ENCRYPTION

Encryption is the conversion of data into a form, called a cipher text that cannot be easily understood by unauthorized people. Decryption is the process of converting encrypted data back into its original form, so it can be understood. The use of encryption/decryption is as old as the art of communication. In wartime, a cipher, often incorrectly called a code, can be employed to keep the enemy from obtaining the contents of transmissions. (Technically, a code is a means of representing a signal without the intent of keeping it secret; examples are Morse code and ASCII.) Simple ciphers include the substitution of letters for numbers, the rotation of letters in the alphabet, and the "scrambling" of voice signals by inverting the sideband frequencies. More Complex ciphers work according to sophisticated computer algorithms that rearrange the data bits in digital signals. In order to easily recover the contents of an encrypted signal, the correct decryption key is required. The key is an algorithm that undoes the work of the encryption algorithm. Alternatively, a computer can be used in an attempt to break the cipher. The more complex the encryption algorithm, the more difficult it becomes to eavesdrop on the communications without access to the key.

DDBMS

A distributed database management system ('DDBMS') is a software system that permits the management of a distributed database and makes the distribution transparent to the users. A distributed database is a collection of multiple, logically interrelated databases distributed over a computer network. Sometimes "distributed database system" is used to refer jointly to the distributed database and the distributed DBMS. A DDBMS (distributed database management system) is a centralized application that manages a distributed database as if it were all stored on the same computer. The DDBMS synchronizes all the data periodically, and in cases where multiple users must access the same data, ensures that updates and deletes performed on the data at one location will be automatically reflected in the data stored elsewhere. DBMS (Database Management System) is a general term for any system used to store, manage, and retrieve from a collection of data. It can be something as simple as a box of index cards, a collection of computer documents or spreadsheets, or more commonly a software program designed specifically for managing collections of data. Most DBMSs today are RDBMSs and most DDBMSs are based on RDBMSs. The RDBMS (Relational DBMS) is based on a Computer Science concept known as relations. The purpose of the RDBMS is to organize the information logically (for humans) and to efficiently store and retrieve the information (by computers). Typically, tables are defined for each class of thing for which data is to be kept.

FTP

File Transfer Protocol is a standard network protocol used to transfer files from one host to another over a TCPbased network, such as the Internet. FTP is built on client-server architecture and utilizes separate control and data connections between the client and server. FTP users may authenticate themselves using a clear-text sign-in protocol but can connect anonymously if the server is configured to allow it. As a user, you can use FTP with a simple command line interface (for example, from the Windows MS-DOS Prompt window) or with a commercial program that offers a graphical user interface. Your Web browser can also make FTP requests to download programs you select from a Web page. Using FTP, you can also update (delete, rename, move, and copy) files at a server. You need to logon to an FTP server. However, publicly available files are easily accessed using anonymous FTP. TOPOLOGY

The physical topology of a network refers to the configuration of cables, computers, and other peripherals. Physical topology should not be confused with logical topology which is the method used to pass information between workstations. There are many types of topologies depending upon their architecture: Bus Topology Star Topology Ring Topology Mesh Topology Hybrid Topology

TRANSMISSION MEDIA

A transmission medium (plural transmission media) is a material substance that can propagate energy waves. For example, the transmission medium for sound received by the ears is usually air, but solids and liquids may also act as transmission media for sound.The term transmission medium also refers to a technical device that employs the material substance to transmit or guide waves. Thus, an optical fiber or a copper cable is a transmission medium. A transmission medium can be classified as a: Linear medium, if different waves at any particular point in the medium can be superposed. Bounded medium, if it is finite in extent, otherwise unbounded medium; Uniform medium or homogeneous medium, if its physical properties are unchanged at different points; Isotropic medium, if its physical properties are the same in different directions.

DLL

Stands for "Dynamic Link Library". A DLL (.dll) file contains a library of functions and other information that can be accessed by a Windows program. When a program is launched, links to the necessary .dll files are created. If a static link is created, the .dll files will be in use as long as the program is active. If a dynamic link is created, the .dll files will only be used when needed. Dynamic links help programs use resources, such as memory and hard drive space, more efficiently. DLL files can also be used by more than one program. In fact, they can even be used by multiple programs at the same time. Some DLLs come with the Windows operating system while others are added when new programs are installed. You typically don't want to open a .dll file directly, since the program that uses it will automatically load it if needed. Though DLL filenames usually end in ".dll," they can also end in .exe, .drv, and .fon, just to make things more confusing.

THRASHING

If the number of frames allocated to a low priority process is lower than the minimum number required by the computer architecture then in this case we must suspend the execution of this low priority process. After this we should page out all of its remaining pages and freeing all of its allocated frames. This provision introduces a swap in, swap-out level of intermediate CPU scheduling. Let take a example of a process that does not have enough number of frames. If the process does not have the number of frames it needs to support pages in active use, it will quickly page fault. The only option remains here for process is to replace some active pages with the page that requires a frame. However, since all of its pages are in active use, It must replace a page that will be needed again right away. Consequently, it quickly faults again and again that mean replacing pages that it must bring back in immediately. This high paging activity is called Thrashing. Or we can say that a process is Thrashing if it is spending more time in paging then executing. Thrashing results in severe performance problems. If the number of frames allocated to a low priority process is lower than the minimum number required by the computer architecture then in this case we must suspend the execution of this low priority process. After this we should page out all of its remaining pages and freeing all of its allocated frames. This provision introduces a swap in, swap-out level of intermediate CPU scheduling. Let take a example of a process that does not have enough number of frames.

DATA MINING

Data mining (the analysis step of the Knowledge Discovery in Databases process, or KDD), a relatively young and interdisciplinary field of computer science is the process of discovering new patterns from large data sets involving methods from statistics and artificial intelligence but also database management. In contrast to for example machine learning, the emphasis lies on the discovery of previously unknown patterns as opposed to generalizing known patterns to new data. Generally, data mining (sometimes called data or knowledge discovery) is the process of analyzing data from different perspectives and summarizing it into useful information - information that can be used to increase revenue, cuts costs, or both. Data mining software is one of a number of analytical tools 3

for analyzing data. It allows users to analyze data from many different dimensions or angles, categorize it, and summarize the relationships identified. Technically, data mining is the process of finding correlations or patterns among dozens of fields in large relational databases.

INTERPRETER

It is the facilitating of oral or sign-language communication, either simultaneously or consecutively, between users of different languages. The process is described by both the words interpreting and interpretation. In professional parlance, interpreting denotes the facilitating of communication from one language form into its equivalent, or approximate equivalent, in another language form; while interpretation denotes the actual product of this work, that is, the message thus rendered into speech, sign language, writing, non-manual signals, or other language form. This important distinction is observed in order to avoid confusion. An interpreter is a person who converts a thought or expression in a source language into an expression with a comparable meaning in a target language in "real time". The interpreter's function is to convey every semantic element (tone and register) and every intention and feeling of the message that the source-language speaker is directing to target-language recipients.

TWISTED PAIR CABLE

Twisted pair cabling is a type of wiring in which two conductors (the forward and return conductors of a single circuit) are twisted together for the purposes of canceling out electro magnetic interference (EMI) from external sources; for instance, electromagnetic radiation from unshielded twisted pair (UTP) cables, and crosstalk between neighboring pairs. It was invented by Alexander Graham Bell. A type of cable that consists of two independently insulated wires twisted around one another. The use of two wires twisted together helps to reduce crosstalk and electromagnetic induction. While twisted-pair cable is used by older telephone networks and is the least expensive type of local-area network (LAN) cable, most networks contain some twisted-pair cabling at some point along the network. Other types of cables used for LANs include coaxial cables and fiber optic cables.

ASYNCHRONOUS TRANSMISSION In Asynchronous transmission, data is transmitted character by character at irregular intervals. That is, a sender sends a character at any convenient manner and receiver accepts it. For instance, transmission of data from a terminal to a computer is asynchronous because during data entry by an operator, time between successive keystrokes varies.

To enable a receiver to recognize a character when it arrives, a transmitter frames each character by putting a start bit before it and one or two( depending upon system) stop bits after it. Asynchronous transmission is well suited to many input devices. Its advantage is that it does not require any local storage at sender or receiver end, because transmission takes place character by character. Hence, it is cheaper to implement.

CENTRALIZATION

The process of transferring and assigning decision-making authority to higher levels of an organizational hierarchy. In a centralized organization, the decision-making has been moved to higher levels or tiers of the organization, such as a head office, or a corporate center. Knowledge, information and ideas are concentrated at the top, and decisions are cascaded down the organization. The span of control of top managers is relatively broad, and there are relatively many tiers in the organization.

TCP/IP TCP- (Transmission Internet Protocol) is responsible for verifying the correct delivery of data from client to server. Data can be lost in the intermediate network. TCP adds support to detect errors or lost data and to trigger retransmission until the data is correctly and completely received.

IP- (Internet protocol) is responsible for moving packet of data from node to node. IP forwards each packet based on a four byte destination address (the IP number). The Internet authorities assign ranges of numbers to different 5

organizations. The organizations assign groups of their numbers to departments. IP operates on gateway machines that move data from department to organization to region and then around the world.

BATCH FILE

A batch file is a type of script that contains a list of commands. These commands are executed in sequence and can be used to automate processes. For example, some programs may include a batch file that executes a number of commands as the program starts up. A user can also create a custom batch file to automate tedious processes such as copying multiple directories or renaming several files at once. Batch files are run by the COMMAND.COM program, which is part of DOS and Windows. Therefore, batch files can only be run within the Windows operating system. Macintosh and Unix have other scripting tools, such as AppleScript and Unix shell commands, that can be used for similar tasks. Because batch files contain executable commands, it is important not to open unknown batch files on your hard disk or in e-mail attachments.

