ii

AN ANALYSIS OF FACTORS AFFECTING USE OF PREEMERGENCE WHEAT HERBICIDES IN UASIN GISHU COUNTY, KENYA

BY BETT WILLIAM

billkiprotich@yahoo.com,bettnairobi@yahoo.com Phone: +254723103932 JANUARY, 2012

DECLARATION This thesis is my original work and to the best of my knowledge has not been presented for the award of a degree in any other University.

ii TABLE OF CONTENTS DECLARATION ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ii TABLE OF CONTENTS -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ii LIST OF TABLES--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- iv LIST OF FIGURES -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- v ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS ------------------------------------------------------------ vi ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ----------------------------------------------------------------------------vii ABSTRACT ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------viii CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION------------------------------------------------------------------ 1 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 Background Information--------------------------------------------------------------------- 1 Problem Statement---------------------------------------------------------------------------10 General Objective----------------------------------------------------------------------------12 Specific Objectives --------------------------------------------------------------------------12 Research Hypotheses------------------------------------------------------------------------12 Justification of the Study.-------------------------------------------------------------------13 Area of Study---------------------------------------------------------------------------------14

CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW--------------------------------------------------------17 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 Introduction-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------17 Empirical Input Use Studies----------------------------------------------------------------17 Evaluation of the Literature ----------------------------------------------------------------22 Conceptual Framework ---------------------------------------------------------------------25

CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY ------------------------------------------------------------27 3.1 Theoretical Framework ---------------------------------------------------------------------27

iii 3.1.1 3.1.2 3.2 3.3 3.3.1 3.4 3.5 3.6 Theoretical Model ---------------------------------------------------------------------29 Model Specification -------------------------------------------------------------------33 Data Types and Sources --------------------------------------------------------------------40 Research Design -----------------------------------------------------------------------------40 Population, Sample Size and Sampling Techniques ------------------------------41 Data Collection Methods -------------------------------------------------------------------42 Data Analysis---------------------------------------------------------------------------------42 Limitations of the Study --------------------------------------------------------------------43

CHAPTER FOUR: RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS ---------------------------------------------45 4.1 4.2 4.3 Introduction-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------45 General Characteristics of the Sample----------------------------------------------------45 Results from Logit Regression-------------------------------------------------------------60

CHAPTER FIVE: SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS----------68 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 Summary --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------68 Conclusions-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------69 Recommendations ---------------------------------------------------------------------------70 Areas for Further Research -----------------------------------------------------------------71

REFERENCES -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------73 APPENDICES--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------79

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LIST OF TABLES Table Table 1.1: Wheat Production and Consumption in Kenya for the Period 2003-2007 ..7 Table 1.2: Wheat Production in Uasin Gishu County from 2004 to 2008........ Table 4.1: Summary Statistics for Continuous Variables .. Table 4.2: Age of Respondents . Table 4.3: Influence from other Farmers Table 4.4: Summary of Logit Regression Results.. Table 4.5: Sufficiency of Income to Purchase Agro-Chemicals. 9 46 50 57 60 63 Page

LIST OF FIGURES Figure Figure 1.1: Wheat production and importation trend in Kenya for 1990-2003 . 6 Figure 2.1: Conceptual Framework.. Figure 4.1: Distribution of Income around Mean. Figure 4.2: Land Size Spread around Mean.. Figure 4.3: Number of Persons in Household Figure 4.4: Education Level of Respondents Figure 4.5: Land Tenure System Figure 4.6: Presence of Extension Services Figure 4.7: Membership to a Farmers Association. Figure 4.8: Access to Wheat Market Information.. Figure 4.9: Access to Credit 25 47 48 50 52 53 54 56 58 59 Page

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ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS AAK CIMMYT FAOSTAT GDP GOK IFDC KARI KNBS NPBRC SPSS UK US$ USA Agrochemicals Association of Kenya International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center Food and Agricultural Organization Statistical Database Gross Domestic Product Government of Kenya International Center for Soil Fertility and Agriculture Kenya Agricultural Research Institute Kenya National Bureau of Statistics National Plant Breeding Research Centre Statistical Package for Social Sciences United Kingdom United States Dollars United States of America

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I am greatly indebted to my supervisors Dr. .Philip Nyangweso and Dr. Samuel Mwakubo for guiding me tirelessly during the entire period of research and preparation of this document. All through this time, my yearning to complete and give educative output was as a result of the guiding spirit of my father, George Kibet Chumoh, who though not around, has been my inspiration throughout my entire life. To my classmates Geoffrey Amusala and Eric Muiruri, I say thank you for all the support you gave during my struggle to write and present this thesis in a timely and correct manner. Without their support, it would not have been possible for me to proceed effectively. And to farmers in Uasin Gishu County, who toil very hard to feed the country, I say thank you for enabling me work with you constructively.

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ABSTRACT The agrochemical industry is a significant part of the Kenyan economy. It plays a great role in remittance of tax revenue to the government, farmer training, and research into better production technologies, environmental protection campaigns, and credit facilities to farmers. Wheat is a major cereal crop that uses agrochemicals in its production. Its output in Uasin Gishu County has however consistently been very low despite efforts to market agrochemical wheat products to boost its production. This study aimed at determining factors influencing use of pre-emergence wheat herbicides in Uasin Gishu County and understanding promotional strategies that could influence use of wheat agrochemicals in Uasin Gishu County. Farmers were stratified into Small Scale and large scale farmers, and a total of 164 farmers were then chosen using systematic random sampling. Primary data was mainly used and was collected using structured questionnaires. Descriptive statistics and maximum likelihood method using the Statistical Package for Social Scientists (SPSS) were used to analyze the data. It was established that socio-economic factors influencing use of wheat pre-emergence herbicides were education level, average annual income, presence of extension services, and availability of wheat market information, land tenure system and accessibility to credit. Promotional strategies identified that would elicit positive impact in the use of pre-emergence herbicides included enhancing extension services to wheat farmers in Uasin Gishu County. Key recommendations made include encouraging wheat farmers to maximize their farm income from wheat by adopting modern technologies, and increase overall farm income, by diversifying their farming rather than relying on a single crop. It is also important for extension agents to increase the frequency of extension visits to wheat farmers since the farmers recognize the fact that the information gained from extension is very helpful.

1 CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION 1.1 Background Information

Agrochemicals, also known as pesticides or crop protection chemicals, are chemicals manufactured from a wide range of organic and inorganic chemicals and used to control pests, including weeds, insects and fungi (Utley, 2008). The global market for agrochemicals was valued at around US$ 50 billion in 2008, with about two thirds (US$ 35 billion) of this coming from crop protection products and one third (US$ 15 billion) from non-crop uses, such as forestry, public health and industrial uses (Utley, 2008). Agrochemicals are used principally to control weeds and pests in agriculture. The market for this major application was valued, at the end-user level, at around US$ 31.25 billion in 1998 (Bryant, 1999). Agrochemicals are also used in a variety of non-crop applications, which are generally higher value-added products. Agrochemicals global market for non-crop applications, valued at US$ 10.5 billion in 1998, included applications in forestry, leisure (such as home, garden and golf courses) and industrial pest control (such as control of vermin and insects, weed control in towns and on railways) (Bryant, 1999). The non-crop sector is dominated by insecticides (around a half) and non-selective herbicides. As is the case in most markets for chemicals, the developed economies in the United States of America (USA), Europe and Japan account for the lion's share of use, with approximately 70 percent by value at the end-user level. The North American market accounts for 30 percent of the total, with Japan and France second and third, respectively. The global market may also be divided into the three main types of agrochemicals: herbicides (47 percent),

2 insecticides (29 percent) and fungicides (18 percent). Other agrochemical applications, mainly fumigants and plant growth regulators, account for the remaining 6 percent of sales (Bryant, 1999). This study endeavored to look at wheat pre-emergence herbicides use in the Larger Uasin Gishu County of the North Rift of Kenya. The most common pre-emergence wheat herbicides used in this region are pendimethelins, chlorsulfurons, tribenuron methyls and flufanecets. Pre-emergence herbicides generally control germination of weed seeds before they emerge from the soil. This has got a very profound effect because they almost completely eliminate competition from weeds.

Pesticides and fertilizers are the primary agrochemicals used by farmers in Kenya. The farmer uses these agrochemicals to control organisms that destroy crops and infest livestock. In addition, fertilizers are needed to replenish soil nutrients and consequently improve the agricultural yield. The public health sector uses pesticides to combat insects and vectors that transmit diseases to humans and animals. Although Kenya's economy is dependent on agriculture, only a third of the land is arable. Enormous amounts of the agrochemicals are imported and extensively used every year. For instance, between 1985 and 1987, Kenya imported agrochemicals worth 1,732.3 million Kenya Shillings (US$ 69.3 million) (Mutuku and Kimani, 1993).

