Scientific Principles of Membrane Treatment Membrane processes can either be pressure-driven such as microfiltration, ultrafiltration, nanofiltration and reverse

osmosis; or driven by electrical potential such as electrodialysis. The pressure driven membrane processes are classified primarily on a particle size or molecular weight basis. The size range of rejected particles for microfiltration membranes is between 0.05 to 1.5 microns. For ultrafiltration, this is between 0.002 to 0.05 microns. Size cut off for nanofiltration is between 0.0005 and 0.007 microns, and is between 0.0001 to 0.003 microns for reverse osmosis. (Casey, 1997) Sieving Mechanisms Micro-filtration (MF) and ultra-filtration (UF) are quite similar, differing mainly in the size of the pores needed to reject the suspended species. For these membranes, the primary mechanism of separation is simple filtration. The suspended species have a size which is many orders of magnitude larger than the solvent species. The process for moving solvent molecules through membrane pores is viscous flow; the sieving mechanism is similar to the movement of liquids through pipes. Thus, a pure solvent flux through an MF or UF membrane is directly proportional to the applied pressure difference p, and inversely proportional to the viscosity of the solvent.(Green and Perry, 2007a) Hagen-Poiseuille equation for laminar flow in pipes

.r 4 P 8l

However in the presence of fouling, solvent transport in membranes for the sieving mechanism is characterised by the polarisation flux model. (Field, 2010)

P R m Rc

Where J is flux, Rm is membrane resistance and Rc is the resistance of the fouling layer. Sorption-Diffusion As the size difference between the solvent and solute becomes progressively smaller, viscous-flow becomes less important and molecular interactions become the dominant factors in separation. In such cases molecular solution (or sorption) and diffusion phenomena control the relative transport rates of the solute and solvent. Such a sorption-diffusion mechanism involves molecular-scale interactions of the permeating solutes with the membrane; thus the solvent can no longer be viewed as a continuum fluid flowing through pores. The membrane separation occurring during Reverse Osmosis (RO) has a sorption diffusion mechanism. An osmotic pressure difference exists between two solutions with on opposite sides of a membrane. Osmosis is a spontaneous transport of solvent from a dilute solute to a concentrated solute across a semipermeable membrane until an osmotic equilibrium is reached. By applying a pressure exceeding the osmotic pressure to the concentrated solution side, the flow of solvent is reversed. (Qasim et al., 2000a) Nanofiltration (NF) is a process similar to RO and is applied in the area between the separation capabilities of RO membranes and UF membranes; sometimes called the loose RO or the tight UF. Typical NF membranes reject ions with more than one negative charge, sodium chloride (NaCl) and the rejection of uncharged, dissolved materials and positively charged ions in solutions relate mostly to the size and shape of the molecule in question.(Green and Perry, 2007b)

The flux for NF and RO can be estimated using the following equation ((EPA), 2005), where P is the transmembrane differential pressure, is the transmembrane osmotic pressure differential and K is a constant.

J K P
Electrodialysis Electrodialysis is an electric driven membrane process which utilises electrical potential to separate ionic species from the solvent. Anion permeable membranes and cation permeable membranes are arranged within the module to attract oppositely charged ions. This process is effectively used for demineralisation of water. (Qasim et al., 2000b)

References (EPA), U. S. E. P. A. 2005. Membrane Filtration Guidance Manual. USA: Office of Water. CASEY, T. J. 1997. Membrane Filtration. England: John Wiley & Sons Ltd. FIELD, R. 2010. Fundamentals of Fouling In: KLAUS-VIKTOR PEINEMANN, S. P. N. (ed.) Membrane Technology: Membranes for Water Treatment. Wiley-VCH. GREEN, D. W. & PERRY, R. H. 2007a. Membrane Separation Processes. Perry's Chemical Engineers' Handbook. 8th Edition ed.: McGraw-Hill. GREEN, D. W. & PERRY, R. H. 2007b. Membrane Separation Processes. Perry's Chemical Engineers' Handbook. 8th Edition ed.: McGraw-Hill. QASIM, S. R., MOTLEY, E. M. & ZHU, G. 2000a. Nonconventional Water Treatment Processes and Designs. Water Works Engineering. NJ: Prentice Hall. QASIM, S. R., MOTLEY, E. M. & ZHU, G. 2000b. Nonconventional Water Treatment Processes and Designs. Water Works Engineering. NJ: Prentice Hall.