CACHE MEMORY

Cache memory is a high speed memory buffer that temporarily stores data that processor needs. It stores random data usually stores on the first in first out basis. It enables the processor to continue working either at full speed. Cache memory is basically made up of static RAM integrated into the processor. In static RAM binary values are stored using flip flops and logic gates. It holds its data until the power is supplied. Cache memory is usually placed between the processor and the main memory. Basically the main function of the cache memory is to accelerate your computer. Cache is a technology based on the memory subsystem of your computer. Caching allows you to do your computer tasks more rapidly. The value of cache is that it is much faster than the normal memory. The data is searched on the basis of address. There are two types of cache memory that is level 1 and level 2. Level 1 is memory that is of very high speed and can be accessed easily with the zero wait state. If the required data or instruction is not present on the level1 then level 2 is tried next. Today level 1 cache memory is mostly implemented within the processor, with level 2 referring to cache memory on motherboard. Nowadays, level2 cache is also becoming available on processor.

BIT RATE

Bit rate, as the name implies, describes the rate at which bits are transferred from one location to another. In other words, it measures how much data is transmitted in a given amount of time. Bit rate is commonly measured in bits

per second (bps), kilobits per second (Kbps), or megabits per second (Mbps). For example, a DSL connection may be able to download data at 768 kbps, while a Fire wire 800 connection can transfer data up to 800 Mbps. Bit rate can also describe the quality of an audio or video file. For example, an MP3 audio file that is compressed at 192 Kbps will have a greater dynamic range and may sound slightly more clear than the same audio file compressed at 128 Kbps. This is because more bits are used to represent the audio data for each second of playback. Similarly, a video file that is compressed at 3000 Kbps will look better than the same file compressed at 1000 Kbps. Just like the quality of an image is measured in resolution, the quality of an audio or video file is measured by the bit rate.

STACK In computer science, a stack is a last in, first out (LIFO) abstract data type and data structure. A stack can have any abstract data type as an element, but is characterized by only three fundamental operations: push, pop and stack top. The push operation adds a new item to the top of the stack, or initializes the stack if it is empty. If the stack is full and does not contain enough space to accept the given item, the stack is then considered to be in an overflow state. The pop operation removes an item from the top of the stack. A pop either reveals previously concealed items, or results in an empty stack, but if the stack is empty then it goes into underflow state (It means no items are present in stack to be removed). The stack top operation gets the data from the top-most position and returns it to the user without deleting it. The same underflow state can also occur in stack top operation if stack is empty. A stack is a restricted data structure, because only a small number of operations are performed on it. The nature of the pop and push operations also means that stack elements have a natural order. Elements are removed from the stack in the reverse order to the order of their addition: therefore, the lower elements are those that have been on the stack the longest.[1]

Representation of stack

RASTER GRAPHIC

Most images you see on your computer screen are raster graphics. Pictures found on the Web and photos you import from your digital camera are raster graphics. They are made up of grid of pixels, commonly referred to as a bitmap. The larger the image, the more disk space the image file will take up. For example, a 640 x 480 image requires information to be stored for 307,200 pixels, while a 3072 x 2048 image (from a 6.3 Megapixel digital camera) needs to store information for a whopping 6,291,456 pixels. Since raster graphics need to store so much information, large bitmaps require large file sizes. Fortunately, there are several image compression algorithms that have been developed to help reduce these file sizes. JPEG and GIF are the most common compressed image formats on the Web, but several other types of image compression are available. Raster graphics can typically be scaled down with no loss of quality, but enlarging a bitmap image causes it to look blocky and pixilated. For this reason, vector graphics are often used for certain images, such as company logos, which need to be scaled to different sizes.

GOPHER

A system that pre-dates the World Wide Web for organizing and displaying files on Internet servers. A Gopher server presents its contents as a hierarchically structured list of files. With the ascendance of the Web, many gopher databases were converted to Web sites which can be more easily accessed via Web search engines. The Gopher protocol is a TCP/IP application layer protocol designed for distributing, searching, and retrieving documents over the Internet .Strongly oriented towards a menu-document design, the Gopher protocol was a predecessor of (and later, an alternative to) the World Wide Web.

DECENTRALIZATION

The process of transferring and assigning decision-making authority to lower levels of an organizational hierarchy. In a decentralized organization, the decision-making has been moved to lower levels or tiers of the organization, such as divisions, branches, departments or subsidiaries. Knowledge, information and ideas are flowing from the bottom to the top of the organization. The span of control of top managers is relatively small, and there are relatively few tiers in the organization, because there is more autonomy in the lower ranks.

COMPUTER GRAPHICS

The term computer graphics has been used in a broad sense to describe "almost everything on computers that is not text or sound. Typically, the term computer graphics refers to several different things: The representation and manipulation of Image Data by a computer. The various technologies used to create and manipulate images. The images so produced, and The sub-field of computer science which studies methods for digitally synthesizing and manipulating visual content

Computer generated imagery can be categorized into several different types: 2D, 3D, and animated graphics. As technology has improved, 3D computer graphics have become more common, but 2D computer graphics are still widely used. Computer graphics has emerged as a sub-field of computer science which studies methods for digitally synthesizing and manipulating visual content.

VIRTUAL MEMORY

In computing, virtual memory is a memory management technique developed for multitasking Kernals. This technique virtualizes a computer architectures various forms of computer data storage(such as random access memory and Disk storage), allowing a program to be designed as though there is only one kind of memory, "virtual" memory, which behaves like directly addressable read/write memory (RAM). Systems that employ virtual memory:

Use hardware memory more efficiently than do systems without virtual memory. Make the programming of applications easier: By hiding fragmentation. By delegating to the kernel the burden of managing the memory hierarchy.

Zip

Windows users will see this term a lot when looking for files on the Internet. A zip file (.zip) is a "zipped" or compressed file. For example, when you download a file, if the filename looks like this: "filename.zip," you are downloading a zipped file. "Zipping" a file involves compressing one or more items into a smaller archive. A zipped file takes up less hard drive space and takes less time to transfer to another computer. This is why most Windows files that you find on the Internet are compressed. To use a zipped file, you'll need to unzip it first. PKZIP for DOS, or WinZip for Windows, are some popular programs that can unzip files for you. Fortunately, these programs can be downloaded for free from Web sites like Download.com. The term "Zip" also refers to a product by Iomega. The company makes a removable storage device called a Zip Drive. Depending on the model, these drives can hold 100, 250 or 750 MB Zip disks. They are usually used for

backup and for transferring large files to different locations. However, Zip drives are not as fast as hard drives, so it is usually not a good idea to run programs off them.

404 ERROR

A 404 error is a common website error message that indicates a webpage cannot be found. It may be produced when a user clicks an outdated (or "broken") link or when a URL is typed incorrectly in a Web browser's address field. Some websites display custom 404 error pages, which may look similar to other pages on the site. Other websites simply display the Web server's default error message text, which typically begins with "Not Found." Regardless of the appearance, a 404 error means the server is up and running, but the webpage or path to the webpage is not valid. So why call it a "404 error" instead of simply a "Missing Webpage Error?" The reason is that 404 is an error code produced by the Web server when it cannot find a webpage. This error code is recognized by search engines, which helps prevent search engine crawlers from indexing bad URLs. 404 errors can also be read by Web scripts and website monitoring tools, which can help web masters, locate and fix broken links. Other common Web server codes are 200, which means a webpage has been found, and 301, which indicates a file has moved to a new location. Like 404 errors, these status messages are not seen directly by users, but they are used by search engines and website monitoring software.

SOFTWARE ENGINEERING

Software Engineering (SE) is a profession dedicated to designing, implementing, and modifying software so that it is of high quality, affordable, maintainable, and fast to build. It is a "systematic approach to the analysis, design, assessment, implementation, test, maintenance and reengineering of software, that is, the application of engineering to software." The term software engineering first appeared in the 1968 NATO Software Engineering Conference. It is the application of Engineering to software because it integrates significant mathematics, computer science and practices whose origins are in Engineering.

SOFTWARE TESTING

Software testing is an investigation conducted to provide stakeholders with information about the quality of the product or service under test. Software testing can also provide an objective, independent view of the software to allow the business to appreciate and understand the risks of software implementation. Test techniques include, but are not limited to, the process of executing a program or application with the intent of finding software bugs (errors or other defects). Software testing can be stated as the process of validating and verifying that a software program/application/product: Meets the requirements that guided its design and development; 10

 Works as expected; and Can be implemented with the same characteristics. Software testing, depending on the testing method employed, can be implemented at any time in the development process. However, most of the test effort occurs after the requirements have been defined and the coding process has been completed. As such, the methodology of the test is governed by the software development methodology adopted.

COMPILER

A compiler is a computer program (or set of programs) that transforms source code written in a programming language (the source language) into another computer language (the target language, often having a binary form known as object code.) The most common reason for wanting to transform source code is to create an executable program. The name "compiler" is primarily used for programs that translate source code from a high-level programming language to a lower level language (e.g., assembly language or machine code). If the compiled program can run on a computer whose CPU or operating system is different from the one on which the compiler runs, the compiler is known as a cross-compiler. A compiler is likely to perform many or all of the following operations: lexical analysis, preprocessing, parsing, semantic analysis (Syntax-directed translation), code generation, and code optimization.

ATM

Stands for "Asynchronous Transfer Mode". Most people know of ATMs as automated teller machines -- those friendly boxes that allow you to withdraw cash from your bank or credit account while charging you a ridiculous surcharge for the service. In the computer world, however, ATM has a different meaning. Asynchronous Transfer Mode is a networking technology that transfers data in packets or cells of a fixed size. ATM uses 53-byte cells (5 bytes for the address header and 48 bytes for the data). These extremely small cells can be processed through an ATM switch (not an automated teller machine) fast enough to maintain data transfer speeds of over 600 mbps. The technology was designed for the high-speed transmission of all forms of media from basic graphics to full-motion video. Because the cells are so small, ATM equipment can transmit large amounts of data over a single connection while ensuring that no single transmission takes up all the bandwidth. It also allows Internet Service Providers (ISPs) to assign limited bandwidth to each customer. While this may seem like a downside for the customer, it actually improves the efficiency of the ISP's Internet connection, causing the overall speed of the connection to be faster for everybody.