The agrochemical industry is an important segment of the Kenya economy. According to the Agrochemicals Association of Kenya (A.A.K, 2006), the industry increased job opportunities and tax revenues to the government. This is evident in the manner in which new products are developed. Other benefits associated with the industry include

3 environmental protection campaigns and credit facilities to farmers. Wheat as a cereal crop is a major user of agrochemicals as compared to other cereal crops. The major chemicals in wheat production include herbicides, fungicides, and insecticides among others. Agrochemical applications are essential technological means for growing field crops. The most critical technological points in production of grain crops are agrochemical interventions, so that it is essential to reveal and study soundly their impacts (Czovek et al., 2006). Chemical applications are seen by the public to be both harmful to crops and environment. However, appropriate treatments secure high yields and help to reduce serious weed infestations in ecosystems (Hegedos et al., 2002, Szentpetery et al., 2005a and b, Tanacs et al., 2008). Weeds are in permanent competition with crop plants and hence the need for their control. Weed control is essential to establish conditions for optimum crop performance (Kazinczi et al., 2002, Knezevic et al., 2008). Soils as the fundamental habitat for any plant growth provide optimal, sub-optimal and hyper-optimal conditions for vegetation in relation with climatic variability (Lawlor, 2002, Jolankai-Birkas, 2007). Agrochemicals are hence essential in production so as to provide the plants with what lacks in the soils and also to provide protection. It is therefore important to evaluate the factors that influence agrochemical applications as well as to study how plant protection treatments can influence crop yield and weed infestation of wheat crop.

Use of wheat agrochemicals is highly multi-factorial with the weather, crop types, weed types, farming intensity, soil characteristics, sowing techniques, planting density and application rates all combining to give enormous regional and year-on-year variation. Other key use influencers include number of people to feed, growing affluence, bio-fuels and

4 regulatory environment (Uttley, 2008). These underlying drivers have the capacity to result into high acreages being planted for crops and high crop prices. High prices for crops, in turn, translate into high farm incomes giving farmers a financial incentive to increase crop output further. However, there are constraints in many areas and thus farmers seek to improve yield per acre through optimal application of fertilizers and crop protection products (agrochemicals). Agrochemical use varies considerably with crop type, seed type and conditions for use. However, on average, it represents a small percentage of farmers total fixed and variable costs. Therefore, increased use of agrochemicals can be a costefficient way of improving overall income of the farmer (Uttley, 2008).

Wheat is the second most important cereal crop after maize in Kenya (KARI, 1989) and is becoming an important source of food for both humans and livestock. Wheat production started at the beginning of the 20th century in Kenya, but it was not until 1927 that a formal wheat breeding research program was initiated at the Kenya Agricultural Research Institutes (KARI) National Plant Breeding Research Centre (NPBRC) in Njoro, Kenya (Gamba, 2002). Since this program began, many wheat varieties have been released. Demand for wheat and wheat products is growing at 7 percent per annum and only about 50 percent of domestic consumption requirements are being met (Hassan et al., 1993). Increasing population, rapid urbanization, rising income levels, and changing tastes and preferences are major factors contributing towards this demand. Various constraints have contributed to the failure to meet domestic demand and these include erratic and unpredictable climatic conditions, lack of credit among farmers, failure to adopt proper and

5 improved technologies in production as well as failure to invest in agrochemicals which are essential in wheat production (Gamba, 2002).

Wheat production in Kenya has not been sufficient (Nyangito et al, 2002). This has continued to happen despite concerted efforts by agrochemical companies to market agrochemicals to farmers. Low use of inputs such as agrochemicals by farmers, due to market constraints that reduce profitability of input use, is one of the factors responsible for the gap between potential and actual yields. A comparison of agrochemical consumption trends in Sub-Saharan Africa and developing countries of Asia shows that while average annual agrochemical consumption increased by 182 percent in Asia between 1980 1989 and 1996 2000, it increased by only 16 percent in sub-Saharan Africa (FAOSTAT, 2003). The slow growth in the use of modern agricultural inputs in the farming systems of subSaharan Africa has resulted in missed opportunities to increase Africas agricultural production, productivity, household incomes and welfare. Agrochemical use in Sub-Saharan Africa is the lowest in the world and is actually less than 10 percent of the global mean (about 93 kilograms per hectare) (IFDC, 2006).

It was thus a matter of concern to establish determinants of use of wheat agrochemicals. The main focus was on the use of pre-emergence wheat herbicides, with the hope of cascading the findings for use in the other sectors of wheat agrochemicals. This is because wheat, being the second most important cereal grain in Kenya after maize, requires a lot of attention.

6 The crop is grown largely for commercial purposes on large scale farms (EPZA, 2005). Wheat production has, however, over the years not been sufficient as Kenya continues to rely on wheat imports to meet domestic demand for wheat and wheat products.

Increased wheat imports have led to further decline in wheat production because imports dampen domestic prices and are a disincentive to production. This is happening despite world trends that have seen increasing costs of purchasing wheat. Figure 1.1, shows the ever increasing wheat imports from between 1990 and 2003 and declining production trend.

900000 800000 700000 600000 500000

Percent

400000 300000 200000 100000 0 1990 1991

Year Figure 1.1: Wheat production and importation trend in Kenya for 1990-2003 Source: KNBS, 2004

A substantial amount of wheat is still being imported into the country despite the potential to increase production acreage and yield per unit area. The following data (Table 1.1) from Ministry of Agriculture effectively makes a case for the need, not only for increase and sustained use of potential wheat growing area, but also for concerted efforts to increase yield per hectare. Table 1.1: Wheat Production and Consumption in Kenya for the period 2003-2007

Year Area (Ha) Production: 90Kg Bags Production: Tons Unit Price per Bag (Kshs) Average Yield: Bags/Ha Consumption (Tons) Imports (Tons) Total Value: (Billion Kshs) Source: GOK, 2008

2003 151,135 4,207,278 379,034 1,718 28 883,120 502,115 7.23

2004 145,359 4,173,652 397,005 1,995 29 889,020 404,060 8.33

2005 159,477 4,063,294 365,696 1,639 25 893,120 621,839 6.66

2006 150,488 3.978,454 358,061 1,714 26 903,120 6.82

2007 104,176 3,936,105 354,249.1 3,000 28 927,956 10.028

From Table 1.1 it is clear that yield per hectare has continuously remained very low, despite the fact that Kenya continues to import wheat. Rationality should allow an increased yield per hectare even if area under wheat changes for one or another reason. Agrochemicals have

8 a role in assisting farmers and hence Kenya to increase yield. Their role in increasing yield of wheat farms need to be investigated, more so because adoption of these products will; lead to improved yield of wheat farms. Wheat production registered a 1.1 percent decline from 3.98 million bags in 2006 to 3.94 million bags in 2007 (GOK, 2008). Production is also shown to have ranged between 25bags / Ha to 29 bags / Ha, which are a paltry performance because the same amount can be produced from one acre in other parts of the world. International price analysis, (Appendix 2, Table A1) shows an upward trend in prices. This should act as an incentive to all stakeholders including Kenyan farmers and extension agents like agrochemical companies to maximize returns from wheat farming. This will save the hard earned foreign exchange that is used for acquiring the increasingly expensive wheat imports. Statistics on imported crop protection products show both increasing and decreasing trends from 2004/2005 to 2006/2007 as manifested by different categories of agrochemicals. This is attributed to failure by Kenyan farmers to produce enough wheat to meet domestic demand especially when yield/ha of their farms still remains very low. The significance of the increase may, however, be very small considering that this serves to highlight performance of agrochemicals in different crop subsectors including horticulture, floriculture and cash crops like tea, coffee, cotton, sisal, pyrethrum and others. Others, (Appendix 2, Table A2) include fumigants, rodenticides, growth regulators, defoliators, proteins, surfactants and wetting agents.

