ward thrusting during the compressional phases since Miocene to Pliocene times. Broadly speaking, the tectonic scenarios, that have implications to the revealment of the lithology under the evaporites, are categorized in two key types of deformation in the Ionian Zone; either with a major or with a minor shortening (Figure 6). The implication of a major shortening scenario is a repetition of the Mesozoic stratigraphy under the evaporites (Figures 6a and 6b). This model implies shortening amounts of >40 km. The thickness of the evaporites has important implications to the style of deformation since they provide an incompetent or ductile layer that can be redistributed to overcome apparent space problems. Ramps do occur if there are lithology variations within the evaporitic interval, but as far as seen on salt-decolled thrusts, after a max of c. 15 km the deformation moves off that fault (either further into the foreland, or backwards into the thrust belt with backthrusting etc.). In addition, Miocene-Pliocene sediments in the footwall of Ionian thrusts have not been signicantly deformed as would be expected if signicant westward displacement of the Ionian thrust sheet had occurred. Furthermore, Cretaceous slope facies carbonates have been identied in the Parga-2 well (see Figure 2) so that the amount of displacement of the Ionian thrust need not be as great as required in major shortening. However, vast shortening amounts in evaporitic environment have been reported in the literature (Martnez et al., 1997; Reston et al., 2002). The scenario cannot be denied categorically since surface exposures of pre-Triassic rocks are almost absent from western Greece. It does not seem energetically feasible for such a long-ranged thrust sheet to occur, but really there are no quantitative data to support this. Palaeomagnetic and detailed structural studies in the area can contribute further to elucidate if shortening of >40 km is numerically feasible. In the minor shortening scenario, thin and/or thick layers of the uppermost level of the evaporites are smeared out along the thrust planes (Figures 6c and 6d); such cases exist in Albania (Velaj et al., 1999) and the lithologies expected to underlay the evaporites are the ones derived from the studies mentioned previously, i.e., the expected lithology composed of clastic sediments, followed by a thin mixed clastic/carbonaceous and nally carbonaceous series of sediments. Figure 7 summarizes the thicknesses derived from well data and seismic sections for the known Mesozoic stratigraphy; lithological evidence from other areas, and the implications of tectonics to the unknown stratigraphy under the evaporites.

Downloaded By: [informa internal users] At: 16:31 26 March 2009

Prospectivity
Source Rocks and Maturity Modeling There are numerous oil seeps at the surface that show throughout the stratigraphic Mesozoic section and the Katakolon discovery in southwest Greece (Figure 2). In addition, there are numerous producing elds in the continuation of the Ionian Zone to the north in Albania. Organic-rich shales, dolomites, and limestones are seen in several wells in the area (e.g., Sosti-1, South Katakolon-1, where TOC values of up to 3.85% are seen)

Downloaded By: [informa internal users] At: 16:31 26 March 2009

626
Figure 6. Schematic section of Ionian Zone in (a) before Miocene times, (b) after Miocene times, in major thrusting scenario, (c) before Miocene times, and (d) after Miocene times, in minor thrusting scenario. Main lithologies are also shown.

Hydrocarbon Prospectivity in Ionian Basin

627

Downloaded By: [informa internal users] At: 16:31 26 March 2009

Figure 7. Simplied stratigraphic sequence of the Ionian Zone, western Greece according to (a) major shortening scenario (where Jurassic-Cretaceous section is repeated under the evaporites) and (b) minor shortening scenario. Average clastic-carbonaceous and evaporitic minimum and maximum thicknesses derived from geological well reports and seismic and regional cross sections (zero thickness for clastic-carbonate series stands for location where evaporites outcrop). Generalized maturity pattern in present times for (a) major shortening tectonic scenario and (b) for D early mature oil, D mid mature oil, D late minor shortening scenario is also shown ( mature oil, D gas, D overmature, E D east, W D west).