BATCH FILE

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A batch file is a type of script that contains a list of commands. These commands are executed in sequence and can be used to automate processes. For example, some programs may include a batch file that executes a number of commands as the program starts up. A user can also create a custom batch file to automate tedious processes such as copying multiple directories or renaming several files at once. Batch files are run by the COMMAND.COM program, which is part of DOS and Windows. Therefore, batch files can only be run within the Windows operating system. Macintosh and Unix have other scripting tools, such as AppleScript and Unix shell commands, that can be used for similar tasks. Because batch files contain executable commands, it is important not to open unknown batch files on your hard disk or in e-mail attachments. DATA TRANSFER RATE

The data transfer rate is commonly used to measure how fast data is transferred from one location to another. For example, a hard drive may have a maximum data transfer rate of 480 Mbps, while your ISP may offer an Internet connection with a maximum data transfer rate of only 1.5 Mbps. Data transfer rates are typically measured in bits per second (bps) as opposed to bytes per second, which can be understandably confusing. Because there are eight bits in a byte, a sustained data transfer rate of 80 Mbps is only transferring 10MB per second. While this is confusing for consumers, Internet service providers must enjoy measuring data transfer rates in bps since it makes their Internet access speeds sound 8 x faster than they really are.

EXTRANET

Extranets are networks that connect companies with customers and partners. In Extranet a company has to work with the other like-minded organizations on the network, so that it is accessible to specific people or groups outside the organization. Extranets require more security and technical consideration because they have to send private information securely over public networks. Extranets provides a safe way to allow transactional business-to-business activities. Extranet is more complex and costly to set up and requires efficient internal systems.

Example of Extranet:Different banks are providing the facility of ATM (Automatic Teller Machine) cards with VISA facility means one can make use of HDFC ATM in ICICI ATM machine anywhere in the world.

ANDROID

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Android is a mobile operating system developed by Google. It is used by several Smartphones such as the Motorola Droid, the Samsung Galaxy, and Google's own Nexus One. The Android operating system (OS) is based on the open Linux kernel, unlike the iPhone OS, Android is open source, meaning developers can modify and customize the OS for each phone. Therefore, different Android-based phones may have different graphical user interfaces GUIs even though they use the same OS. Android phones typically come with several built-in applications and also support third-party programs. Developers can create programs for Android using the free Android SDK (Software Developer Kit). Android programs are written in Java and run through Google's "Davlik" virtual machine, which is optimized for mobile devices. Users can download Android "apps" from the online Android Market.

RELATIONAL DATABASE

The Relational model was first introduces by Dr. Edgar Frank Codd, an oxford-trained Mathematician, while working in IBM Research Centre in 1970s. He represented this idea in a classical paper (A Relational Model of Data for Large Shared Data banks) and attracted immediate attention due to its simplicity and mathematical foundations. The Relational model is considered one of the most popular developments in the database technology because it can be used for representing most of the real world objects and the relationships between them.

Relational Model Terminology

Relation Tuple Attribute Domain Cardinality Degree Primary Key Foreign Key

Table Row, Record Column, Field Set of Legal Values Number of Rows Number of Columns Unique Identifier Identifier used to reference another table

DISTRIBUTED DATABASE

A Distributed database is a single logical database that is spread physically across computers in multiple locations that are connected by a data communication links. 13

In distributed database the user at any location can access data anywhere in the network as if the data were all stored at the users own location. The software that manages the distributed database and provides an access mechanism that makes this distribution transparent to the user is known as Distributed Database. Management System (DDBMS):- By the term transparent we mean that the user will be aware of one relational database schema, it doesnt matter where the data is located or how the query is executed.

C/C++

C is a high-level programming language that was developed in the mid-1970s. It was originally used for writing UNIX programs, but is now used to write applications for nearly every available platform. Compared to most previous languages, C is easier to read, more flexible (can be used for a wide variety of purposes), and more efficient at using memory. C++, pronounced "C plus," is a programming language that was built off the C language. The syntax of C++ is nearly identical to C, but it has object-oriented features, which allow the programmer to create objects within the code. This makes programming easier, more efficient, and some would even say more fun. Because of the power and flexibility of the language, most software programs today are written in C++.

BUSINESS TO BUSINESS (B2B)

B2B is one of the most important terms in the IT world. B2B is any business process between two companies that uses digital technology. That provides information, facilitate transactions, execute transactions and completely integrate shared business processes into separate, information on ERP systems. B2B process invokes other functions that will incorporate processes like digital invoicing, inventory management, electronic payment and auctioning finished products. B2B exchanges are service hubs dedicated to a particular market, providing all the players in that market with the opportunity to digitally communicate with each other. Exchanges can deliver market specific information by providing access to industry directories, product databases, discussion forums, articles and industry specific bulletin boards. They can also act as a matchmaker between multiple buyers and suppliers through the use of auctions and reverse auctions. When there is the requisite amount of capability between the systems involved, the exchange can actually execute transactions between members that wish to buy and sell, and its highest end, the exchange becomes a market specific hub capable of dynamically integrating multiple supply chains and partners on demand.

INTRANET

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An Intranet is a network within an organization uses technology similar to internet that enables users to find, use, share documents and web pages. Corporations use intranet to communicate with employees. In large companies, Intranet is being used by employees to obtain and share work-related documents, share knowledge, transfer documents from one terminal to another, access e-learning tools and learn about company news. Any message from company broadcast to all computers. Intranets use traditional Internet protocols TCP/IP and HTTP to transfer data.

Advantages of Intranet: Intranet is based on Internet technologies and protocols. That means Intranet can make use of all the facilities of Internet. Intranet information is accessible using GUI based interface provided by web browsers. You can use the browsers such as Internet Explorer and Netscape Navigator. Intranets are easier and less expensive to setup and maintain than traditional networks. Documents on Intranet are written in HTML. One can produce HTML documents using Microsoft Word by saving the document as a web page. Since Intranets are based on Internet technology, they can also incorporate graphics, sound and video, email, newsgroups facilities. Staff will find it simpler and more intuitive to use because it is accessed through a web browser provides an easy, point and click interface. An Intranet does not mean interconnection of a lot of people. Depending on your business need, it could link just 3 or 4 people in your organization.

DBA

DBA is a person or group of persons who is responsible for management of the database. DBA is a highly skilled person with strong technical background to monitor various operations such as creating, modifying and maintaining which help in handling three levels Of the database. DBA has most of the powers such as defining schemas, storage structures and access Method strategies, physical organization, authorization and integrity constraints etc. DBA are the top level authority among all the persons connected to the database.

The main responsibilities of DBA are: Deciding the information content of the database. Define the storage structure and access strategies. Defines external schemas for the users. Defines integrity constraints specifications. Granting of authorization for data access. Define strategy for backup and recovery. Installing and upgrading the DBMS and the application tools. Monitoring and optimizing the performance of the database. Plans the future storage requirements for the database system.

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SPAM

Spam is flooding the Internet with many copies of the same message, in an attempt to force the message on people who would not otherwise choose to receive it. Most spam is commercial advertising, often for dubious products, get-rich-quick schemes, or quasi-legal services.

There are two main types of spam and they have different effects on Internet users: Cancellable Usenet spam: - It is a single message sent to 20 or more Usenet newsgroups. Usenet spam is aimed at "lurkers", people who read newsgroups but rarely or never post and give their address away. Usenet spam robs users of the utility of the newsgroups by overwhelming them with a barrage of advertising or other irrelevant posts. Furthermore, Usenet spam subverts the ability of system administrators and owners to manage the topics they accept on their systems. Email spam:- It targets individual users with direct mail messages. Email spam lists are often created by scanning Usenet postings, stealing Internet mailing lists, or searching the Web for addresses. Email spams typically cost users money out-of-pocket to receive.

POP3

Stands for Post Office Protocol". POP3, sometimes referred to as just "POP," is a simple, standardized method of delivering email messages. A POP3 mail server receives e-mails and filters them into the appropriate user folders. When a user connects to the mail server to retrieve his mail, the messages are downloaded from mail server to the user's hard disk. When you configure your e-mail client, such as Outlook (Windows) or Mail (Mac OS X), you will need to enter the type of mail server your e-mail account uses. This will typically be either a POP3 or IMAP server. IMAP mail servers are a bit more complex than POP3 servers and allow e-mail messages to be read and stored on the server. Many "webmail" interfaces use IMAP mail servers so that users can manage all their mail online. Still, most mail servers use the POP3 mail protocol because it is simple and well-supported. You may have to check with your ISP or whoever manages your mail account to find out what settings to use for configuring your mail program. If your e-mail account is on a POP3 mail server, you will need to enter the correct POP3 server address in your e-mail program settings. Typically, this is something like "mail.servername.com" or "pop.servername.com." Of course, to successfully retrieve your mail, you will have to enter a valid username and password too.

LINKER

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Linker is system software that combines or links the various object modules in order to create the executable form of the program. The two main functions of a linker are to resolve a external references and to perform relocation. The need of linker arises when source program consist of large number of modules, each of which may have been separately compiled or assembled. In such a case compiler is able to compile each module of a program by itself with little or no information from other parts of the program. Thus, it is responsibility of a linker to combine all such object files produced by compiler and produce the executable form of the program. During the process of combining object files, produced by compiler and produce the executable form of the program. During the process of combining of object modules, the linker relocates them, since the codes are generated by assembler assuming the same fixed start address for all the modules. Another responsibility of the linker is to resolve or adjust external references. Linker also produces error messages if some external reference could not be resolved even after consulting all the object modules

DEBBUGER

A debugger or debugging tool is a computer program that is used to test and debug other programs (the "target" program). The code to be examined might alternatively be running on an instruction set simulator (ISS), a technique that allows great power in its ability to halt when specific conditions are encountered but which will typically be somewhat slower than executing the code directly on the appropriate (or the same) processor. Some debuggers offer two modes of operation - full or partial simulation, to limit this impact. A "crash" happens when the program cannot normally continue because of a programming bug. For example, the program might have tried to use an instruction not available on the current version of the CPU or attempted to access unavailable or protected memory. When the program "crashes" or reaches a preset condition, the debugger typically shows the position in the original code if it is a source-level debugger or symbolic debugger, commonly now seen in integrated development environments. If it is a low-level debugger or a machine-language debugger it shows the line in the disassembly (unless it also has online access to the original source code and can display the appropriate section of code from the assembly or compilation).

