TRANSPORT IN HUMANS

7.2.Transport in humans Core Describe the circulatory system as a system of tubes with a pump and valves to ensure one-way flow of blood Describe the double circulation in terms of a low pressure circulation to the lungs and a high pressure circulation to the body tissues and relate these differences to the different functions of the two circuits 7.2.1 Heart Core Describe the structure of the heart including the muscular wall and septum, chambers, valves and associated blood vessels Describe the function of the heart in terms of muscular contraction and the working of the valves Investigate, state and explain the effect of physical activity on pulse rate Describe coronary heart disease in terms of the blockage of coronary arteries and state the possible causes (diet, stress and smoking) and preventive measures. 7.2.2 Arteries, veins and capillaries Core Name the main blood vessels to and from theheart, lungs, liver and kidney Describe the structure and functions of arteries, veins and capillaries Supplement Explain how structure and function are related in arteries, veins and capillaries Describe the transfer of materials between capillaries and tissue fluid 7.2.3 Blood Core Identify red and white blood cells as seen under the light microscope on prepared slides, and in diagrams and photomicrographs List the components of blood as red blood cells, white blood cells, platelets and plasma State the functions of blood: red blood cells haemoglobin and oxygen transport white blood cells phagocytosis and antibody formation platelets causing clotting (no details) plasma transport of blood cells, ions, soluble nutrients, hormones, carbon dioxide, urea and plasmaProteins Supplement Describe the immune system in terms of antibody production, tissue rejection and phagocytosis Describe the function of the lymphatic system in circulation of body fluids, and the production oflymphocytes Describe the process of clotting (fibrinogen to fibrin only)

Transport in humans The main transport system of humans is the blood system, also known as the circulatory system. Human circulatory system is made up of a pump called the heart, a net work of tubes called blood vessels, and the blood.

Functions of circulatory system: It transports useful things like oxygen from the lungs to the cells and digested food from the small intestine to the cells. It removes waste chemicals like carbon dioxide from the cells to the lungs and other wastes from cells to the kidneys. It transports hormones, antibodies and blood proteins. Blood circulation: The heart is the pump which circulates the blood through the blood vessels. Blood flows in arteries away from the heart to the different organs of the body. Blood flows back to the hearty in veins. Arteries are connected to veins by means of the smallest blood vessels called capillaries.

The circulatory system allows a one-way flow of blood around the body. The heart pumps blood giving it pressure so that it flows inside arteries and this helps to maintain a one-way flow. This is good for getting blood to the capillaries. We have valves called semi-lunar valves in our veins to make sure blood does not flow backwards away from the heart. If this happened, blood would collect in veins, which would swell, preventing proper circulation. These valves open when the pressure of the blood pushes against them, but they close when blood flows back to fill the pockets.

Double circulation: Humans have a double circulatory system because the blood travels through the heart twice during one complete circuit around the body. It includes a low pressure circulation to the lungs and a high pressure circulation to the body tissues.

The heart is divided into two halves: right and left. The two halves are separated by a thick wall of muscle called septum. It stops blood in the right side of the heart mixing with blood in the left side. The right side of the heart pumps blood to the lungs and back to the heart again. The pressure need to force blood to the lungs is not very high because there is little resistance to flow in the lungs as there is a spongy tissue filled with air. As blood flows through the capillaries in the

lungs, gas exchange occurs. Blood absorbs oxygen and loses carbon dioxide. The blood that flows through the lungs is rich in oxygen so it is called oxygenated blood and it is bright red in color. The left side of the heart pumps blood to the rest of the body and back to the heart again. The pressure of blood leaving the left side is much greater than on the right side because there is much more resistance to flow than there is through the lungs. Gas exchange occurs as blood flows through capillaries in organs such as muscles, the gut, liver and kidneys. Oxygen leaves the blood and carbon dioxide enters. Blood that leaves capillaries and flows through veins contains less oxygen and is called deoxygenated blood. It is dark red in color but is always shown as blue in diagrams. The double circulatory system helps to maintain blood pressure and making circulation efficient Structure of the heart:

It is a pump made of a special type of muscle called cardiac muscle. This muscle contracts and relaxes regularly throughout life.