9 Import of insecticides and acaricides increased from 2361 in 2005/06 to 2,638 tons in 2006/07 by 11.7%, while imports of herbicides increased by 45% over the same period. Fungicides also registered the same trend with imports rising by 10.5 %, (GOK, 2008). Despite the glaring vacuum in producing enough wheat to substitute imported wheat, Kenya is still not showing any improvements. There is a worrying trend in yields and acreage of wheat in the larger Uasin Gishu County (Table 1.2). Table 1.2: Wheat Production in Uasin Gishu County from 2004 to 2008 Year 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 Area (Ha) 42,100 37,500 37,000 29,500 37,107 Production (90Kgs bags 1,250,000 1,237,500 1,186,560 649,800 1,021,215 Yield/Ha 29.7 33 32 22 27.5 Production (Tons) 112500 111375 106790.4 58482 91909.35

Source: DAO, 2008 Wheat agrochemicals use in Kenya has not led to increased yield per unit as compared to world standards. This scenario is very evident in Uasin Gishu County. Low wheat yields and continued imports of wheat consistently over the years are problems that face Kenya as a country and by extension, Uasin-Gishu County. The country continues to import wheat to meet its domestic needs despite concerted efforts by agrochemical firms to market wheat agrochemicals to stimulate increased production. According to Nyangito et

10 al (2002), average wheat yields in Kenya are about 1300kg per acre but this can range from 450kg per acre on small-scale farms to 1600kg per acre on large-scale farms. Yield / Ha went to some extent to 33 bags (DAO, 2007), which represents low yield according to international standards. Right and proper agrochemicals-use along with other agronomical practices can lead to higher production. According to (USDA, 2007), yield (Appendix 2, A4) in several leading countries was higher than that in Kenya;

1.2

Problem Statement

Wheat is the second-most-important cereal crop in Kenya, but local production does not satisfy demand, and the deficit is always imported. In 1990, local consumption of wheat was 550 metric tonnes. This, however, rose by 63% to 900 metric tonnes in 2007. Within the same period, local production rose by a small margin of 14. 8%; the deficit being met by imports from other wheat producing countries. The annual wheat production in the1990s averaged about 258,207 tons. Production has, however, been very erratic, ranging from 264,457 tons in 1991 to nearly 126,000 tons in 2000.In contrast to production, wheat consumption in Kenya has been on a general increase, although there have been declines in some years, particularly in 1992, 1995 and 1997. Due to the rising demand for wheat, caused by high population growth and increased urbanization, consumption has increased faster than production. The current domestic wheat requirements are about 765,000 tons. Kenya has therefore relied on imports to meet domestic needs in wheat (Nyangito et al., 2002). Gaps between local consumption and production of wheat have consistently increased from year to year. Because of the fact that market is highly liberalised, imports have highly

11 become a drain on foreign currency which is very crucial for the well being of Kenyas economy. According to USDA, (2007), Kenya, in 1960, years just before independence, produced 109 metric tonnes of wheat which increased by a 106% in the year 2007 to 225

metric tonnes. During the same period, import of wheat rose from 1 metric tonne to 550 metric tonnes representing a high increase of 55000%. Currently, imports account for about 62.4 percent of Kenyas domestic needs in wheat (Nyangito et al.,2002). It is therefore vital to place emphasis on production strategies that will increase wheat grain yield (Amadi et al., 2004). On average yield of wheat per hectare remained at 1 to 2 tonnes per hectare despite high demand. This is happening yet the country has a very high potential of producing enough to meet its local consumption and even have surplus. South African farms produce up to 5 tonnes per hectare while New Zealand farmers manage up to 8 tonnes per hectare from their wheat farms (USDA, 2007). This clearly shows that there is room for Kenyans to increase production of their wheat farms 3 to 4 times from the current levels. In the years preceding 2004, only 2.7 tonnes per hectare of wheat were realised compared to the potential of 3.96 tonnes per hectare in Uasin Gishu County. Low production per unit area was attributed to several factors including low rate of adoption of technical recommendations, (GOK, March 2004). According to Nyangito et al (2002), these high yields are currently not being achieved because of the low level of technology adoption, particularly on small farms. They further point out that other constraints facing wheat producers in Kenya include poor supply of inputs, low producer prices, and pest infestation. One of the main inputs used in efficient production of wheat is the element of agrochemicals. FAO data (FAO,1999),indicate that loss of wheat yield globally due to fungal infection is accounted for by 16% while that attributed to viral and insect infestation

12 accounts for 3% and 9 % respectively. Weeds infestation on the other hand can cause up to 23% wheat loss. In spite of enhanced promotional campaigns by agrochemical firms and other extension agents, wheat production has not increased. It is thus important to understand the drivers of agrochemical use in Uasin Gishu County, with particular emphasis on pre-emergence herbicides.

1.3

General Objective

The main objective of this study was to determine the factors influencing use of wheat agrochemicals in Uasin Gishu County.

1.4

Specific Objectives a) To determine social factors influencing use of pre-emergence wheat herbicides in Uasin Gishu County. b) To determine economic factors influencing use of pre-emergence wheat herbicides in Uasin Gishu County. c) To identify promotional strategies that elicits positive impact in the use of preemergence wheat herbicides in Uasin Gishu County.

1.5

Research Hypotheses

In order to get more insights into the agrochemical market in Uasin Gishu County, the following hypotheses were tested:

13 H01: Social factors such as education level do not influence use of pre-emergence wheat herbicides in Uasin Gishu County. H02: Economic factors such as annual level of income do not influence use of preemergence wheat herbicides in Uasin Gishu County. H03: There are no promotional strategies, such as extension services, that would elicit positive impact in the use of pre-emergence wheat herbicides in Uasin Gishu County.

1.6

Justification of the Study

Wheat is the second most important grain in Kenya after maize (EPZA, 2005). In Uasin Gishu County, wheat is a major cash crop among farmers. Despite concerted efforts to improve the production of wheat in Uasin Gishu County, an area sometimes referred to as Kenyas grain basket, results have been minimal with the domestic production performing dismally. Some of the reasons put forth in this regard are the inadequate and insufficient use of pre-emergence wheat herbicides which are essential in wheat production to boost yields. The current study is of importance as it will give insights into this crucial aspect of wheat farming in the study area and thereby give policy implications for the same. Moreover, this kind of study has not been carried out in the area and thus it makes it extremely important to carry out the study given the fact that Uasin Gishu County is a major wheat producer in Kenya. Agrochemical dealers and manufacturers will get an insight into extension dynamics emanating from use of agrochemicals or lack of use of them.

14 1.7 Area of Study

The scope of this study was limited to the analysis of factors influencing use of preemergence wheat herbicides in Uasin-Gishu County, Kenya. The County is one of the counties in Rift Valley province. It extends between longitudes 34o 50 and 37 east and 0o 03 and 0o 55 north. The County shares common borders with Trans Nzoia County to the north, Elkeiyo-Marakwet and Keiyo Counties to the east, Baringo County to the south east, Kericho County to the south and Nandi County to the west. The county has a total area of 3,327.8 km2 (GOK, 2004).

Administratively, the County is divided into three districts, namely Uasin Gishu East, Uasin Gishu North and Uasin Gishu South. There are six divisions namely Kapseret, Ainabkoi, Kesses, Soy, Turbo and Moiben. It is further divided into fifty-one locations and ninety-six sub-locations. Moiben is the largest division with an area of 778.2km2 with ten locations and twenty-three sub-locations while Kapsaret Division, with an area of 297 km2, is the smallest (GOK, 2004).

Uasin Gishu County is a highland plateau. Altitudes fall gently from 2700m above sea level at Timboroa in the east to about 1,500m above sea level at Kipkaren in the west. The County can roughly be divided into two broad physiographic regions, with Eldoret (2085m) forming the boundary between the regions. The topography is higher in the east and declines towards the western borders. The plateau terrain in the County allows easier construction of infrastructure such as roads and use of modern machinery in farming (GOK, 2008).

15 Uasin Gishu County is in the Lake Victoria water catchments zone. All the rivers in the County drain into Lake Victoria. Major rivers in the County include; Sosiani , Kipkaren , Kerita , Kipkuner , Nderugut , Daragwa and Sambul . These rivers provide water for livestock, domestic and industrial use (GOK, 2008).

Rainfall in the County is high, reliable and evenly distributed. The average rainfall ranges between 900mm-1200mm. It occurs between the months of March and September with two distinct peaks in May and August. The wettest areas are found in Ainabkoi, Kapsaret and Kesses divisions. Turbo, Moiben and Soy divisions receive relatively lower amounts of rainfall. The dry spells begin in November and end in February. Temperature ranges between 8.4oc and 26.1oc (GOK, 2004).

An estimated 90 percent of the land area in the County is arable out of which about 2,000km2 is classified as high potential and about 1000km2 is medium potential. There are four major soil types in the County that are good for agricultural production. These include red loam, red clay, brown clay and brown loam (GOK, 2004).

Agriculture is the main economic activity of Uasin Gishu County. A total of 126,311.2 hectares are under crop production, while 204,000 of the population work in agriculture alone. The sector also contributes 35.5 percent of household income. The importance of the sector cannot be over emphasized because a great proportion of the population earns its livelihood from the agricultural sector. The improvement of food security and achievement of better standards of health also depends heavily on this sector. The sector is also an

16 important revenue and foreign exchange earner. It creates jobs and at the same time promotes better environmental management for sustainable production.