THRASHING

If the number of frames allocated to a low priority process is lower than the minimum number required by the computer architecture then in this case we must suspend the execution of this low priority process. After this we should page out all of its remaining pages and freeing all of its allocated frames. This provision introduces a swap in, swap-out level of intermediate CPU scheduling. Let take a example of a process that does not have enough number of frames. If the process does not have the number of frames it needs to support pages in active use, it will quickly page fault. The only option remains here for process is to replace some active pages with the page that requires a frame. However, since all of its pages are in active use, It must replace a page that will be needed again right away. Consequently, it quickly faults again and again that mean replacing pages that it must bring back in immediately. This high paging activity is called Thrashing. Or we can say that a process is thrashing if it is spending more time in paging then executing. Thrashing results in severe performance problems. If the number of frames allocated to a low priority process is lower than the minimum number required by the computer architecture then in this case we must suspend the execution of this low priority process. After this we 17

should page out all of its remaining pages and freeing all of its allocated frames. This provision introduces a swap in, swap-out level of intermediate CPU scheduling. Let take a example of a process that does not have enough number of frames.

DYNAMIC WEBSITES

Dynamic websites contain Web pages that are generated in real-time .These pages include Web scripting code, such as PHP or ASP, when a dynamic page is accessed, the code within the page is parsed on the Web server and the resulting HTML is sent to the client's Web browser. Most large websites are dynamic, since they are easier to maintain than static websites, this is because static pages each contain unique content, meaning they must be manually opened, edited, and published whenever a change is made. Dynamic pages, on the other hand, access information from a database .Therefore, to alter the content of a dynamic page, the webmaster may only need to update a database record. This is especially helpful for large sites that contain hundreds or thousands of pages. It also makes it possible for multiple users to update the content of a website without editing the layout of the pages. Dynamic websites that access information from a database are also called database-driven websites.

MULTIPLEXER

In telecommunications and computer networks, multiplexing (also known as muxing) is a method by which multiple analog message signals or digital data streams are combined into one signal over a shared medium. The aim is to share an expensive resource. For example, in telecommunications, several telephone calls may be carried using one wire. Multiplexing originated in telegraphy, and is now widely applied in communications. The multiplexed signal is transmitted over a communication channel, which may be a physical transmission medium. The multiplexing divides the capacity of the low-level communication channel into several higher-level logical channels, one for each message signal or data stream to be transferred. A reverse process, known as demultiplexing, can extract the original channels on the receiver side. A device that performs the multiplexing is called a multiplexer (MUX), and a device that performs the reverse process is called a demultiplexer (DEMUX)

STATIC WEBSITE 18

A static website contains Web pages with fixed content. Each page is coded in HTML and displays the same information to every visitor. Static sites are the most basic type of website and are the easiest to create. Unlike dynamic websites they do not require any Web programming or database design. A static site can be built by simply creating a few HTML pages and publishing them to a Web server. Since static Web pages contain fixed code, the content of each page does not change unless it is manually updated by the webmaster. This works well for small websites, but it can make large sites with hundreds or thousands of pages difficult to maintain. Therefore, larger websites typically use dynamic pages, which can be updated by simply modifying a database record. Static sites that contain a lot of pages are often designed using templates. This makes it possible to update several pages at once, and also helps provide a consistent layout throughout the site.

APPLET

This Java program that can be embedded in a Web page. The difference between a standard Java application and a Java applet is that an applet can't access system resources on the local computer. System files and serial devices (modems, printers, scanners, etc.) cannot be called or used by the applet. This is for security reasons -- nobody wants their system wiped out by a malicious applet on some wacko's Web site. Applets have helped make the Web more dynamic and entertaining and have given a helpful boost to the Java programming language.

SDLC

In telecommunications and computer networks, multiplexing (also known as muxing) is a method by which multiple analog message signals or digital data streams are combined into one signal over a shared medium. The aim is to share an expensive resource. For example, in telecommunications, several telephone calls may be carried using one wire. Multiplexing originated in telegraphy, and is now widely applied in communications. The multiplexed signal is transmitted over a communication channel, which may be a physical transmission medium. The multiplexing divides the capacity of the low-level communication channel into several higher-level logical channels, one for each message signal or data stream to be transferred. A reverse process, known as demultiplexing, can extract the original channels on the receiver side. A device that performs the multiplexing is called a multiplexer (MUX), and a device that performs the reverse process is called a demultiplexer (DEMUX)

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Model of System development life cycle

FLIP-FLOP

In digital circuits, a flip-flop is a term referring to an electronic circuit that has two stable states and thereby is capable of serving as one bit of memory. A flip-flop is usually controlled by one or two control signals and/or a gate or clock signal. The output often includes the complement as well as the normal output. Uses: A single flip-flop can be used to store one bit, or binary digit, of data. Any one of the flip-flop type can be used to build any of the others. Many logic synthesis tools will not use any other type than D flip-flop and D latch. Level sensitive latches cause problems with Static Timing Analysis (STA) tools and Design for Test (DFT). Therefore, their usage is often discouraged. Many FPGA devices contain only edge-triggered D flip-flops

BINARY SEARCH TREE

First of all, binary search tree (BST) is a dynamic data structure, which means, that its size is only limited by amount of free memory in the operating system and number of elements may vary during the program run. Main advantage of binary search trees is rapid search, while addition is quite cheap. Let us see more formal definition of BST. Binary search tree is a data structure, which meets the following requirements: It is a binary tree; Each node contains a value; A total order is defined on these values (every two values can be compared with each other); Left subtree of a node contains only values lesser, than the node's value; Right subtree of a node contains only values greater, than the node's value.

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ARRAY

Array is a very basic data structure representing a group of similar elements, accessed by index. Array data structure can be effectively stored inside the computer and provides fast access to the all its elements. Let us see an advantages and drawbacks of the arrays. Advantages No overhead per element. Any element of an array can be accessed at O (1) time by its index.

Drawbacks Array data structure is not completely dynamic. Many programming languages provides an opportunity to allocate arrays with arbitrary size (dynamically allocated array), but when this space is used up, a new array of greater size must be allocated and old data is copied to it. Insertion and deletion of an element in the array requires to shift O (n) elements on average, where n is size of the array.

CONSTRUCTOR

A constructor is a member function with the same name as its class. For example: class X { public: X(); }; Constructors are used to create, and can initialize, objects of their class type. You cannot declare a constructor as virtual or static, nor can you declare a constructor as const, volatile, or const volatile. You do not specify a return type for a constructor. A return statement in the body of a constructor cannot have a return value. MULTITHREADING // constructor for class X

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Multitasking is performing two or more tasks at the same time. Nearly all operating systems are capable of multitasking by using one of two multitasking techniques: process-based multitasking and thread-based multitasking. Process-based multitasking is running two programs concurrently. Programmers refer to a program as a process. Therefore, you could say that process-based multitasking is program-based multitasking. Thread-based multitasking is having a program perform two tasks at the same time. For example, a word processing program can check the spelling of words in a document while you write the document. This is thread-based multitasking.

OBJECT ORIENTED PROGRAMMING

This is popularly known as OOP and is a language centered on objects and following the four basic principles of Abstraction, Encapsulation, Inheritance and Polymorphism. Many programmers who have worked only in functional/ procedural languages such as C and Pascal often have difficulty in understanding just what object oriented programming is. It is often referred to as a programming paradigm based on objects and their interactions. What is Object Oriented Programming? Examples Since C++ and Java have procedural elements as well as an OOP element, a question often arises if they qualify as per the definition object oriented programming language. The answer is Yes, although they are a mix and match of procedural language + object orientation they pass all the parameters of OOP. Many developers believe that using this definition object oriented programming is restricted to imperative programming, which is not the case. PHP is a great example of a language that had a procedural origin but then converted to object orientation to gain maximum benefits from OOP. Objected Oriented Programming Classes & Objects A good understanding of Classes and Objects is essential to understand just what object oriented programming is. Classes and objects are used heavily to structure the program. The cruxes behind the definition object oriented programming is a collection of objects, which are instances of classes. Objects are accessible to the programmer via an interface and they can send/ receive messages to other objects. The behavior of these objects is defined by its methods.

ROUTERS

Routers are physical devices that join multiple wired or wireless networks together. Technically, a wired or wireless router is a Layer 3 gateway, meaning that the wired/wireless router connects networks (as gateways do), and that the router operates at the network layer of the OSI model. Home networkers often use an Internet Protocol (IP) wired or wireless router, IP being the most common OSI network layer protocol. An IP router such as a DSL or cable modem broadband router joins the home's local area network (LAN) to the wide-area network (WAN) of the Internet. By maintaining configuration information in a piece of storage called the routing table, wired or wireless routers also have the ability to filter traffic, either incoming or outgoing, based on the IP addresses of senders and receivers. Some routers allow the home networker to update the routing table from a Web browser interface.

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INFRARED

Infrared frequencies are just below visible light. These high frequencies allow high speed data transmission. This technology is similar to the use of a remote control for a TV. Infrared transmission can be affected by objects obstructing sender or receiver. These transmissions fall into two categories. (i)Point to point (ii)Broadcast (i) Point to Point: - Point to point infrared transmission signal directly between two systems. Many lap top system use point to pint transmission. These systems require direct alignment between many devices. Characteristics of Point to point: Wide range of cost Moderately easy installation. 100 k bps to 16 Mb of capacity. Variable attenuation. High immunity to EMI (ii) Broad Cast: - These infrared transmissions use sprayed signal, one broad cast in all directions instead of direct beam. This help to reduce the problems of proper alignment and abstraction. It also allows multiple receiver of signal Characteristics of Broad Cast: In expensive. Single installation. 1M bps capacity.