The muscle is constantly active, so it needs its own blood supply, through the coronary artery to provide it with oxygen and glucose. Coronary arteries are present on the surface of the heart. The heart has two sides-the right side receives deoxygenated blood from the body and pumps it to the lungs for oxygenation while the left side receives oxygenated blood from the lungs and pump it to the body. The heart is divided into 4 chambers-the two upper chambers are called atria and the two lower chambers are called ventricles. The chambers on the left side are completely separated from the ones on the right side by the septum which prevents deoxygenated blood on the right side mixing with oxygenated blood on the left side. Both of the atria receive blood. The left atrium receives blood from the pulmonary veins, which comes from the lungs. The right atrium receives blood from the rest of the body, arriving through the vena cavae. When the atria contract, they pump blood into ventricles. When the ventricles contract, they pump blood out into arteries at higher pressure. The blood in the left ventricle is pumped into the aorta, which takes blood around the body

The right ventricle pumps blood into the pulmonary artery, which takes it to the lungs. The ventricles have much thicker, more muscular walls than the atria. It helps them to pump blood out of the heart and all around the body. The wall of the left ventricle is much thicker than that of the right ventricle. This is because the right ventricle pumps blood to the lungs, which are very close to the heart But the left ventricle pumps blood all around the body and has to overcome more resistance to flow. The thick wall helps to generate greater pressure to pump blood all around the body. Between each atrium and ventricle is a valve called AV valves, which prevent the blood flowing back in to the right and left atrium when the right and left ventricles contract. The AV valve between the right atrium and the right ventricle is called tricuspid valve and that between the left atrium and left ventricle is called bicuspid valve or mitral valve. There are tendons attached to the valves which stop the valves from going up too far as the ventricles contract. The place where the pulmonary artery and aorta opens in to the ventricles, there are valves called semilunar valves which prevent the back flow of blood from these arteries back to the ventricles. Working of human heart (pumping of blood by the heart):

The heart pumps blood when its muscles contract. Contraction of the heart muscles is called systole. When they contract, the heart becomes smaller and squeezes the blood out. After contraction, the heart muscles relax. When they relax, the heart becomes larger, allowing blood to flow into the atria and ventricles. Relaxation of the heart muscles is called diastole. One systole and one diastole together called a heartbeat. The normal healthy heart beats 70 times per minute.

The rate at which the heart beats is controlled by a patch of muscle in the right atrium called pace maker. It sends electrical through the walls of the heart at regular intervals which make the muscle contract.

Cardiac cycle: the changes that occur in the heart during one heart beat. It involves three changes-diastole, atrial systole and ventricular systole.

Diastole: During this process: All muscles of the heart chambers are relaxed. Blood flows into the heart. The muscles of the atria relax allowing blood to flow into the heart from the veins- from the body to the right atrium via vena cava and from the lungs to the left atrium via pulmonary vein. The AV valves open The semilunar valves shut, preventing blood from flowing into the ventricles

Atrial systole: The muscles of the atria contract. The muscles of the ventricles remain relaxed. Blood is forced from the atria into the ventricles through the open AV valves. The semilunar valves remain shut. The valves in the veins are forced to shut by the pressure of the blood, stopping the blood from flowing back into the veins.

Ventricular systole: The muscles of the atria relax. The muscles of the ventricles contract. Blood is forced out of the ventricles into the arteries- from the right atrium into the pulmonary artery and from the left ventricle into the aorta. The AV valves are forced shut by the pressure of the blood. The semilunar valves are forces open by the pressure of the blood.

Investigate, state and explain the effect of physical activity on pulse rate. Describe coronary heart disease in terms of the blockage of coronary arteries and state the possible causes (diet, stress and smoking) and preventive measures.

Effect of physical exercise on pulse rate: The heart beats about 70 times a minute. During exercise the heart rate increases to supply the muscles with more oxygen and glucose and removing carbon dioxide quicker. These are needed to allow the muscles to respire aerobically, so they have sufficient energy to contract. Regular exercise is important to keep the heart muscle in good tone. This results in the heart being more efficient in maintaining blood pressure and reduces the risk of coronary heart disease and stroke. How to measure the rate of heart beat: The best way to measure the rate of heart beat is to take the pulse. Use the first two fingers of your right hand and rest them on the inside of your wrist. Feel for the tendon near the outside of your wrist. If you rest your fingers lightly just over this tendon, you can feel the artery in your wrist pulsing as your heart pumps blood through it. Coronary heart disease: Heart disease caused by blockage of coronary arteries that supply heart muscles with blood. Heart muscles need oxygen and glucose to keep it contracting. These are transported to the heart in the coronary arteries. If a coronary artery gets blocked-for example, by a blood clot-the cardiac muscles run short of oxygen and glucose. They cannot obtain energy to allow them to contract. The heart therefore stops beating. This is called a heart attack or cardiac arrest.