17 CHAPTER TWO LITERATURE REVIEW 2.1 Introduction

In this chapter, literature is reviewed under two sections. Section 2.2 reviews empirical studies that are of particular relevance to this study, commenting on their methodologies, findings and conclusions. The second section, 2.3, is a critical evaluation of the theoretical and empirical works, pointing out as far as possible their point of departure from the present study. The missing gaps in the current study, which this study sets out to fill, are also identified. The conceptual framework for the study is presented in section 2.4.

2.2

Empirical Input Use Studies

Kenyan economy largely depends on the agricultural sectors, which accounts for an average of 25 percent of gross domestic product (GDP). About 75 percent of Kenyans owe their livelihoods to agriculture (EPZA, 2005). This just acts to illustrate the importance of agricultural sector in Kenyas economy. Wheat as a crop is the second most important cereal grain in Kenya. The crop is grown largely for commercial purposes on large scale farms. Wheat growing areas in Kenya include scenic Rift Valley regions of Uasin-Gishu, Narok, Marakwet, Elkeiyo, Londiani, Molo, Nakuru and Timau. These areas have altitude ranging from 1200m and 1500m above sea level, with annual rainfall ranging from between 800mm and 2000mm with up to 2500mm in high grounds. The area under wheat production in Kenya increased from 144000ha in 2002 to 150000 ha in 2003 (EPZA, 2005). Despite the conducive conditions to produce wheat, Kenya, and by extension Uasin-Gishu County,

18 continues to lag behind its potential production capacity of wheat. Previous studies on wheat have dealt mostly on such aspects as credit and marketing. In their report on the performance of Kenyas wheat industry and prospects for regional trade in wheat products, Nyangito et al. (2002) emphasizes high capital costs, lack of credit for production and low levels of technology adoption in wheat production especially seed variety for wheat as the main constraints which have led to decline in wheat production over the years. They, however, fail to recognize the importance of wheat agro-chemicals in boosting output of wheat. Wheat agro-chemicals are categorized into four main classes. These include insecticides, herbicides, fungicides, and others. Others fall into such crop protection chemicals like adjuvant and rodenticides. Nyangito et al. (2002) focused mainly on the wheat industry from the national and the international levels. They gave such recommendations as funding of research, extensions, credit and marketing functions to encourage domestic production of wheat. They went further to state that import taxes and duties on wheat imports should be eliminated to avoid protecting insufficient producers and that inputs and output marketing needs to be made competitive through provision of improved infrastructure. They also pointed out that there is need for better management of policy on wheat import and trade to avoid distortion in the wheat market. Clearly these recommendations are proper in addressing the problems in the wheat industry from the national and international standpoint. They fail to give recommendations that would give solutions that are particular to a given locality. These are blanket recommendations that may not work for individual farmers, agrochemical firms and other players in the wider wheat industry. This study will suggest solutions specific to wheat

19 farmers in Uasin-Gishu County on factors affecting their purchase decisions of agrochemicals wheat products and thus increasing their yield of wheat.

While studying the factors affecting farmers adoption of agro-chemicals in sugarcane production, in Mumias sugar belt, Nyakundi (2008) pointed out such variables as farmers income, price of the agro-chemicals, price of labour, literacy level of farmers affecting decisions in adoption of agro-chemicals in sugarcane farming. His study, however, did not include any acceptable model of economic analysis. The study by Nyakundi, (2008) was important in that it pointed out some variables which are significant in wheat agro-chemical use analysis. The variables of importance in the current study included product related aspects, economic factors, and farm and farmer related issues. These variables are not sufficient to study the problem at hand and give workable solutions to alleviate status of wheat production locally.

Amadi et al. (2004), in their study, proved that there was need for use of agrochemicals in growing of wheat. They, however, narrowed themselves to the study of technical aspects of an herbicide called monitor and they did not consider socio-economic factors that affected use for the same. The study is more technical in nature because no major economic tenets were incorporated.

In other areas of the world, some studies that are relevant to this study have also been undertaken. Szentpetery et al., (2005a), in their study mainly pointed to importance of agrochemicals in growing of wheat. They pointed out that agrochemicals and nutrition are

20 very important, without which we cannot reap maximum benefits. Their study further points out that herbicides, insecticides and fungicides are very important in boosting wheat yield. Again, their study did not show socio-economic factors that influenced use of wheat agrochemicals. Their study was mainly geared towards analyzing agrochemical products attributes.

Jolankai et al. (2008) studied the impact of pesticides and plant nutrition on wheat crop, as well as their interaction in a small plot field trial run at the experimental site on eutric cambisol type soil, in 2006 and 2007. The results obtained suggested, that treatments applied both the increasing rate of fertilizers (N0P0K0, N40P100K100, N80P100K100, N120P100K100, and N160P100K100) and the increasing intensity of pesticide application (O, herbicide, herbicide + fungicide, herbicide + fungicide + insecticide) had significant effects on the grain yield of wheat. In case of fertilizer application, each N rate resulted in a further significant yield increase in the average of pesticide applications. In 2006, the minimum yield was 2.2 tons per hectare, the maximum 5.5 tons per hectare and the average 4.3 tons per hectare. In 2007, the minimum yield was 1.00 ton per hectare and the maximum 4.6 tons per hectare, and the average, 3.2 tons per hectare. In accordance with the increment of the level of plant nutrition and plant protection applications, a decreasing magnitude of yield increase was observed. Plant nutrition applications had a more definite effect on yield figures in comparison with that of plant protection treatments. Meteorological conditions of the crop years studied were considerably buffered by agronomic applications applied. This therefore shows that agrochemicals have a role to play in the production of wheat and hence

21 it is imperative to study what influences the use of these agrochemicals among farmers so as to enhance wheat yields.

Uttley (2008), while studying the pricing of agrochemicals, noted that the demand for agrochemicals is multi-factorial with factors such as weather, crop types, weed types, farming intensity, soil characteristics, sowing techniques, planting density and application rates all combining to give enormous regional and year-on-year variation. The study found that there were several demand drivers that influenced an individuals use of agrochemicals. Uttley (2008) noted one of these demand drivers as being increasing number of mouths to feed. The study suggested that with the increase in population, more people needed to be fed, majority of them living in urban areas. The increase in population triggers food shortages if there is no matching production. Therefore, an increase in population will result in need for increased food production will lead to an increase in use of agro-chemicals.

Another use driver noted was that of growing affluence. Uttley, (2008) noted that increased per capita income, as reflected by growing GDPs especially in developing countries, has led to increases in the amount of food eaten per capita. Diets have also changed with increasing affluence, for example, a rise in protein intake, especially meat consumption (meat production requires grain to be fed to animals and so the demand for grain is also increased thus more agrochemicals) and an increase in demand for fresh fruit and vegetables (which consume approximately 25 percent of the use for crop agrochemicals).

22 Other agrochemical use influencers noted are bio-fuels and regulatory environment incentivising increased crop production. Uttley (2008) argued that many countries are trying to reduce dependence on oil as a fuel and to decrease polluting gas emissions, giving rise to a trend to produce renewable energy from crops. Bio-fuels produced, consequently, are mainly ethanol and agro-diesel which are derived from corn, sugarcane, rapeseed oil, soybean, palm oil and with small amounts from wheat. This therefore means an increase in demand for these crops, and by extension, an increase in use for respective agrochemicals. With respect to regulatory environment incentivising increased crop production, Uttley (2008) noted the act of international markets such as the United Kingdom and the United States of America providing bio-fuel subsidies raises the demand for crops used to produce bio-fuels and this in turn leads to an increase in the agrochemicals used.

2.3

Evaluation of the Literature

The literature reviewed in this study examines the various determinants of use of agrochemicals. It is identified that cost of agrochemicals is one of the major determinants of how accessible a particular agrochemical, even those for wheat, will be to an individual. Credit accessibility is also seen to be a major determinant in that a farmer who is not financially endowed will not manage to invest in agrochemicals. Rate of adoption of new technologies will also determine the use. In this case low levels of technological uptake with regard to agrochemicals will influence the demand for agrochemicals negatively and high levels of technological uptake will influence use of agrochemicals positively.

23 The literature reviewed also shows that there are various measures that have been taken so as to boost production of wheat in the country. Such measures include funding of research, extension, credit, marketing functions, subsidies and regulations on import taxes on both wheat and the inputs used in the wheat industry to encourage domestic production of wheat. However, the importance of the wheat agrochemicals in wheat production seems to be overlooked. This translates to a lack of awareness on agrochemicals among the producers of wheat.

Literature reviewed in Nyakundi (2008) identifies various factors that influence the adoption of agrochemicals in sugar cane industry. The factors identified were farmers income, price of the agrochemicals, price of labour and literacy level of farmers decision makers in adoption of agrochemicals in sugarcane farming. Some of these factors were considered, in the analysis of use of pre-emergence herbicides in Uasin Gishu County along with other factors inherent to wheat farmers.