SATELLITE MICROWAVES

The main problem with aero wave communication is the curvature of the earth, mountains & other structure often block the line of side. Due to this reason, many repeats are required for long distance which increases the cost of data transmission between the two points. This problem is recommended by using satellites. Satellite micro wave transmission is used to transmit signals throughout the world. These system use satellites in orbit about 50,000 Km above the earth. Satellite dishes are used to send the signals to the Satellite where it is again send back down to the receiver satellite. These transmissions also use directional parabolic antenna within line of side. In satellite communication micro wave signals at 6 GHz is transmitted from a transmitter on the earth through the satellite position in space. By the time signal reaches the satellites becomes weaker due to 50,000 Km distance. The satellite amplifies week signals and transmits it back to the earth at the frequency less than 6 GHz. Characteristics Satellite Micro waves: High cost Extremely difficult and hare installation. Variable attenuation. Low immunity to EMI High security needed because a signal send to satellite is broadcasts through all receivers with in satellite.

COAXIAL CABLE

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Coaxial cable is very common & widely used commutation media. For example TV wire is usually coaxial. Coaxial cable gets its name because it contains two conductors that are parallel to each other. The center conductor in the cable is usually copper. The copper can be either a solid wire or stranded martial. Outside this central Conductor is a non-conductive material. It is usually white, plastic material used to separate the inner Conductor form the outer Conductor. The other Conductor is a fine mesh made from Copper. It is used to help shield the cable form EMI. Outside the copper mesh is the final protective cover. (as shown in Fig) The actual data travels through the center conductor in the cable. EMI interference is caught by outer copper mesh. There are different types of coaxial cable vary by gauge & impedance. Gauge is the measure of the cable thickness. It is measured by the Radio grade measurement, or RG number. The high the RG number, the thinner the central conductor core, the lower the number the thicker the core.

TRANSMISSION MEDIA

The means through which data is transformed from one place to another is called transmission or communication media. There are two categories of transmission media used in computer communications. BOUNDED/GUIDED MEDIA UNBOUNDED/UNGUIDED MEDIA BOUNDED MEDIA: Bounded media are the physical links through which signals are confined to narrow path. These are also called guide media. Bounded media are made up o a external conductor (Usually Copper) bounded by jacket material. Bounded media are great for LABS because they offer high speed, good security and low cast. However, some time they cannot be used due distance communication. Three common types of bounded media are used of the data transmission. These are Coaxial Cable Twisted Pairs Cable Fiber Optics Cable UNBOUNDED / UNGUIDED MEDIA Unbounded / Unguided media or wireless media doesn't use any physical connectors between the two devices communicating. Usually the transmission is send through the atmosphere but sometime it can be just across the rule. Wireless media is used when a physical obstruction or distance blocks are used with normal cable media. The three types of wireless media are: RADIO WAVES MICRO WAVES INFRARED WAVES

ENCAPSULATION

Encapsulation is the process of combining data and functions into a single unit called class. Using the method of encapsulation, the programmer cannot directly access the data. Data is only accessible through the functions present inside the class. Data encapsulation led to the important concept of data hiding. Data hiding is the implementation details of a class that are hidden from the user. The concept of restricted access led programmers to write specialized functions or methods for performing the operations on hidden members of the class. Attention must be paid to ensure that the class is designed properly.

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Neither too much access nor too much control must be placed on the operations in order to make the class user friendly. Hiding the implementation details and providing restrictive access leads to the concept of abstract data type. Encapsulation leads to the concept of data hiding, but the concept of encapsulation must not be restricted to information hiding. Encapsulation clearly represents the ability to bundle related data and functionality within a single, autonomous entity called a class.

ABSTRACTION

Abstraction is one of the most powerful and vital features provided by object-oriented C++ programming language. Modularity is very important in any programming language; it provides flexibility to users for using the programming language. This aspect is well achieved with high performance by the concept of abstraction in C++. In object-oriented programming language the programmer can abstract both data and code when needed. The concept of abstraction relates to the idea of hiding data that are not needed for presentation. The main idea behind data abstraction is to give a clear separation between properties of data type and the associated implementation details. This separation is achieved in order that the properties of the abstract data type are visible to the user interface and the implementation details are hidden. Thus, abstraction forms the basic platform for the creation of user-defined data types called objects. Data abstraction is the process of refining data to its essential form. An Abstract Data Type is defined as a data type that is defined in terms of the operations that it supports and not in terms of its structure or implementation.

INHERITANCE

Inheritance is the process by which new classes called derived classes are created from existing classes called base classes. The derived classes have all the features of the base class and the programmer can choose to add new features specific to the newly created derived class. For example, a programmer can create a base class named fruit and define derived classes as mango, orange, banana, etc. Each of these derived classes, (mango, orange, banana, etc.) has all the features of the base class (fruit) with additional attributes or features specific to these newly created derived classes. Mango would have its own defined features, orange would have its own defined features, banana would have its own defined features, etc. Inheritance helps the code to be reused in many situations. The base class is defined and once it is compiled, it need not be reworked. Using the concept of inheritance, the programmer can create as many derived classes from the base class as needed while adding specific features to each derived class as needed.

SOFTWARE

Computer instructions or data. Anything that can be stored electronically is software. The storage devices and display devices are hardware. The terms software and hardware are used as both nouns and adjectives. For example, you can say: "The problem lies in the software," meaning that there is a problem with the program or data, not with the computer itself. You can also say: "It's a software problem."

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The distinction between software and hardware is sometimes confusing because they are so integrally linked. Clearly, when you purchase a program, you are buying software. But to buy the software, you need to buy the disk (hardware) on which the software is recorded. Types of Software System software This is the software which is actually running your computer. This software handles different request for use the hardware, many housekeeping work, storage of data etc. A good example of such system software is the Windows program which is running your computer. Linux and UNIX are the other common system software available for running computers. Application software These types of software are developed to handle a specific task and are developed to cater for the specific requirement of the user. This could be the Payroll system or the Accounting system of your company. The system is developed keeping all the requirements of the user in mind. But, for small companies it would not be a good idea to develop software applications specifically for your use. To keep the system running properly, you should have skilled IT expertise available to you and you might have to spend lots time and money to run the system properly.

EXPERT SYSTEM

An expert system is kind of a computer program which adopts a knowledge base of person to remove complications or to illustrate ambiguities where generally more than one human professional would want to be examined. Expert systems are much conformed in the given type of complication, and are a conventional appliance and/or subset of the artificial intelligence (AI). Sample types of procedures may be adopted to counterfeit the consummation of the professionals; however, similar to many or every are: 1) The formation of a knowledge base that adopts little knowledge representation architecture to grab the knowledge of the Subject Matter Expert (SME). 2) A operation of aggregate that information via SME and condensing it subsequently to the architecture, that is known as knowledge engineering. 3) The time instant when the system is get developed, it will be allocated in the universe complicated circumstance like the human Subject Matter Expert (SME), customarily as a help to human peasant or like a addendum to few useful data system. Expert systems can have or it may be possible that it do not have knowledge gaining ingredients.

GAME PLAYING

Ever since the beginning of AI, there has been a great fascination in pitting the human expert against the computer. Game playing provided a high-visibility platform for this contest. It is important to note, however, that the performance of the human expert and the AI game-playing program reflect qualitatively different processes. Game Playing Computers, Games, and The Real World (if link fails, click here for a local copy) - This Scientific American article by Matthew Ginsberg discusses the current work being done in game-playing AI, such as the nowfamous Deep Blue. While it may seem somewhat frivolous to spend all this effort on games, one should remember that games present a controlled world in which a good player must learn to problem solve rapidly, and intelligently. 26

Machine learning in Game playing - This resource page, assembled by Jay Scott, contains a large amount of links to issues related to machine game playing. Report on games, computers and artificial intelligence - An updated, and easy to understand summary of the status of game playing and AI.

OPERATOR OVERLOADING

In computer programming, operator overloading (less commonly known as operator ad-hoc polymorphism) is a specific case of polymorphism in which some or all of operators like +, =, or == have different implementations depending on the types of their arguments. Sometimes the over loadings are defined by the language; sometimes the programmer can implement support for new types. Operator overloading is claimed to be useful because it allows the developer to program using notation "closer to the target domain" and allows user-defined types a similar level of syntactic support as types built into the language.

DOMAIN

A domain contains a group of computers that can be accessed and administered with a common set of rules. For example, a company may require all local computers to be networked within the same domain so that each computer can be seen from other computers within the domain or located from a central server. Setting up a domain may also block outside traffic from accessing computers within the network, which adds an extra level of security. While domains can be setup using a variety of networking software, including applications from Novell and Oracle, Windows users are most likely familiar with Windows Network Domains This networking option is built into Windows and allows users to create or join a domain. The domain may or may not be password-protected. Once connected to the domain, a user may view other computers within the domain and can browse the shared files and folders available on the connected systems. Windows XP users can browse Windows Network Domains by selecting the "My Network Places" option on the left side of an open window. You can create a new domain by using the Network Setup Wizard. Mac users using Mac OS X 10.2 or later can also connect to a Windows Network by clicking the "Network" icon on the left side of an open window. This will allow you to browse local Macintosh and Windows networks using the SMB protocol.