Risk factors for CHD (Factors that increase a persons risk of getting coronary heart disease): Cause Diet: eating a diet with too much saturated(animal) fat Preventive measure Eat a diet containing a very wide variety of foods with little fat in it. Use oils from plants, and fish. Eat more fresh fruits and vegetables. Eat less red meat. Reduce fried foods Smoking Nicotine present in the cigarette Stop smoking smoke cause damage to the heart and blood vessels. Obesity Being overweight puts extra Go on a controlled diet and strain on the heart and makes it take regular exercise more difficult for the person to exercise. Stress Tends to increase blood Find ways of relaxing. Identify pressure, which can result in the causes of stress and avoid deposition of fatty materials in them. the arteries. Inherited factors (genes) Heart disease appears to be Make sure other factors do passed from one generation to not increase the risk of heart the next in some families. disease. Monitor health. ============================================================================== Explanation Leads to cholesterol which deposit in arteries, finally blocking the blood vessel or allowing a blood clot to form

The main blood vessels to and from the heart, lungs, liver and kidney: Vessel Organs heart Bringing blood to Venacava to organ right atrium; pulmonary vein to left atrium Taking blood Pulmonary away from organ artery from right ventricle; aorta from left ventricle

lungs Pulmonary artery

liver Hepatic artery; hepatic vein

kidneys Renal artery

Pulmonary vein

Hepatic vein

Renal vein

Structure and functions of arteries, veins and capillaries: Arteries carry blood at high pressure, away from the heart to organs of the body. They divide again and again and finally form very tiny vessels called capillaries. Capillaries supply all cells with requirements like oxygen, glucose etc. and take away waste products like carbon dioxide (exchange of materials). The capillaries gradually join up with one another to form large vessels called veins. Veins return blood at low pressure from organs towards the heart.

Arteries:

Wall is thick and strong containing muscles and elastic fibres. Narrow lumen Smooth lining Valves absent

Capillaries:

Permeable wall, one cell thick, with no muscle or elastic tissue. Very narrow lumen, just wide enough for a red blood cell to pass through. Presence of pores between the cells in the wall. Valves absent.

Veins:

Thin wall, containing very less muscle and elastic tissue than arteries. Wide lumen. Valves present

How the structure and functions are related in arteries, veins and capillaries Blood vessel structure Artery 1. Thick and strong wall containing muscles and elastic fibres. How structure is related to function 1.Helps to carries blood at high pressure. 1. Prevent bursting and maintain pressure wave. 2. helps to maintain blood pressure. 3. high pressure prevents blood flowing back. 1. carries blood at low pressure.

Vein

Capillary

2. Lumen very narrow, but increases as a pulse of blood passes through. 3.Valves absent 1. Thin wall containing very less muscle and elastic tissue than arteries. 2. wide lumen 3. valves present 1. very thin, permeable, one cell thick wall with no muscle or elastic fibres. 2. very narrow lumen, one red blood cell wide. 3. valves absent

4. pores present between cells in the wall

2. reduce resistance to blood flow. 3. prevent back flow of blood 1. allows diffusion of materials between capillary and surrounding tissues. 2. white blood cells can squeeze between cells of the wall. 3. blood cells pass through slowly to diffusion of materials and tissue fluid. 4. allows easy diffusion of materials.

Transfer of materials between capillaries and tissue fluid: Tissue fluid: it is the fluid that surrounds all the cells in the body, formed from blood plasma that leaks out of capillaries. Formation of tissue fluid: When blood at high pressure flowing through the capillaries reach body tissues, some of the constituents of the blood plasma and some white blood cells move out through the small gaps in the capillary walls. The fluid formed in this way is called tissue fluid. It surrounds all the cells in the body. Red blood cells cannot get out because they are too large and cannot change their shape to pass through the wall.

Function of tissue fluid: It helps substances to diffuse into and out of cells. Useful substances like glucose,amino acids, fatty acids, vitamins, ions and oxygen pass from tissue fluid into cells. Carbon dioxide and waste chemicals like urea and excess ions pass out of the cells into the tissue fluid.