and in outcrop in Ioannina and southern Albania, although because the section is highly tectonized original depositional relationships are generally not seen. Therefore in very general terms, theres no problem with an active thermogenic source in the area, but in detail the story is more complex. Five horizons of possible source rocks have been identied in the Ionian Zone: the Vigla shales (Cenomanina-Turonian), the Upper Posidonia Beds (Callovian-Tithonian), the Lower Posidonia Beds (Toarcian-Aalenian), the marls at the base of Ammonitico Rosso (Lower Toarcian), and some Triassic breccia horizons containing shale fragments. All of the above source-rocks horizons have good hydrocarbon potential and their organic matter is of Type I-II (Rigakis and Karakitsios, 1998). Maturity modeling was attempted to check the type of hydrocarbons produced in the Ionian Zone. The available ThrustPack 2D software from IFP (Institut Francais du Petrole, France) was used for the modeling. ThrustPack is able to forward model cross-sections in fold-and-thrust-belt areas. It comprises structural, thermal, and maturity modules. The stratigraphic and structural complexity of the area cannot be modeled in its entirety, so a simplied version was used for modeling. In major shortening scenario, the source rocks are assumed to be of Cretaceous, Jurassic, and Triassic in age, in a similar way to the source rocks reported in Rigakis and Karakitsios (1998). The sedimentary pile of 6 km was used, 3 km of Jurassic-Tertiary (carbonates-clastics) section, and 3 km of Triassic (evaporites) section. The same source rocks were assumed in minor shortening scenario for the section above the evaporites and the clastic and carbonate units underlain the evaporites are assumed to be source rocks with the same geochemical characteristics as in the major scenario. The sedimentary pile of 7 km was used, 3 km of Jurassic-Tertiary (carbonates-clastics) section, 3 km of Triassic (evaporitic) section, and 1 km of Permo-triassic section (clastics and carbonates under the evaporites).

628

A. Mavromatidis

The modeling was constrained from well datasets, including vitrinite reectance values (west Katakolon, Sosti-1, Aitolikon-1 wells) and soil-gas geochemistry for controlling and checking the modeled to real maturities. Lithologies were adopted from well reports. More specically, anhydrites, gypsum, and a few halite were used for evaporites; limestones and dolomites for carbonates; sandstone, shale, and siltstone for clastic deposits. Erosional and thrusting events were assumed to start in Miocene times and ended in Quaternary times. Heat ow values of 50, 80, and 35 mWm2 were used for pre-rifting events (i.e., Triassic times), during rifting (Jurassic), and post-rifting times (Cretaceous to present day), respectively. These values are afliated from Allen and Allens (1990) heat ow estimates and basin classication studies. A surface temperature of 18 C, which is mentioned in well completion reports, was used from Triassic to present times. Maturity modeling results in present times are only commentated due to condentiality obligations (Figure 7). In major shortening scenario, the source rocks above the detachment level do not produce any hydrocarbons. Indeed, oil generation in inverted basins is interpreted to have been shut off during uplift. An exception is areas where Neogene-Tertiary deposits of the Ionian foredeep provide both reservoir and seals. The Katakolon eld (Figure 2) may be an example of such a case where oils were generated from deep source rocks and preserved in traps. Indeed, Kamberis et al. (1992) report a more than 2,000 m of Neogene section in Katakolo area and Zelilidis et al. (2003) have shown that thick Neogene basins in Preveza area are interesting play areas. However, more than 70 wells have been drilled in western Greece and only one, may be economically viable today (Mavromatidis et al., 2004; http://www.mred.tuc.gr/publications/16.pdf), the Katakolon eld has been discovered. The oil seeps at the surface must therefore represent a partial and continuing destruction of petroleum system that existed prior to inversion, i.e., till the end of Oligocene times. In fact, the maturity modeling showed that in Oligocene times all source rocks were able to produce hydrocarbons. The deep-rooted faults may have served as conduits for hydrocarbon migration from the deep source rocks, into potential reservoirs in Upper Cretaceous and paleogene carbonates or in the Miocene siliclastic sequence. The continuing faulting, however, may have breached the accumulations of hydrocarbons or leaked the migrating hydrocarbons directly to the surface, as documented by numerous seeps and asphaltic shows in the Ionian Zone. Actually, the oils in Katakolon eld now present at depths of 2,500 m and they are believed to have originated from greater depths (Palacas et al., 1986). Source rocks in and the ones underlain the evaporites after thrusting are assumed to host the main volume of hydrocarbon reserves in the area. More specically, the source rock in the evaporitic sequence produces early- to mid-mature oil and the carbonate source rocks under the evaporites are capable of producing late mature oils and gas. Deeper in this interval the source rock is exhausted. Generally, the maturity decreases from east to west. The eastern part under the detachment level stays longer under the uplift section than the western part and hence the burial depths and temperatures of this part are greater so that creates higher maturities than the western part (see Figure 6 with tectonic scenarios). In case the clastics have never been deposited in some areas or have been eroded before major thrusting timing, it is expected that clastics will not be seen under the evaporites in these areas. Hence, these areas host only carbonates under the evaporites and probably are the most favorable for exploration. Indication of such areas is where surface geology is dominated by carbonates (Figure 2). North of Ionian Zone (e.g., Ioannina and Igoumenitsa) and the border area between pre-Apulian Zone