RELATIONAL KEYS

The word "key" is much used and abused in the context of relational database design. In pre-relational databases (hierarchical, networked) and file systems (ISAM, VSAM, et al) "key" often referred to the specific structure and components of a linked list, chain of pointers, or other physical locator outside of the data. It is thus natural, but unfortunate, that today people often associate "key" with a RDBMS "index". We will explain what a key is and how it differs from an index. There are only three types of relational keys Candidate Key

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As stated above, a candidate key is any set of one or more columns whose combined values are unique among all occurrences (i.e., tuples or rows). Since a null value is not guaranteed to be unique, no component of a candidate key is allowed to be null. There can be any number of candidate keys in a table Relational pundits are not in agreement whether zero candidate keys is acceptable, since that would contradict the (debatable) requirement that there must be a primary key. Primary Key The primary key of any table is any candidate key of that table which the database designer arbitrarily designates as "primary". The primary key may be selected for convenience, comprehension, performance, or any other reasons. It is entirely proper (albeit often inconvenient) to change the selection of primary key to another candidate key. Alternate Key The alternate keys of any table are simply those candidate keys which are not currently selected as the primary key. According to {Date95} "... exactly one of those candidate keys [is] chosen as the primary key [and] the remainder, if any, are then called alternate keys." An alternate key is a function of all candidate keys minus the primary key.

ENTITY RELATIONSHIP DIAGRAM

An entity-relationship (ER) diagram is a specialized graphic that illustrates the relationships between entities in a database. ER diagrams often use symbols to represent three different types of information. Boxes are commonly used to represent entities. Diamonds are normally used to represent relationships and ovals are used to represent attributes. Also Known As: ER Diagram, E-R Diagram, entity-relationship model

Examples: Consider the example of a database that contains information on the residents of a city. The ER diagram shown in the image above contains two entities -- people and cities. There is a single "Lives In" relationship. In our example, due to space constraints, there is only one attribute associated with each entity. People have names and cities have populations. In a real-world example, each one of these would likely have many different attributes.

DEADLOCK

In computer science, Coffman deadlock refers to a specific condition when two or more processes are each waiting for each other to release a resource, or more than two processes are waiting for resources in a circular chain). Deadlock is a common problem in multiprocessing where many processes share a specific type of mutually exclusive resource known as a software lock or soft lock. Computers intended for the time-sharing and/or real-time markets are often equipped with a hardware lock (or hard lock) which guarantees exclusive access to processes, 28

forcing serialized access. Deadlocks are particularly troubling because there is no general solution to avoid (soft) deadlocks. This situation may be likened to two people who are drawing diagrams, with only one pencil and one ruler between them. If one person takes the pencil and the other takes the ruler, a deadlock occurs when the person with the pencil needs the ruler and the person with the ruler needs the pencil to finish his work with the ruler. Neither request can be satisfied, so a deadlock occurs. The telecommunications description of deadlock is weaker than Coffman deadlock because processes can wait for messages instead of resources. Deadlock can be the result of corrupted messages or signals rather than merely waiting for resources. For example, a dataflow element that has been directed to receive input on the wrong link will never proceed even though that link is not involved in a Coffman cycle.

DATABASE REPLICATION

Database replication can be used on many database management systems, usually with a master/slave relationship between the original and the copies. The master logs the updates, which then ripple through to the slaves. The slave outputs a message stating that it has received the update successfully, thus allowing the sending (and potentially resending until successfully applied) of subsequent updates. Multi-master replication, where updates can be submitted to any database node, and then ripple through to other servers, is often desired, but introduces substantially increased costs and complexity which may make it impractical in some situations. The most common challenge that exists in multi-master replication is transactional conflict prevention or resolution. Most synchronous or eager replication solutions do conflict prevention, while asynchronous solutions have to do conflict resolution. For instance, if a record is changed on two nodes simultaneously, an eager replication system would detect the conflict before confirming the commit and abort one of the transactions. A lazy replication system would allow both transactions to commit and run a conflict resolution during resynchronization. The resolution of such a conflict may be based on a timestamp of the transaction, on the hierarchy of the origin nodes or on much more complex logic, which decides consistently on all nodes. Database replication becomes difficult when it scales up. Usually, the scale up goes with two dimensions, horizontal and vertical: horizontal scale up has more data replicas, vertical scale up has data replicas located further away in distance. Problems raised by horizontal scale up can be alleviated by a multi-layer multi-view access protocol. Vertical scale up is running into less trouble since internet reliability and performance are improving.

OPERATING SYSTEM

An operating system (OS) is a set of programs that manage computer hardware resources and provide common services for application software. The operating system is the most important type of system software in a computer system. A user cannot run an application program on the computer without an operating system, unless the application program is self booting. Time-sharing operating systems schedule tasks for efficient use of the system and may also include accounting for cost allocation of processor time, mass storage, printing, and other resources. For hardware functions such as input and output and memory allocation, the operating system acts as an intermediary between application programs and the computer hardware, [1][2] although the application code is usually executed directly by the hardware and will frequently call the OS or be interrupted by it. Operating systems are found on almost any device that contains a computerfrom cellular phones and video game consoles to supercomputers and web servers.

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NORMALIZATION: In the design of a relational database management system (RDBMS), the process of organizing data to minimize redundancy is called normalization. The goal of database normalization is to decompose relations with anomalies in order to produce smaller, well-structured relations. Normalization usually involves dividing large tables into smaller (and less redundant) tables and defining relationships between them. The objective is to isolate data so that additions, deletions, and modifications of a field can be made in just one table and then propagated through the rest of the database via the defined relationships.

SOFTWARE TESTING

Software testing is any activity aimed at evaluating an attribute or capability of a program or system and determining that it meets its required results. Although crucial to software quality and widely deployed by programmers and testers, software testing still remains an art, due to limited understanding of the principles of software. The difficulty in software testing stems from the complexity of software: we cannot completely test a program with moderate complexity. Testing is more than just debugging. The purpose of testing can be quality assurance, verification and validation, or reliability estimation. Testing can be used as a generic metric as well. Correctness testing and reliability testing are two major areas of testing. Software testing is a trade-off between budget, time and quality. Software Testing Types: Black box testing Internal system design is not considered in this type of testing. Tests are based on requirements and functionality. White box testing This testing is based on knowledge of the internal logic of an applications code. Also known as Glass box Testing. Internal software and code working should be known for this type of testing. Tests are based on coverage of code statements, branches, paths, conditions. Unit testing Testing of individual software components or modules. Typically done by the programmer and not by testers, as it requires detailed knowledge of the internal program design and code. May require developing test drive modules or test harnesses.

BIOS

BIO (basic input/output system) is the program a personal computer's microprocessor uses to get the computer system started after you turn it on. It also manages data flow between the computer's operating system and attached devices such as the hard disk, video adapter, keyboard, mouse, and printer. BIOS is an integral part of your computer and come with it when you bring it home. (In contrast, the operating system can either be preinstalled by the manufacturer or vendor or installed by the user.) BIOS is a program that is made accessible to the microprocessor on an erasable programmable read-only memory (EPROM) chip. When computer is turned on, the microprocessor passes control to the BIOS program, which is always located at the same place on EPROM. When BIOS boots up (starts up) your computer, it first determines whether all of the attachments are in place and operational and then it loads the operating system (or key parts of it) into your computer's random access memory (RAM) from your hard disk or diskette drive. With BIOS, your operating system and its applications are freed from having to understand exact details (such as hardware addresses) about the attached input/output 30

devices. When device details change, only the BIOS program needs to be changed. Sometimes this change can be made during your system setup. In any case, neither your operating system nor any applications you use need to be changed. Although BIOS is theoretically always the intermediary between the microprocessor and I/O device control information and data flow, in some cases, BIOS can arrange for data to flow directly to memory from devices (such as video cards) that require faster data flow to be effective.

BYTE

A byte is a set of 8 bits that represent a single character in the computer's memory. Do not confuse this term with "bite," as in taking a bite of a cookie, because that is totally different. While bits are often used to measure data transfer speeds, bytes are used to measure file sizes, hard disk space, and computer memory. Larger amounts of data are measured in units such as megabytes, gigabytes, and terabytes. For example, one kilobyte is equal to 1,024 bytes. In most computer systems, a byte is a unit of data that is eight binary digits long. A byte is the unit most computers use to represent a character such as a letter, number, or typographic symbol (for example, "g", "5", or "?"). A byte can also hold a string of bits that need to be used in some larger unit for application purposes (for example, the stream of bits that constitute a visual image for a program that displays images or the string of bits that constitutes the machine code of a computer program). In some computer systems, four bytes constitute a word, a unit that a computer processor.

CASCADING STYLE SHEETS (CSS)

Cascading Style Sheets (CSS) is a presentation definition language that is used to control the layout of HTML documents by attaching styles. With CSS, you can apply styles such as color of the text, set margins, style of fonts, background images used, spacing between paragraphs and words and much more. It was developed by W3C in 1997 and is supported by all the browsers. With CSS, the site maintenance was made a lot easier as it separates the presentation style of the document with the contents of the document. The CSS document when linked to the WebPages of a website provides a consistent look to all the web pages as they take on the characteristics specified in the style sheet at once. CSS comes in different versions including CSS1, CSS2, CSS2.1 and CSS3.

PROTOTYPE MODEL: A prototype typically simulates only a few aspects of the final solution, and may be completely different from the final product. Prototyping has several benefits: The software designer and implementer can get valuable feedback from the users early in the project. The client and the contractor can compare if the software made matches the software specification, according to which the software program is built. It also allows the software engineer some insight into the accuracy of initial project estimates and whether the deadlines and milestones proposed can be successfully met

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PACKET SWITCHING

Packet switching is a digital networking communications method that groups all transmitted data regardless of content, type, or structure into suitably sized blocks, called packets. Packet switching features delivery of variablebit-rate data streams (sequences of packets) over a shared network. When traversing network adapters, switches, routers and other network nodes, packets are buffered and queued, resulting in variable delay and throughput depending on the traffic load in the network. Two major packet switching modes exist (1) connectionless packet switching, also known as datagram switching (2) connection-oriented packet switching, also known as virtual circuit

BINARY SERCH:

In computer science, a binary search tree (BST), which may sometimes also be called an ordered or sorted binary tree, is a node-based binary tree data structure which has the following properties:

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The left subtree of a node contains only nodes with keys less than the node's key. The right subtree of a node contains only nodes with keys greater than the node's key. Both the left and right subtrees must also be binary search trees.