7.2.3 Blood Core Identify red and white blood cells as seen under the light microscope on prepared slides, and in diagrams and photomicrographs List the components of blood as red blood cells, white blood cells, platelets and plasma State the functions of blood: red blood cells haemoglobin and oxygen transport white blood cells phagocytosis and antibody formation platelets causing clotting (no details) plasma transport of blood cells, ions, soluble nutrients, hormones, carbon dioxide, urea and plasma Proteins. Supplement Describe the immune system in terms of antibody production, tissue rejection and phagocytosis Describe the function of the lymphatic system in circulation of body fluids, and the production of lymphocytes Describe the process of clotting (fibrinogen to fibrin only) ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ---------------

Blood:
Composition of blood: Blood is made of a liquid called plasma in which 3 types of blood cellsred blood cells, white blood cells and platelets- are suspended.

Functions of blood:
1. Blood plasma: It is the liquid part of the blood which forms 50% of blood volume. Its function is transport of blood cells, mineral ions like sodium and chloride ions, soluble nutrients like amino acids, glucose, lipids and vitamins, hormones like insulin, glucagon etc., carbon dioxide, urea and plasma proteins. It acts as a pool for amino acids and contains blood proteins that are important in blood clotting. Main substances carried by plasma: Substances carried in plasma Amino acids Carbon dioxide Glucose Heat Hormones eg. Insulin urea from Small intestine Respiring tissues Small intestine Liver, muscles Endocrine glands, eg. pancreas liver to Sites of growth and repair lungs All tissues All tissues Target organ, eg.liver kidneys

2. Red blood cells: Their cytoplasm contains haemoglobin which transport oxygen from the lungs to the respiring tissues. 3. White blood cells: phagocytosis (fight diseases by surrounding bacteria and engulfing them), and antibody production.

4. platelets: form blood clots, which stop blood loss at a wound and prevents the entry of germs into the blood.

Process of blood clotting: When a blood vessel is cut, the blood platelets bump into the rough edges of the cut, and react by releasing a chemical. The chemicals released by the platelets and the damaged tissues set off a chain of reactions which cause the fibrinogen, a soluble protein in the blood plasma, to change into insoluble fibrin. Fibrin forms fibres which form a mesh across the wound. Red blood cells and platelets get trapped in the tangle of fibrin fibres, forming a blood clot.

Advantages of blood clotting: stops too much blood loss at a wound. Stops pathogens getting into the body through breaks in the skin.

Differences between red blood cells and white blood cells: Red blood cells More in number (5 million in every mm3) than WBCs. Contain the pigment haemoglobin nucleus absent Biconcave disc shaped Live only for 120 days as they have no nucleus Only one type of cells Transport oxygen White blood cells Very less in number than RBCs Haemoglobin absent Nucleus present No definite shape Can live more than 120 days Two types-phagocytes and lymphocytes Fight pathogen, and clear up dead body cells

Structural adaptations of RBCs for oxygen transport:

Contain haemoglobin which carries oxygen. Nucleus absent so more space for packing in haemoglobin. Biconcave disc shape and small size give them large surface area compared with their volume which speeds up rate of diffusion of oxygen.

IMMUNE SYSTEM

The function of WBCs is to fight pathogens (disease-causing bacteria and viruses), and to clear up any dead body cells. There are many different kinds of WBCs. They all have the function of destroying pathogens in our body, but they do it in different ways. Generally there are two types of WBCs present in the blood; they are phagocytes and lymphocytes. Phagocytes:

A phagocyte cell - larger than lymphocytes - have lobed nucleus - can move around the body, engulfing and destroying pathogens by a process called phagocytosis.

Phagocytosis:

Lymphocytes:

A lymphocyte cell - smaller than phagocytes. - have large spherical nucleus. - function is to produce chemicals called antibodies, which are carried in the blood to every part of the body which can destroy pathogens.

Function of lymphocytes:

In our body, we have 1000s of different kinds of lymphocytes. Each kind is able to produce a different type of antibody. An antibody is a protein molecule with a particular shape and this shape is just right to fit into another molecule on the outside of the pathogen. These pathogen molecules are called antigens. When a pathogen enters the body, its antigen is recognized by one particular type of lymphocyte. This lymphocyte will start to divide repeatedly by mitosis, making a clone of the same type. These lymphocytes then produce their antibody, destroying the pathogen.

Antibodies attack the pathogens in a number of ways: They make them stick together (agglutinate). They dissolve their cell membranes. They neutralize the toxins (poisons) that some pathogens produce. Alert phagocytes to the presence of pathogens so that phagocytes will come and destroy them.

The fig. 4.2 shows the action of WBCs when bacteria enters the body.