It was also established that such factors as population density and growth, growing affluence, bio-fuels and regulatory environment also have an impact on the demand for agrochemicals (Uttley, 2008). The missing link identified here, as well as in various other studies, is that such factors as socio-economic characteristics of the farmer have not been considered by the reviewed authors. The current study endeavored to identify how socioeconomic characteristics of a farmer such as age, income, household size, education level and type and scale of production affects use of agrochemicals. This study sought to identify how promotional strategies can influence the use of pre-emergence wheat herbicides in

24 Uasin Gishu County as this has not been done as seen in studies reviewed in the foregoing literature.

Doss et al. (2001) had similar findings to the study of use of wheat agrochemicals in Uasin Gishu County. Socio-economic considerations, such as gender necessitate promotion of gender parity and equality in access to resources and means of production and are important for future development of farming and farm set ups in Uasin Gishu County, and indeed for the whole country.

Issues of extension services in all forms were dealt with by Abdulai et al. (2006). The findings and recommendations were very similar, pointing to a need for enhancement of aspect of farmer outreach. This study also gave weight to extension services by agrochemical companies operating in the county. Their activities, in provision of farmer outreach services were taken into consideration in arriving at conclusive and across the board recommendations where government and quasi-government agencies were also considered. Dobson, (2005) dealt with extension services very well; with fundamentals of farmer outreach vegetable- growing being given weight, with aids such as training manuals and others being discussed extensively. Apart from addressing a non-cereal crop, it dealt with problems of agrochemical use from the perspective of the donor. No economic and social factors were really put forward, nor adoption really dealt with the aim of knowing dynamics that dictate household decisions by farmers in light of inputs use.

25 The adoption issues that are put forward here are very much similar to the studies that have been undertaken by Egyir (2008). Both social and economic factors are well researched and the outcomes are very similar. Economic considerations such as land tenure issues and accessibility to credit facilities have come out very strongly in both studies. Social factors that are facing plantain farmers in Ghana such as literacy levels tend to tally with findings on social dynamics facing farmers in Uasin Gishu County of the Rift Valley, Kenya. The only aspect that makes this study more aligned to precision is the fact it concentrated on one type of agrochemicals, pre-emergence wheat herbicides. 2.4 Conceptual Framework

Use of Wheat Agro-Chemicals

Social Factors Age Education Household size Influence from other farmers

Economic Factors Land size under wheat Nature of land holding Income Credit accessibility

Promotional factors Extension services Farmers association Wheat market information

Figure 2.1: Conceptual Framework Source: Author, 2010

26 Figure 2.1 shows the conceptual framework that was used in the study. Use of preemergence wheat herbicides, and which was a dichotomous variable, was conceptualized as being dependent upon three major factors: social, economic and promotional factors. The three factors comprised of various explanatory variables from which some were picked to model use of pre-emergence wheat herbicides in Uasin Gishu County. Under the social factors, the independent variables were age, education, household size and influence from other farmers.

Under the economic factors, the following independent variables were conceptualized: land size under wheat, nature of land holding, income of the farmer and credit accessibility. The four were combined with the previous four social variables to come up with socio-economic factors.

The last category consisted of promotional strategies that were deemed necessary in the decision of whether or not to use pre-emergence wheat herbicides in wheat farming. These factors were; extension services, membership to farmers associations and wheat market information.

27 CHAPTER THREE METHODOLOGY

This chapter discusses the methodology used in this study. The chapter begins by describing the theoretical framework, then the data types and sources, research design, data collection, data analysis and the study limitations.

3.1

Theoretical Framework

Adoption is seen as the first or minimal level of behavioural utilization and innovation. It is an idea, practice, or object; perceived as new by an individual or other units of adoption (Rogers 2003). According to Feder et al, (1993) an innovation is defined as a technological factor that changes the production function regarding which there exists some uncertainty, whether perceived or objective (or both). The uncertainty diminishes over time through the acquisition of experience and information, and the production function itself may change as adopters become more efficient in the application of the technology. They continue to argue that technology adoption may also be viewed from two perspectives. At the micro level, each decision unit must choose whether to adopt the innovation and its intensity of use if adopted. Many adoption studies, they further noted, therefore, examine the factors influencing the firms or households adoption decision and may be viewed from a static or dynamic (if learning and experience are incorporated in the decision model) perspective. At the macro level, they noted, the adoption pattern of the whole firm or household population is examined over time to identify the specific trends in the diffusion cycle. Diffusion studies do not consider the innovation process, but begin at a point in time when the innovation is already in use.

28 Determinants of adoption are outlined clearly by (Rogers 2003). He outlined them as being dependent on perceived attributes, of which comparative advantage or the degree to which an innovation is perceived better than the idea it supersedes is first taken into account. Other issues of attributes that he outlined are: complexity (the degree to which a practice is perceived as relatively difficult to understand and to adopt, negatively related to its rate of adoption), trialability (degree to which an innovation may be experimented at a limited basis) and compatibility (degree to which sustainable practice is perceived as consistent with the existing values, past experience and needs of potential adopters. Rogers (2003) further described innovation process as a process through which an individual passes from; knowledge to attitude and finally to adopting (indivual or collective, optional or authority). He further pointed out the importance of communication channels in innovation process defining them as interpersonal or mass media, originating from specific or diverse sources. He also defined Social system as norms, network interconnectedness pointing out that these socio-cultural practices and norms can inhibit or drive adoption. He stated that efforts of promotion agent in the past and present are important.The current study drew similarity with this theory to study factors influencing use of pre-emergence herbicides among wheat farmers in Uasin Gishu County. Rogers (2003) categorizes adopters into: 1) innovators who are educated and venturesome; 2) early adopters who are popular educated and are normally social leaders; 3) early majority who are deliberate and have many social contacts; 4) late majority who are very skeptical; 5) laggards who are traditional and normally of lower social economic class. These may end up not adopting the technology. The distribution of these groups follows the familiar bell-shaped curve, when plotted to indicate their features in the relevant population.

29 3.1.1 Theoretical Model

To understand agrochemical use, an understanding of derived demand was found to be of significance. This called for indication of direct demand which emulates the following general demand function of perceived variances: Dw= F (Px, Pm, Pd, Pa,Pf ,Hin, Hsize, A, Pe, T, E) Where: Dw, stands for demand for Wheat Px, price of wheat locally Pm, price of Wheat Flour Pd, price of fuel Pa, price of agrochemicals Pf, price of Fertilizer Hin, Household income Hsize, Household size A, Promotion of wheat products Pe, Price expectation of wheat consumers T, Household taste or preferences E, all other factors.

30 In the same way, supply of wheat in the local Kenyan market is subject to various variables which may determine how much can be produced by the Kenyan farmers. These can be elaborated as follows, in a generalized wheat supply function: Sw= F (Px,Pi, Pm, Pd, Pa,Pf ,N, Fsize, A, Pe, T,G, E) Where: Sw, stands for supply of Wheat Px, price of wheat locally Pi, price of imported wheat Pm, price of wheat flour Pd, price of fuel Pa, price of agrochemicals Pf, price of Fertilizer N, number of wheat farmers Fsize, Total area under wheat locally A, Promotion of wheat products Pe, Price expectation of wheat consumers T, technology for use in wheat farming G,government policy E, all other factors. The above was considered in light of derived demand. However as postulated earlier, use of pre-emergence herbicides was studied and used a generalized way of understanding the

31 decisions that farmers consider in purchasing all other classes of agrochemicals. Derived demand as used in Uasin Gishu County was suggested to be studied using the following simplified demand function: Da= F (Px, Pl,Cspy, Hin, Fsize, A, Pe, T, E) Where: Da, stands for demand for Wheat Agrochemicals Px, price of Agrochemicals Pl, price Labour Cspy, cost of spraying agrochemicals Hin, Household income Fsize, Total area under wheat locally A, Promotional strategies for pre-emergence wheat herbicides Pe, Price expectation of wheat farmers T, Household taste or preferences E, all other factors.

The behavior of all the above were found to follow the following logic: a) Use of agrochemicals tends to reduce with an increase in their prices. b) The labor price positively affects the use for pre-emergence wheat herbicides. As general wage price increases, pre-emergence herbicides, which are substitutes gain more acceptances, and therefore their demand goes up.