Generally, the information represented by each node is a record rather than a single data element. However, for sequencing purposes, nodes are compared according to their keys rather than any part of their associated records. The major advantage of binary search trees over other data structures is that the related sorting algorithms and search algorithms such as in-order traversal can be very efficient.

CLIENT/SERVER

Client/server describes the relationship between two computer programs in which one program, the client, makes a service request from another program, the server, which fulfils the request. Although the client/server idea can be used by programs within a single computer, it is a more important idea in a network. In a network, the client/server model provides a convenient way to interconnect programs that are distributed efficiently across different locations. In the usual client/server model, one server, sometimes called a daemon, is activated and awaits client requests.

The clients make requests to the server and the server responds to the requests.

CLIPPING

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Clipping is a procedure or a set of instructions that helps to decide which area of the image is completely inside, completely outside & partially inside, partially outside the window. The important term Clip Window is the region or area against which an object is to be clipped.

Clipping can be of various types: Point Clipping Line Clipping Area or Polygon Clipping Curve Clipping Text Clipping

COOKIE

A cookie is information that a Web site puts on your hard disk so that it can remember something about you at a later time. (More technically, it is information for future use that is stored by the server on the client side of a client/server communication.) Typically, a cookie records your preferences when using a particular site. Using the Web's Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP), each request for a Web page is independent of all other requests. For this reason, the Web page server has no memory of what pages it has sent to a user previously or anything about your previous visits. A cookie is a mechanism that allows the server to store its own information about a user on the user's own computer. You can view the cookies that have been stored on your hard disk (although the content stored in each cookie may not make much sense to you). The location of the cookies depends on the browser. Internet Explorer stores each cookie as a separate file under a Windows subdirectory. Netscape stores all cookies in a single cookies.txt file. Opera stores them in a single cookies .dat file. Cookies are commonly used to rotate the banner as that a site sends so that it doesn't keep sending the same as it sends you a succession of requested pages. They can also be used to customize pages for you based on your browser type or other information you may have provided the Web site. Web users must agree to let cookies be saved for them, but, in general, it helps Web sites to serve users better.

COMMIT

In Oracle changes you make to your data are not permanent until you tell Oracle to make them so. This is accomplished using a SQL statement known as Commit. A Commit ends your transaction and makes the changes you have made permanent.

The syntax is: SQL>COMMIT; The following points should be remembered while using COMMIT statement.

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Whenever you execute a DDL statement (such as CREATE TABLE etc.) an implicit commit statement is generated before and after it is executed, even if the DDL fails. This is not in the case of DML statements. The Commit statement that one user issues have no effect on another users database changes.

LINKED LIST a linked list is a data structure consisting of a group of nodes which together represent a sequence. Under the simplest form, each node is composed of a datum and a reference (in other words, a link) to the next node in the sequence; more complex variants add additional links. This structure allows for efficient insertion or removal of elements from any position in the sequence.

A linked list whose nodes contain two fields: an integer value and a link to the next node. The last node is linked to a terminator used to signify the end of the list. Linked lists are among the simplest and most common data structures. They can be used to implement several other common abstract data structures, including stacks, queues,associative arrays, and symbolic expressions, though it is not uncommon to implement the other data structures directly without using a list as the basis of implementation. The principal benefit of a linked list over a conventional array is that the list elements can easily be inserted or removed without reallocation or reorganization of the entire structure because the data items need not be stored contiguously in memory or on disk. Linked lists allow insertion and removal of nodes at any point in the list, and can do so with a constant number of operations if the link previous to the link being added or removed is maintained during list traversal. On the other hand, simple linked lists by themselves do not allow random access to the data, or any form of efficient indexing. Thus, many basic operations such as obtaining the last node of the list (assuming that the last node is not maintained as separate node reference in the list structure), or finding a node that contains a given datum, or locating the place where a new node should be inserted may require scanning most or all of the list elements.

DATABASE

Database can be defined as A well organized collection of data that are related in a meaningful way which can be accessed by different users but stored only once. Consider an example of telephone directory in which names/surnames of a person is arranged in an alphabetical order. So it becomes easier to search any phone number corresponding to a particular name. If this ordering is not done in an organized manner then it is very difficult to search a phone number of a particular person, so this shows why databases are needed.

Features of data in a Database It should be well organized. It should be related. It should be integrated or in other words it should be correct. It should represent the relationship with the real world. It should be shared among different users as well as applications. It should be stored permanently so that it can be used later on. It should be available when and where it is needed i.e. it should be accessible. It should be secured from the unauthorized users access. 35

It should be stored only once and can be used again and again whenever it is required. It should be flexible to change.

DATA DICTIONARY

Data dictionary is a respiratory of description of data in the database. It contains information about Data Names of the tables, names of attributes of each table, length of attributes etc. Relationship between database transactions and data items referenced by them which is useful in determining which transactions are effected when certain data definitions are changed. Constraints on the data i.e. range of values permitted. Detailed information on physical database design. Description of database users, their responsibilities and access rights. Every Oracles database has a data dictionary; it is catalog of your entire Oracle database objects. As you create users, tables constraints and other database objects, Oracle automatically maintains a catalog of items stored in the data base. Some of the examples are: USER_ CONSTRAINTS: The view used to see the constraints associated with the table. USER_TABLES: This view used to show information about the tables owned by the user. ALL_TABLES: this view is used to show information that you own and also the tables that you have been granted. ALL_USERS: this view is used to show all the usernames, User_ID and their date of creation.

DATA FLOW DIAGRAM

A data flow diagram (DFD) is a graphical representation of the "flow" of data through an information system. It differs from the system flowchart as it shows the flow of data through processes instead of hardware. A data flow diagram can also be used for the visualization of data processing. Developing a Data flow diagram

It is common practice to draw a context-level Data flow diagram first which shows the interaction between the system and outside entities. The DFD is designed to show how a system is divided into smaller portions and to highlight the flow of data between those parts. This context-level Data flow diagram is then "exploded" to show more detail of the system being modeled. Data flow diagrams (DFDs) are one of the three essential perspectives of Structured Systems Analysis and Design Method SSADM. The sponsor of a project and the end users will need to be briefed and consulted throughout all stages of a system's evolution.

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With a dataflow diagram, users are able to visualize how the system will operate, what the system will accomplish, and how the system will be implemented. The old system's dataflow diagrams can be drawn up and compared with the new system's dataflow diagrams to draw comparisons to implement a more efficient system. Dataflow diagrams can be used to provide the end user with a physical idea of where the data they input ultimately has an effect upon the structure of the whole system from order to dispatch to recook. How any system is developed can be determined through a dataflow diagram.

DATA INDEPENDENCE

Data independence means that the application is independent of the storage structure and access strategy of data. In other words, the ability to modify the schema definition in one level should not affect the schema definition in the next higher level. Data independence is the type of data transparency that matters for a centralized DBMS. It refers to the immunity of user applications to make changes in the definition and organization of data. Physical data independence deals with hiding the details of the storage structure from user applications. The application should not be involved with these issues, since there is no difference in the operation carried out against the data. The data independence and operation independence together gives the feature of data abstraction. There are two levels of data independence.

Two types of Data Independence: Physical Data Independence: Modification in physical level should not affect the logical level. Logical Data Independence: Modification in logical level should affect the view level.

DATA STRUCTURE

A data structure is a way of organizing data that considers not only the items stored, but also their relationship to each other. Advance knowledge about the relationship between data items allows designing of efficient algorithms for the manipulation of data. A data structure is a particular way of storing and organizing data in a computer so that it can be used efficiently. Different kinds of data structures are suited to different kinds of applications, and some are highly specialized to specific tasks. For example, B-trees are particularly well-suited for implementation of databases, while compiler implementations usually use hash tables to look up identifiers. Data structures are used in almost every program or software system. Specific data structures are essential ingredients of many efficient algorithms, and make possible the management of huge amounts of data, such as large databases and internet indexing services. Some formal design methods and programming languages emphasize data structures, rather than algorithms, as the key organizing factor in software design.

Commonly used data structures are: Array Stack 37

Queue Linked List Tree Graph

DATA TRASMISSION MODE

There are three modes of data transmission that correspond to the three types of circuit available. These are 1) Simplex 2) Half-Duplex 3) Full-Duplex SIMPLEX: Simplex communication simply a simple method of Communication. In simplex communication mode, there is a one way communication transmission. Television is a good example communication transmission. The main transmitter sends out a signal, but it does not expect a reply as the receiving units cannot issue a reply back to the transmitter. HALF-DUPLEX: In half-duplex mode, both units communicate over the same medium, but only one unit can send at a time. While one is in send mode, the other unit is in receive mode. It is like two polite people talking to each other-one talks, the other listen, but neither one talks at the same time. Thus a half duplex line can alternatively send and receive data. It requires two wires. This is the most common type of transmission for voice communication because only one person is supposed to speak at a time FULL-DUPLEX: In half duplex system, the line must turn around each time the direction is reversed. This involves a special switching circuit and requires a small amount of time. With high speed capabilities of the computer, this around time is unacceptable in many instances. Also, some application requires simultaneous transmission in both directions. In such cases, a full-duplex system is used that allows information to flow simultaneously in both directions on the transmission path.

DHTML

Dynamic HTML is a collective term for a combination of Hypertext Markup Language (HTML) tags and options that can make Web pages more animated and interactive than previous versions of HTML. Much of dynamic HTML is specified in HTML 4.0. Simple examples of dynamic HTML capabilities include having the color of a text heading change when a user passes a mouse over it and allowing a user to "drag and drop" an image to another place on a Web page. Dynamic HTML can allow Web documents to look and act like desktop applications or multimedia productions. DHTML allows authors to add effects to their pages that are otherwise difficult to achieve. For example, DHTML allows the page author to: Animate text and images in their document, independently moving each element from any starting point to any ending point, following a predetermined path or one chosen by the user. Embed a ticker that automatically refreshes its content with the latest news, stock quotes, or other data. 38

Use a form to capture user input, and then process and respond to that data without having to send data back to the server. Include rollover buttons or drop-down menus.