Downloaded By: [informa internal users] At: 16:31 26 March 2009

Hydrocarbon Prospectivity in Ionian Basin

629

Downloaded By: [informa internal users] At: 16:31 26 March 2009

and Ionian Zone (e.g., Cephalonia and Lefkas islands) are some of the onshore possible play areas. Denitely offshore areas are more favorable since they belong to the western part of the Ionian Zone where the source rocks under the evaporites are less exhausted than in the eastern part (Figure 7a). In minor shortening scenario, generally the maturities are higher than in the major scenario. This is expected since the source rocks have not been uplifted as much as in the major tectonic scenario. The Early Jurassic source rocks (e.g., Ammonitico Rosso) are in early mature stage. The source rock in the evaporitic section produces all types of oils and the possible carbonate source rock that is underlain the evaporites is in the stage of gas production. However, the majority of this section is in an overmature stage (Figure 7b). According to the results of this scenario, interesting areas for exploration are the depocenters of thick carbonate source rock accumulations, i.e., thick sections of Posidonia Beds and Ammonitico Rosso. Really, on stratigraphic thickness variations, particularly important for both scenarios is the preserved Oligocene-Tertiary thickness after the main thrusting/erosional events in Miocene to Pliocene times (e.g., thick Oligocene-Tertiary sections increase the maturity levels and vice versa). Hence, areas with thick deposits of Oligocene-Tertiary might increase the maturity of the carbonates above the evaporites and probably would become inert in the section under the evaporites to produce gas. On the other side, the thin Oligocene-Tertiary section would not create an overmaturity effect to the possible source rocks under the evaporites and consequently they could produce oils and gas instead of producing some gas and the majority being overmatured. Areas with a minimum stratigraphic section above the evaporites are the ones mentioned in the major shortening scenario, i.e., areas having surface carbonates.

Reservoir and Seal Exposed or shallowly-buried carbonate anticlines are present throughout the Ionian Zone. These carbonates, limestones with tight matrix porosity that are abundant across the area, are not expected to form effective seals as they are unlikely to have escaped bacterial degradation and fracturing during Tertiary compression. However, the traps below the evaporites, the deep plays are particularly attractive. Maturity modeling showed that the units under the evaporites are capable of producing hydrocarbons in the area. These deeply buried, probably clastic and carbonates in lithology according to previous sections, are shielded from bacterial degradation so that good quality of hydrocarbons may have been preserved. Drawbacks are the potential thinness of the reservoir horizons and their lateral unpredictability. Positive aspects of the potential reservoir are the locally good porosity development and the potential for stacked reservoir units within the clastic-carbonaceous sequences. Indeed, further north in the Ionian Zone of the Albanian sector the deep carbonate plays are considered to hold the potential of future discoveries (Nieuwland et al., 2001) and all the economically important elds in the peri-Adriatic region are associated with the Triassic-Liassic source rocks (Mattavelli et al., 1991; Moldowan et al., 1991).

Conclusions and Recommendations

It can be safely stated that there is a great possibility for commercial production to be established in the Ionian Zone, which is an area of active oil seeps, repeated shows in wells, completed (though abandoned) wildcat tests, and really its geotectonic units