32 c) When prices of pre-emergence complements go up, notably the cost of spraying, the use of the agrochemicals is negatively affected. d) This is a psychological aspect of the wheat farmers. If wheat farmers perceive an expected price increase in wheat agrochemicals, they will generally buy more. e) The general income levels of households affect use of wheat agrochemicals. This includes income from non-farming sources. The more the total income there is available to wheat farmers, the more their purchasing power, which will imply that the use of wheat

agrochemicals will be heightened. f) Promotional strategies, like advertisement, for agrochemicals will positively influence its use. The more the frequency and amount of advertising budget the higher the expected use of wheat

agrochemicals. g) The more the number of farmers the higher the expected use of wheat agrochemicals. h) The larger the total area under wheat the higher the expected use of wheat agrochemicals. i) Tastes and preferences highly affect the use of wheat agrochemicals. Some farmers may prefer post emergence herbicides to pre-emergence herbicides as an example, while some may prefer to spray less of agrochemicals. These are decisions affected by both individual and cultural perceptions.

33 3.1.2 Model Specification To meet the objectives of this study, Logit model was fitted on household data. The major focus of the study was the likelihood or probability of the outcome, that is, whether the respondent uses pre-emergence wheat or not. The binary response in this study was whether the respondent uses wheat pre-emergence herbicides (Success) or does not use preemergence herbicides (Failure).

An explanation of logistic regression begins with an explanation of the logistic function:

Wikipedia (2011)

The input is z and the output is (z). The logistic function is useful because it can take as an input any value from negative infinity to positive infinity, whereas the output is confined to values between 0 and 1. The variable z represents the exposure to some set of independent variables, while (z) represents the probability of a particular outcome, given that set of explanatory variables. The variable z is a measure of the total contribution of all the independent variables used in the model and is known as the logit, Wikipedia (2011)

The variable z is usually defined as:

34

Z=0 +1x1+ 2x2 + 3x3+..+ nxn

Wikipedia, (2011)

Where 0 is called the "intercept" and 1, 2, 3, and so on, are called the "regression coefficients" of x1, x2, x3 respectively. The intercept is the value of z when the value of all independent variables is zeros (e.g. the value of z in someone with no risk factors). Each of the regression coefficients describes the size of the contribution of that risk factor. A positive regression coefficient means that the explanatory variable increases the probability of the outcome, while a negative regression coefficient means that the variable decreases the probability of that outcome; a large regression coefficient means that the risk factor strongly influences the probability of that outcome; while a near-zero regression coefficient means that that risk factor has little influence on the probability of that outcome Wikipedia, (2011)

Logistic regression is a useful way of describing the relationship between one or more independent variables (e.g., age and sex) and a binary response variable, expressed as a probability, that has only two possible values, such as death ("dead" or "not dead") ,Wikipedia (2011)

If F(Z)=Y is the random variable (dichotomous), it is then assumed that Yi takes on the values 0 or 1, where 0 denotes non-occurrence of the event in question and 1 denotes occurrence of the event in question (Maddala, 1983). If X1, -------------------, Xp are the characteristics to be related to occurrence of this outcome, then the Logistic model specifies

35 that the conditional probability of event (that is, that Y = 1) given the values of X1, ------------------, Xp is as follows. P(Y) = 1 / [1 + exp ( - iXi)]

In order to linearize the right hand side, a Logit transformation is applied by taking logarithm of both sides. The logarithmic transformation stabilizes the variance if the standard deviation in the original scales varies directly as the mean. This results into: Logit P(Y) = + iXi + i Where: Yi = 1 if success (respondent uses pre-emergence wheat herbicides) 0 if failure (respondent does not use pre-emergence wheat herbicides) = Constant term is = Logistic coefficients for the independent variables i = Error term Xis = Independent variables such that: X1 = Age of the respondent in years categorical variable. X2 = Level of education of the respondent categorical variable. X3 = Household size: number of persons in the household of the respondent continuous variable.1 X4 = Extension services categorical variable. X5 = Farmers association categorical variable. X6 = Total land size for wheat continuous variable.
The variables captured are grouped into continuous and categorical variables .Categorical variables will take a discrete value, while the continuous variables will project a continuity within a given interval.. The variables so captured were easier to obtain, and provided no ambiguity as far as data analysis is concerned.
1

36 X7 = Nature of land holding categorical variable. X8 = Wheat market information categorical variable. X9 = Income continuous variable. X10 = Credit accessibility - Binary variable. X11 = Influence from other farmers categorical variable.

Continuous and Categorical Variables The continuous variables take any numerical value in a real integral, when properly measured while categorical variables take a numerical of one or zero. They are discussed as follows: Age x1 Age was measured in years and categorized under four categories namely; under 25 years, between 25 and 45 years, between 46 and 60 years and over 60 years. It was expected that age of a respondent can positively influence ones use of pre-emergence wheat herbicides because with age comes experience as well as readiness and willingness to adopt new production technologies. The expected sign here was positive.

Education Level-x2 This variable was used to establish the level of formal education of a respondent. Four categories were considered namely: nursery / primary level, secondary level, tertiary level and those without formal education. Respondents were asked to indicate their levels of education from the categories given. In the case where a respondent had no formal education, it was expected that he / she may not adequately use of pre-emergence wheat herbicides as opposed to those who had formal education. A positive sign was

37 expected for this variable. Education was hypothesized to have a positive influence on use of pre-emergence herbicides.

Household Size-x3 This variable referred to the number of persons in a household and it was measured quantitatively. Respondents were asked to indicate the number of persons in their household. It was expected that a respondents household size would influence their use of pre-emergence wheat herbicides depending on the financial responsibilities that the household size puts on the respondent. The expected sign was indeterminate and therefore neutral.

Extension Services-x4 Farmers who access extension services from relevant agents have access to information on products available to them. This in turn has an impact on use of pre-emergence wheat herbicides. Activities associated with extension services such as agricultural trainings, field days and field demonstrations were also expected to have an impact on a farmers use of pre-emergence wheat herbicides. This is a categorical variable which was to take a value of one if farmer visited by an extension officer or attended trainings, field days and field demonstrations (Xi=1) and zero otherwise (Xi = 0). The expected sign for this variable was positive.

38 Farmers Association-x5 Membership to a farmer association is a key component that leads a farmer to attain useful information on farming. Such associations which cater solely for the farmers are like the Cereal Growers Association (C.G.A). Thus logic infers that membership to such associations will lead to increased use of pre-emergence wheat herbicides among farmers in Uasin Gishu. For this variable, the expected sign was positive.

Total land Size for Wheat-x6 This reflects the number of hectares a farmer reserves for wheat. Total land size was expected to have an effect on individual farmers use of pre-emergence wheat herbicides. The larger the land size the greater the use. The expected sign for land size was positive.

Nature of Land Holding-x7 The nature of land holding, whether it is leased or owned privately influenced the use of pre-emergence wheat herbicides. Those who own land, consequently have an enhanced purchasing power unlike those who lease. Coding for lease took zero (Xi=0) and for owned farms took one (Xi = 1). In this case, the expected sign was indeterminate and therefore neutral.

Wheat Market Information-x8 Increased chances of a farmer having suitable information relating to the market influences use of wheat agrochemicals in that information on the market for wheat will

39 influence a farmers decision to plant wheat or not. By extension, that will also influence ones use of pre-emergence wheat herbicides. Market information determines whether farmers have access to information or not. Market distance has a value when purchasing agrochemicals. The nearer the supply point for agrochemicals to a farmer the cheaper it will be for a farmer to use the pre-emergence wheat herbicides. Market distance has a bearing operation cost which in turn influences use of pre-emergence wheat herbicides. The expected sign for this variable was positive.

Income-x9 The hypothesis was that the more income a farmer has from all sources available for him the more chance he has for increasing use for wheat agrochemical. This level of income was coded as a continuous variable. A positive sign was expected for income.

Credit Accessibility-x10 Accessibility to credit boosts ones financial status and hence a farmer who has access to credit is more likely to use pre-emergence wheat herbicides as opposed to a farmer without credit access. Some extension agents offer seasonal credit to farmers. Farmers who access this type of credit are given products at the beginning of the wheat season and are expected to repay after harvest. For this variable, the expected sign was positive.

Influence from other Farmers-x11 Often, farmers base their decisions on the success that they have witnessed from other farmers. This is especially so in the case of agrochemicals. A farmer who has witnessed

40 successful use of a particular agrochemical on another farm is more likely to use that agrochemical than one who has not witnessed such success. This variable measured whether a respondents decision to use pre-emergence wheat herbicides is influenced by other farmers or not. The expected sign here was indeterminate and thus neutral.

3.2

Data Types and Sources

Primary data was mainly used in the study. Primary data was gathered from the farmers through survey. This included data on household socio-economic characteristics such as age, education level and household size. Other data collected from the field included farmers average annual income, land size, land tenure system, membership to a farmers association, influence from other farmers, credit accessibility, and availability of wheat market information and presence of extension services.