DIGITAL CAMERA

Digital cameras are the latest type of cameras, which use magnetic or semiconductor technologies to store pictures in the binary form. These pictures can be easily transferred to computers at any time. After transferring the pictures from camera to computer, the camera becomes ready for next input. Thus, there is no need of photo films and developments etc. Digital cameras dont use a photographic film roll to take pictures. Here, the pictures are stored digitally on solid state memory sticks or chips. The number of photographs that a camera can shoot depends on the memory capacity of the camera. You can also use extra memory sticks if you want to store more pictures than the capacity of a single stick. Latest models of digital cameras can also shoot videos. They are equipped with qualities like high resolution and zooming.

E-COMMERCE

E-commerce (electronic commerce or EC) is the buying and selling of goods and services on the Internet, especially the World Wide Web. In practice, this term and a newer term, e-business, are often used interchangeably. For online retail selling, the term e-tailing is sometimes used. E-commerce can be divided into: E-tailing or "virtual storefronts" on Web sites with online catalogs, sometimes gathered into a "virtual mall" The gathering and use of demographic data through Web contacts Electronic Data Interchange (EDI), the business-to-business exchange of data e-mail and fax and their use as media for reaching prospects and established customers (for example, with newsletters) Business-to-business buying and selling The security of business transaction

FIREWALL

A system designed to prevent unauthorized access to or from a private network. Firewalls can be implemented in both hardware and software, or a combination of both. Firewalls are frequently used to prevent unauthorized Internet users from accessing private networks connected to the Internet, especially intranet. All messages entering or leaving the intranet pass through the firewall, which examines each message and blocks those that do not meet the specified security criteria. 39

Fig: An illustration of where a firewall would be located in a network. There are several types of firewall techniques: Packet filters: Looks at each packet entering or leaving the network and accepts or rejects it based on userdefined rules. Packet filtering is fairly effective and transparent to users, but it is difficult to configure. Application gateway: Applies security mechanisms to specific applications, such as FTP and Telnet servers. This is very effective, but can impose performance degradation. Circuit-level gateway: Applies security mechanisms when a TCP or UDP connection is established. Once the connection has been made, packets can flow between the hosts without further checking. Proxy server: Intercepts all messages entering and leaving the network. The proxy server effectively hides the true network addresses.

FREEWARE

Freeware is software you can download, pass around, and distribute without any initial payment. However, the great part about freeware is that you never have to pay for it. No 30 day limit, no demo versions, no disabled features -- it's totally free. Things like minor program updates and small games are commonly distributed as freeware. Though freeware does not cost anything, it is still copyrighted, so other people can't market the software as their own. Usually, the author allows people to use the software, but not sell it.

FUNCTION

A function is a small set of instructions designed to operate on its given input and perform some action or return some output. Generally in programming a commonly used strategy is to take a large program and break it into smaller chunks, which are turned into functions. So say that you are writing a large program and constantly have to see which of two numbers is larger, you could write a function:

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int larger(int { if(a > b) return a; else return b; } Now in our int x = larger(number1, number2);

a,

int

b)

program,

you

can

simply

say:

GARBAGE COLLECTION

Suppose some memory space becomes reusable because a node is deleted from a list or an entire list or an entire list is deleted from a program. Clearly, we want the space to be available for future use. One way to bring this about to immediately reinsert the space into the free-storage list. This is what we will do when we implement linked lists by means of linear arrays. However, this method may be too time consuming for the operating system of a computer, which may choose an alternative method, as follows. The operating system of a computer may periodically collect all the deleted space onto the free-storage list .Any technique which does this collection is called garbage collection. Garbage collection usually takes place in two steps. First the computer runs through all lists, tagging those cells which are currently in use, and then the computer runs through memory, collecting all untagged space onto the free storage list. The garbage collection may take place when there is only some minimum amount of space or no space at all left in the free storage list, or when the CPU is idle and has time to do the collection. In general garbage collection is invisible to the programmer.

HACKER

Hacker is a term used by some to mean "a clever programmer" and by others, especially those in popular media, to mean "someone who tries to break into computer systems." In computer security and everyday language, a hacker is someone who breaks into computers and computer networks. Hackers may be motivated by a multitude of reasons, including profit, protest, or because of the challenge. A Hacker is someone who has a keen interest in computers, someone with the knowledge of a working computer, software and networks.

Types of Hackers:White Hat Hackers Black Hat Hackers 1)White Hat Hackers:-The term "white hat" in Internet slang refers to an ethical hacker, or a computer security expert who has goals that are not criminal in intent, they tend to be expert computer programmers and system admins. 2) Black Hat Hackers:-A black hat hacker is the villain or bad guy who hacks with malicious intent. They break into people computers and even banks in order to do damage and take valuable information such as bank details. 41

DSS

Decision support systems (DSS) are a computer-based information system that supports business or organizational decision-making activities. DSS serve the management, operations, and planning levels of an organization and help to make decisions, which may be rapidly changing and not easily specified in advance. DSS include knowledge-based systems. A properly designed DSS is an interactive software-based system intended to help decision makers compile useful information from a combination of raw data, documents, personal knowledge, or business models to identify and solve problems and make decisions

Three fundamental components of a DSS are: The folder or knowledge base The model (i.e., the decision context and user criteria), and The user interface.

HTTPS

HTTPS stands for Hyper Text Transfer Protocol over Secure Socket Layer or HTTP over SSL. This is webbased protocol to allow authorization and secured transactions. This protocol encrypts and decrypts the web page requests by the client browser a well as the web pages returned by the web server using the Secured Socket Layer (SSL). Unlike HTTP which uses 80 as the default port, HTTPS uses 443 as the default port. All the URLs that begin with https:// specify that connection between the browser and web server is encrypted using Secured Socket Layer. The working of HTTPS is similar to HTTP, but the only difference is that HTTP is not secure and someone can easily eavesdrop on your computers conversation with the website especially when you are exchanging confidential information with the server such as credit card information. The HTTPS works by transmitting the information exchanged through an encrypted system, so this information cant be accessed by any intruder other than the browser and the web server that are communicating.

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GAUSS ELIMINATION METHOD USING C-LANGUAGE

#include<stdio.h> #include<math.h> #define MAX 100 #include<process.h> #include<conio.h> #define N 10 #define ERROR 1.0E-04 #define MAXIT 20 #include<stdlib.h> int max=100; void gelim(void); void main() { int code; while(1) { clrscr(); gelim(); } }

void gelim(void) { int i,j,k,n; float a[MAX][MAX],x[MAX],temp,sum; printf("enter the number of unknoens\n"); scanf("%d",&n); printf("enter the elements of the augmented matrix rowwisw\n"); for(i=0;i<n;i++) for(j=0;j<n+1;j++) scanf("%f",&a[i][j]); for(j=0;j<n-1;j++) for(i=j+1;i<n;i++) { temp=a[i][j]/a[j][j]; for(k=0;k<n+1;k++) a[i][k]=a[i][k]-a[j][k]*temp; } for(i=n-1;i>=0;i--) { sum=0; for(j=i+1;j<n;j++) sum = sum+a[i][j]*x[j]; x[i] = (a[i][n]-sum)/(float)a[i][i]; }

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printf("the required solution is as follows:\n"); for(i=0;i<n;i++) printf("x[%d]=%f\n",i+1,x[i]); getch(); } } Output : enter the number of unknoens 3 enter the elements of the augmented matrix rowwisw 2 1 3 44 5 4 1 33 6 5 4 11 the required solution is as follows: x[1]=65.999992 x[2]=-72.999992 x[3]=-4.999999

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GAUSS ELIMINATION USING JAVA LANGUAGE

import java.io.*; import java.util.*; class gauss { final static int Rows=20; final static int Column=20; public static void main(String args[]) throws Exception { double a[][]=new double[Rows][Column]; int n,k,i,j,choice; double u,sum,temp; double x[]=new double[20]; InputStreamReader ins=new InputStreamReader(System.in); BufferedReader br=new BufferedReader(ins); loop:while(true) { System.out.print("\nENTER THE TOTAL NUMBER OF EQUATIONS:"); n=Integer.parseInt(br.readLine()); System.out.println("\n ENTER THE COEFFICIENTS OF THE MATRIX IN ARRAY FORM:\n"); for(i=0;i<n;i++) { for(j=0;j<n+1;j++) { a[i][j]=Integer.parseInt(br.readLine()); } } System.out.println("\n THE MATRIX OBTAINED IS:\n"); for(i=0;i<n;i++) { for(j=0;j<n+1;j++) { System.out.print(" "+a[i][j]); } System.out.println(" "); } for(k=0;k<n-1;k++) { if(a[k][k]==0) { System.out.println("divisible by zero error"); System.exit(0); } for(i=k+1;i<n+1;i++) { u=a[i][k]/a[k][k]; for(j=0;j<n+1;j++) { a[i][j]=a[i][j]-u*a[k][j]; 45

} } } for(i=n-1;i>=0;i--) { sum=0.0; for(j=i+1;j<n;j++) sum=sum+a[i][j]*x[j]; x[i]=(a[i][n]-sum)/a[i][i]; } System.out.println("\n THE VALUES OF VARIABLES OF THE EQUATIONS ARE :\n"); for(i=0;i<n;i++) { System.out.println(" x["+i+"]= "+x[i]); } System.out.println("\n ___________________________________________________\n"); } } Output of java:

Z:\>cd final Z:\final>cd gauss in java Z:\final\gauss in java>javac gauss.java Z:\final\gauss in java>java gauss ENTER THE TOTAL NUMBER OF EQUATIONS:2 ENTER THE COEFFICIENTS OF THE MATRIX IN ARRAY FORM: 3 6 4 5 5 6 THE MATRIX OBTAINED IS: 3.0 6.0 4.0 5.0 5.0 6.0 THE VALUES OF VARIABLES OF THE EQUATIONS ARE : x[0]= 1.0666666666666669 x[1]= 0.13333333333333322

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