630

A. Mavromatidis

constituting the southern prolongation of the oil producing elds in the Albanians Ionian Zone (Mavromatidis et al., 2004). In Katakolon, exploration has proven the existence of the oil eld in the Ionian Zone in water depths of more than 200 m, which now awaits exploitation. This should proceed with the appraisal and development wells. The structural deformation in Miocene times played an important role in the hydrocarbon reserves in the area. Such tectonic conguration is strongly related to the Triassic evaporites which are widespread in the Ionian Zone and have never been penetrated fully. Tectonics movements have major implication for this lithology. In case there is major thrusting, the Mesozoic section overlies the evaporites and is expected to underlie them, i.e., a case where strata are repeated. In cases where there is a minor thrusting scenario, the lithology underneath them is assumed to be clastic and carbonaceous according to analogue well data and studies from areas around Ionian Zone with similar tectonic environment. Maturity modeling showed that the units below the evaporites are capable of producing hydrocarbons. However, no well has ever penetrated the whole Triassic evaporitic strata in the Ionian Zone. Thus relying on exploration successes from various evaporitic basins, worldwide, a rst potential target may be related to them. Thinking simplistically, and having as an aim to reach the units under the evaporites with less cost, it could be easily suggested to drill in areas that host very thin units above the evaporites or even areas where evaporites meet the surface. Really, there was drilling in such areas (e.g., Filiates-1 well, Figure 2) and the results were not encouraging. Simply, these areas where evaporites come to the surface proved to be due to diapiric movements and hence are areas with thick piles of evaporitic sediments. In cases where major thrusting tectonic events were prominent, maturity modeling showed that the western part of the Ionian Zone is most favorable in terms of hydrocarbon generation than the eastern part. Areas with carbonate on the surface are also interesting for drilling. In cases where minor thrusting events were prominent, both west and east areas are equally important. In this case, areas with thick Oligocene-Tertiary section play a positive role for source rocks above the evaporites and thin Oligocene-Tertiary section play a positive role to the source rocks under the evaporites. However, the modeling was based only on the available data for this specic region and the study was incorporating all the uncertainties that a mature modeling normally includes (i.e., paleo-heat ows, paleo-temperatures, erosion estimates, present thickness variations, etc.). Basically, the maturity study showed that the deep plays under the evaporites are attractive and hence it is up to the geoscientists to depict favorable trapping domes that host the hydrocarbons. It is suggested that detailed geophysical studies such as gravity, magnetic, land and marine reection seismic, and magnetotellurics with specially designed parameters tailored for deep prospects are important to be undertaken not only for the Ionian Zone but generally for western Greece, such as the pre-Apulian Zone which has similar lithology to the Ionian Zone and the Gavrovo Zone. Furthermore, geochemical analyses of outcropping rock samples, well cuttings, and existing oil shows will provide a further insight of oil generation and migration. These studies must trace the deep evaporitic strata and target areas where the evaporites will be fully penetrated. Consequently, this will reveal the unknown well-hidden stratigraphy and the type of hydrocarbons under the evaporites. While these tasks in the past were deemed very risky and difcult and therefore not undertaken, now with recent technological developments, especially for deep-well drilling, tractable play areas should be revised and considered more prospective. Whereas there are some 25 oil and gas elds in Albania, only one discovery has been made in western Greece, that being west Katakolon in the offshore Peloponnesos region.

Downloaded By: [informa internal users] At: 16:31 26 March 2009

Hydrocarbon Prospectivity in Ionian Basin

631

This is highly signicant as it proves the existence of a viable play and its continuation throughout western Greece.

Acknowledgments
The author wishes to thank Charlie Nieto and Fausto Mosca of Shell Italia E&P S.p.A. for permission to publish the available data from unpublished reports and he warmly thanks Roberto Gabini for his critical reviews and fruitful discussions during the exploration activity of Enterprise Oil Plc.

References
Allen, L., and Allen, R. J. 1990. Basin Analysis Principles & Applications. Oxford, UK: Blackwell Scientic Publications, 451 pp. Clement, C., Hirn, A., Charvis, P., Sachpazi, M., and Marnelis, F. 2000. Seismic structure and the active Hellenic subduction in the Ionian islands. Tectonophysics 329:141156. Croatia-Dinarides. 1994. Brochures of Blocks 1, 2, 3, 4. Enterprise Oil Ltd., Unpublished Reports, 55 pp. Grassi, K. 1994. Italy, a new venture study: Onshore Sicily. Enterprise Oil Ltd., Unpublished Report, 62 pp. IGME (Institute of Geology and Mineral Exploration). 1983. Geological map of Greece. Scale: 1:500,000. Bornovas, J., and Rondogianni-Tsiambaou, T. (Eds.). Division of General Geology and Economic Geology, Institute of Geology and Mineral Exploration, Greece. IGRS-IFP (Institute for Geology and Subsurface Research of Greece and Institut Francais du Petrole). 1966. Geological Investigation of Eperus (northwestern Greece). Paris: Editions Technip, p. 306. Italian Onshore Wells. 1996. Enterprise Oil Ltd., Unpublished Report, p. 89. Kamberis, E., Ioakim, C. H., Tsaila-Monopolis, S. T., and Tsapralis, V. 1992. Geodynamic and palaeogeographic evolution of western Peloponneos (Greece) during the Neogene. Paleontologia Evolucio 2425:363376. Kamberis, E., Marnelis, F., Loucoyannakis, M., Maltezou, F., Hirn A., and STREAMERS Group. 1996. Structure and deformation of the external hellenides based on seismic data from offshore Western Greece. Oil and gas in Alpidic Thrustbelts and Basins of central and eastern Europe. EAGE Special Publication 5:207214. Kapotas, S., Tselentis, G., and Martakis, N. 2003. Case study in NW Greece of passive seismic tomography: A new tool for hydrocarbon exploration. First Break 21:3742. Karakitsios, V. 1995. The inuence of preexisting structure and halokinesis on organic matter preservation and thrust system evolution in the Ionian Basin, Northwest Greece. The American Association of Petroleum Geologists Bulletin 7:960980. Martnez, A., Rivero, L., and Casa, A. 1997. Integrated gravity and seismic interpretation of duplex structures and imbricate thrust systems in the southeastern Pyrenees (NE Spain). Tectonophysics 282:303329. Mattavelli, L., Novelli, L., and Anelli, L. 1991. Occurrence of hydrocarbons in the Adriatic Basin. In: Generation, Accumulation and Production of Europes Hydrocarbons, Spencer, A. M. (Ed.). European Association of Petroleum Geoscientists Special Publication, pp. 369380. Mavromatidis, A. 2004. Review of the sub-evaporitic lithology in the Ionian Basin, Western Greece and hydrocarbon prospectivity. In: Pavlides, S., and Chatzipetrou, A. (Eds.). 5th International Symposium on Eastern Mediterranean Geology, Thessaloniki, Greece, April 1420, pp. 1435 1438. Mavromatidis, A., Kelessidis, V. C., and Monopolis, D. G. 2004. A review of recent hydrocarbon exploration in Greece and its potential. In: Agioutantis, Z., and Komnitsas, K. (Eds). 1st