3.3

Research Design

The study used a survey design. The survey aimed at collecting data from wheat farmers in Uasin Gishu County in order to determine their current status with respect to use of wheat agrochemicals in the County. Survey design was preferred because it is useful in exploring existing status of two or more variables at a given point in time and the best method available to social scientists who are interested in collecting original data for purposes of describing a population that is too large to observe directly. Pre-emergence herbicides active ingredients, namely; pendimethalin, chlorsulfuron tribenuron methyl and flufanecet, with different trade names were used. Trade names like Stomp, Glean, Granstar and Tiara,

41 corresponding to the above respectively were used for ease of farmer understanding. These are herbicides used before weeds emerge in a plantation of wheat.

3.3.1

Population, Sample size and Sampling Techniques

The target population for this study was all wheat farmers in Uasin Gishu County. The County is one of the several counties in Kenya that grow wheat. A sample size of 164 wheat farmers was used in the study and was determined as follows.

n = z2 p q d2 Where: n = the desired sample size z = the standard normal deviate at 0.1 confidence level p = the proportion in the target population estimated to have characteristics being measured q=1p d = level of statistical significance set at 0.05. The z statistic at 90 percent confidence level is 1.282. Since there was no estimate available of the proportion in the target population that was assumed to have the characteristics of interest (p), 50 percent was used as recommended by Fisher et al (1983). Therefore, p was 0.5. The level of significance, d, was 0.05. Therefore, the sample size, n, was calculated as: n = z2 p q d2

42 n = (1.2822) 0.5 0.5 (0.052) n = 164 Stratified random sampling was used to pick the sample from the population .Wheat farmers were first grouped into two strata either as large scale farmers or small scale farmers. A systematic random sampling procedure was then used to identify farmers to be included in the sample from each stratum. The first farmer was picked randomly and thereafter a farmer was picked after an interval of 10 households. 3.4 Data Collection Methods

Data collection was done using a well structured questionnaire administered to the farmers. Both open ended and closed ended questions were used in the questionnaire. A pre-test of the questionnaire was done in two districts; Narok and Nakuru. This involved giving 15 questionnaires to wheat farmers in the two districts. This was done to ensure that the questionnaires were interpreted in the intended manner and any corrections deemed necessary were observed and adjustments made accordingly. Both quantitative and qualitative data was collected for this study using well structured questionnaires. The data was collected by the researcher with the assistance of appointed enumerators.

3.5

Data Analysis

Data was analyzed both descriptively and inferentially. Data was analyzed descriptively using mean, mode and standard deviation and results presented using frequency distribution

43 tables, graphs, bar charts and pie charts. This was to help in describing emerging relationships between variables. Inferential statistics involved the use of binary logistic regression analysis, particularly the maximum likelihood ratio method. Logistic regression analysis was used to evaluate causality relationships between variables using the Statistical Package for Social Scientists (SPSS).

3.6

Limitations of the Study

The limitations that were experienced during the study included the following. a) Inadequate financial outlay and time constraints prevented the collection of data from a larger sample and hence limiting the sample size to one hundred and sixty four wheat farmers. The sample was, however, representative. b) There was language barrier especially among the elderly people and without formal education. This called for more explanations to these people on the questionnaire details and hence spending more time than intended c) Some of the respondents withheld information on income and household size. d) Some questions in the questionnaire were answered inaccurately while some were not returned and these led to elimination of data from such questionnaires from analysis. The number of respondents, after elimination of those whose details were not filled was 133. These were found to be adequate for the study. To reduce these problems, a letter of authorization from the University was acquired so as to create credibility to enumerators in eyes of the respondents. Ministry of Agriculture personnel, local Provincial Administration

44 and local Cereals Growers Association were used to further mitigate any arising doubts from the farmers.

45

CHAPTER FOUR RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 4.1 Introduction

This chapter consists of empirical results and discussion of the findings. The chapter presents the major socio-economic constraints and promotional strategies that influence the use of wheat agrochemical in Uasin Gishu County. The chapter begins by giving the general socio-economic characteristics of the sample followed by a detailed presentation and discussion of empirical results.

4.2

General Socio-Economic Characteristics of the Sample

Summary statistics for the analyzed data pertaining continuous variables is given in table 4.1. The table includes summaries of results for average income, land size and household size. The basis of the data collection was on use of pre-emergence herbicides with an aim of cascading all findings to relate to dynamics of what happens in use of all classifications of agrochemicals. An in-depth analysis2 shows that only 36% farmers have received trainings on pre-emergence herbicides while the rest have not. Only 12% use pre-emergence wheat herbicides. The summary results are presents in table 4.1 below.

Data was collected from all the 164 sampled farmers, but analyzed from 133 farmers from whom

questionnaires were received. Data from 33 questionnaires was not included in the analysis either because the questionnaires were not returned or the information was inaccurate. Therefore, the response rate was 81 percent.

46

Table 4.1: Summary Statistics for Continuous Variables __________________________________________________________________________ Variable Minimum Maximum Mean Mode Standard Deviation Average Income Land Size Household Size 15,000 0.20 2 300,000,000 2000 20 10,000,000 80.938 7.42 50,000 3.00 5 39,329,815.726 267.989 3.941

__________________________________________________________________________ Source: Authors Survey Data, 2010

According to the results obtained (table 4.1), the average annual income of the farmers was Kshs. 10,000,000 with a minimum of Kshs. 15,000 and a maximum of Kshs. 300,000,000. The modal income was Kshs. 50,000 with 9 percent of respondents having a similar annual average income. Further results on farm income are presented in figure 4.1 which shows distribution of farm income around the mean.

The larger the amount of disposable income available for use by each farming household, the greater the ability to purchase pre-emergence wheat herbicides and other inputs. This will in turn lead to improved management of wheat hazards brought in by pest and diseases; translating to increased yield per unit area of grown wheat. The figure below is a presentation of distribution of income among the sampled households.

47

Above mean income 12%

Below mean income 88% Figure 4.1: Distribution of Income around Mean Source: Authors Survey Data, 2010

Figure 4.1 shows that 88 percent of the respondents had an annual farm income which was below the mean annual income and only 12 percent of the respondents had their annual income being above the mean annual income. The results depict a scenario where farmers can be grouped into two categories namely small scale and large scale wheat farmers. Most of the farmers who constituted the sample were small scale farmers and they are the ones who had an average annual income of between Kshs. 15,000 and Kshs. 10,000,000. Compared to the large scale farmers, who had average annual incomes exceeding Kshs. 10,000,000, the small scale farmers were observed to operate on smaller pieces of land and that would have also contributed to their smaller income levels. Egyir (2008) noted that households in Ghana with higher income from sale of plantain in the various season had a higher probability of using agrochemicals. Egyir also noted that other studies agreed that a higher disposable income led to this, noting contributions by (Abdulai et al., 2006 and;Moser et al., 2003).

48

Data on land size was analyzed and results obtained (table 4.1) showed that the least land size amongst the sampled farmers was 0.20 hectares while the maximum was 2000 hectares. The mean land size was 80.938 hectares and the modal land size was 3.0 hectares with 11 percent of respondents having a land size of 3 hectares. Results on land size are further supplemented by results in figure 4.2 which show spread of land size around the mean.

From 80 - 2000 hectares 12%

From 0.2 - 80 hectares 88%

Figure 4.2: Land Size Spread around Mean Source: Authors Survey Data, 2010

Figure 4.2 shows that most of the respondents (88 percent) practiced wheat farming on land not exceeding 80 hectares and only 12 percent of the respondents farmed on land bigger than 80 hectares. The latter group was assumed to be those producing wheat on a large scale. Generally large tracts of land imply that wheat production involves mechanization leading to benefits of economies of scale. Mechanization leads to better efficacy and improved efficiency in use of agrochemicals. Therefore, land size would have an impact on the use of

49 agro-chemicals depending on the land size. Doss et al. (2001) noted in their study done in Ghana that land was associated with adoption of new technology, because wealthier farmers are better able to bear risks and thus are more likely to try new technologies.

With regard to household size, results (table 4.1) indicate that households which had 5 persons were leading with 17 percent. The mean household size was 7 persons. The minimum number of persons in a household was 2 and the maximum was 20. Further results indicated that 58 percent of respondents had household sizes of up to 7 persons while 42 percent of respondents had a household size of between 7 and 20 persons as indicated in figure 4.3. Generally the smaller the household size, the lower the overall household expenditure, thus letting households to devote more resources to farming including purchase of pre-emergence wheat herbicides. Due to lesser pressure of consumption needs per head, smaller families tend to have more disposable income and are entirely in agreement with Idrisa et al., (2008) who found that families with many members had little income left for spending in production investment. The figure below depicts household sizes among sampled farmers in the study area.