Downloaded By: [informa internal users] At: 16:31 26 March 2009

632

A. Mavromatidis

Downloaded By: [informa internal users] At: 16:31 26 March 2009

International Conference on Advances in Mineral Resources Management and Environmental Geotechnology, Hania, Greece, June 79, pp. 187194. Moldowan, J. M., Lee, C. Y., Sundararaman, P., Salvatori, T., Alajbeg, A., Gjukic, B., Demaison, G. J., Slougui, N. E., and Watt, D. S. 1991. Source correlation and maturity assessment of select oils and rocks from the central Adriatic Basin (Italy and Yugoslavia). In: Biological Markers in Sediments and Petroleum: A Tribute to Wolfgang K. Seifert, Moldowan, J., Albrecht, P., and Philp, R. P. (Eds.). Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, pp. 370401. Monopolis, D., and Bruneton, A. 1982. Ionian Sea (Western Greece): Its structural outline deduced from drilling and geophysical data. Tectonophysics 83:227242. Montenegro and Offshore Yugoslavia. 1994. JUGOPETROL-KOTOR. Basic petroleum-geological information on the Montenegro exploration area and offshore Yugoslavia. Block 1, Farm out Brochure. Enterprise Oil Ltd., Unpublished Report. Nieuwland, D. A., Oudmayer, B. C., and Valbona, U. 2001. The tectonic development of Albania: Explanation and prediction of structural styles. Marine and Petroleum Geology 18:161177. Palacas, J. G., Monopolis, D., Nicolaou, C. A., and Anders, D. E. 1986. Geochemical correlation of surface and subsurface oils, western Greece. Adv. Organic Geochem. 10:417423. Reston, T. J., Von Huene, R., Dickmann, T., Klaeschen, D., and Kopp, H. 2002. Frontal accretion along the western Mediterranean Ridge: The effect of Messinian evaporites on wedge mechanics and structural style. Marine Geology 186:5982. Rigakis, N., and Karakitsios, V. 1998. The source rock horizons of the Ionian Basin (NW Greece). Marine Petrol. Geol. 15:593617. Tortorici, L., and Mazzoli, S. 1994. Geological study of western Sicily onshore. Enterprise Oil Ltd., Unpublished Report. Tunisian Plays. 1997. Enterprise Oil Ltd., Unpublished Report. Velaj, T., 2001. Evaporites in Albania and their impact on the thrusting processes. J. Balkan Geophys. Soc. 4:918. Velaj, T., Davison, I., Serjani, A., and Aslop, I. 1999. Thrust tectonics and the role of evaporites in the Ionian Zone of the Albanides. The American Assoc. Petroleum Geologists Bull. 83:1408 1425. Yilmaz, P. O., Norton, I. O., Leary, D., and Chuchla, R. J. 1996. Tectonic evolution and palaeogeography of Europe. In: Ziegler, P. A., and Horvath, F. (Eds.), Peri-Tethys Memoir 2: Structure and Prospects of Alpine Basins and Forelands. Mm. Mus. Natn. Hist. Nat. 170:4760. Zelilidis, A., Piper, D. J., Vakalas, I., Avramidis, P., and Getsos, K. 2003. Oil and gas plays in Albania: Do equivalent plays exist in Greece? J. Petrol. Geol. 26:2948.