50

18%

16%

14%

12%

Percent

10%

8%

6%

4%

2%

0% 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20

Household Size Figure 4.3: Number of Persons in Household Source: Authors Survey Data, 2010 Data on age of respondents was analyzed and the results are as shown in table 4.2. Table 4.2: Age of Respondents Age bracket Under 25 years 26 45 years 46 60 years Over 60 years Total Source: Authors Survey Data, 2010 Frequency 12 82 30 9 133 Percent 9 62 23 6 100

51

Results (table 4.2) show that 62 percent of the respondents were aged between 26 and 45 years. That was followed by the group of 46 60 years with 23 percent of the respondents, and then less than 25 years with 9 percent and the age group that had the least number of respondents was that of over 60 years with 6 percent of respondents. These results indicate that wheat farming is mostly carried out by the active section of the population in Uasin Gishu County. The results further imply that wheat farming is carried out by mature farmers who are capable of having the basic understanding of information regarding wheat farming and particularly the use of agro-chemicals that are required in wheat production. Idrisa et al., (2008) said that the age of between 30-49 years in a farming population, which was predominant in their study implied that they are more active in their farms and are more receptive to agricultural extension programs.

Education level of respondents was hypothesized as a variable that would influence the use of pre-emergence wheat herbicides amongst wheat farmers. The results obtained on analysis of data on education level are indicated in figure 4.4.

52

60%

53%
50%

40%

Percent

30%

20%

21% 16%

10%

8% 2%

0%

Primary

O' level

A' level

College / University

Uneducated

Education Level Figure 4.4: Education Level of Respondents Source: Authors Survey Data, 2010

Figure 4.4 shows that 53 percent of respondents had attained up to O level, 21 percent had college / university level of education, 16 percent up to primary school and 8 percent had A level education. Only 2 percent of respondents did not have any formal education. It is therefore seen that the wheat farmers sampled in Uasin Gishu District had formal education. That implies that the farmers were in a position to know about pre-emergence wheat herbicides and know how to use them in their wheat farming. This is further corroborated by

53 Azeez et al. (2009) who emphasized that good education enabled farmers to understand the use of improved technologies and apply it to achieve increased production.

The nature of land ownership would also impact on a farmers usage of pre-emergence wheat herbicides. Data on land tenure system of respondents was analyzed and the results are indicated in Figure 4.5.

Leasehold 7%

Both leasehold and private Ownership 1%

Private ownership 92% Figure 4.5: Land Tenure System Source: Authors Survey Data, 2010

Figure 4.5 indicates that a majority of the respondents (92 percent) owned the land on which they produced their wheat since they had private ownership. On the other hand, 7 percent of respondents produced wheat on leased land while 1 percent of respondents produced wheat on privately owned land and lease land. Therefore, with most of the farmers owning the land on which they produced wheat, then they would have more disposable income since they are not under pressure to meet leasehold costs. This study did not however factor in the

54 opportunity cost of land as owned by farmers who did not lease their farms. This is because for those who own land, this fact does not influence household decisions at the time of purchasing farm inputs. Besides, while producing on privately owned land, there are no extra production costs that would be incurred by the farmer as is the case with leased land and therefore such costs would not constrain use of pre-emergence wheat herbicides. Extension services would influence use of pre-emergence wheat herbicides amongst wheat farmers depending on whether such services are available or not. Data on impact of extension services in Uasin Gishu County was analyzed and the results obtained are as indicated in Figure 4.6.

100% 90% 80% 70%

96%

Percent

60% 50% 40% 30% 20% 10% 0%

4%

No Yes Whether receive extension services

Figure 4.6: Presence of Extension Services Source: Authors Survey Data, 2010

55

According to results in Figure 4.6, 96 percent of the respondents reported that extension services were available in their areas while 4 percent reported otherwise. Extension services are important in wheat farming since they are an avenue for providing farmers with vital information on how to maximize profits from their produce. They contribute greatly to gaining of knowledge on technological advancement and adoption of the same so as to keep up with the latest development in research. Majority of farmers reported presence of extension services, which implies that it has an impact on the use of pre-emergence wheat herbicides. Doss et al., (2001); Idrisa et al., (2009) and Azeez et al., (2009), all noted the importance of extension services in enhancing more and better use of farm inputs. In their conclusion, Idrisa et al., (2009) indicated that farmers should be given informal education through extension services with a view to enhance their understanding of modern agricultural production techniques and easy access to improved technologies to boost agricultural production.

There are farmer associations in the wheat sector that provide wheat farmers with agrochemicals as well as information on how to use the agro-chemicals. This study sought to establish whether wheat farmers in Uasin Gishu belong to any such associations and the results obtained are indicated in Figure 4.7.

56

80%

70%

60%

Percent

50%

40%

79%

30%

20%

21%
10% 0%

No

Yes

Membership to a farmers association

Figure 4.7: Membership to a Farmers Association Source: Authors Survey Data, 2010

Results (Figure 4.7) indicated that 79 percent of respondents were members of a farmers association while 21 percent were not. That implies that any benefits arising from such associations with respect to pre-emergence wheat herbicides would not trickle down to nonmembers and therefore would have an impact on agro-chemicals use amongst such farmers. However, should non-member farmers interact with those who belong to such associations, then that would have an impact on agro-chemical use. In this regard, data on whether

57 farmers used pre-emergence wheat herbicides as a result of influence from other farmers was analyzed and the results are presented in Table 4.3.

Table 4.3: Influence from other Farmers Response No Yes Total Source: Authors Survey Data, 2010 Frequency 13 120 133 Percent 9 91 100

Table 4.3 shows that 120 respondents (91 percent) had used agro-chemicals as a result of influence from other farmers while 13 respondents (9 percent) had not. This implies that the knowledge and experience gained from other farmers has an impact on a farmers use of pre-emergence wheat herbicides.

Access to wheat market information would also influence a farmers use of pre-emergence wheat herbicides. Data concerning accessibility to wheat market information among farmers in Uasin Gishu County was analyzed and the results are presented in Figure 4.8.

58

60%

50%

40%

30%

59% 41%

20%

10%

0%

No

Yes

Access to wheat market information Figure 4.8: Access to Wheat Market Information Source: Authors Survey Data, 2010

According to the results (Figure 4.8), 59 percent of respondents had access to wheat market information while 41 percent of them had no access. Accessibility to wheat market information will allow a farmer to gain knowledge on how to improve his / her produce (wheat) so as to be competitive and reap maximum profits. Such market information would include information on input use and therefore it would have a positive impact in the use of pre-emergence wheat herbicides as one of the inputs used in wheat production. Doss et al., (2001) also noted that information was paramount towards allowing more use of farm inputs

59 and further noted that (Abdulai et al., 2006 and Moser et al. (2003) had agreed with this observation.

Credit to farmers is of vital importance in production in that it helps farmers cushion their inadequacies of income required to cater for costs incurred during the production process, for instance cost of pre-emergence wheat herbicides. This study sought to establish whether wheat farmers in Uasin Gishu County had access to credit from financial institutions. The results are indicated in figure 4.9.

No 29%

Yes 71%

Figure 4.9: Access to Credit Source: Authors Survey Data, 2010

Results (Figure 4.9) indicate that 71 percent of respondents had access to credit from financial institutions while 29 percent had no access to credit. That is attributed to the fact that a majority of the respondents owned the land on which they produced their wheat, as earlier established, thus making it easier for them to fulfill collateral requirements to access

60 credit. Therefore, accessibility to credit amongst farmers in Uasin Gishu County had positive impact on the use of pre-emergence wheat herbicides. Expansion of existing credit programs could have beneficial effects on agricultural production of smallholders, Zeller et al. (1997) made in their conclusion when they were studying market access by smallholder farmers in Malawi.

4.3

Results from Logit Regression

This section presents results obtained from Logit regression as well as discussion of the results. Table 4.4 presents a summary of the regression results. Table 4.4: Summary of Logit Regression Results __________________________________________________________________________ Variable Age Education Level Household Size Land Size Land Tenure Average Income Extension Services Membership Market Info. Credit Access Influence Constant -2 Log likelihood 30.090 Cox & Snell R Square 0.423 Nagelkerke R Square 0.823 Omnibus test for model coefficients - Chi-square 32.958 Coefficient 4.484 28.241** 0.227 16.213 -5.978* 3.154** 5.757** 0.420 5.796** 2.153* 1.547 -6.089 Standard Error 1.346 2.274 0.030 0.003 2.308 0.462 4.288 0.706 3.529 3.305 3.154 2.548 Exp. () 14.138 89.121 1.011 51.156 0.003 9.941 18.146 2.104 18.272 7.975 4.866 0.001

61 Hosmer & Lemeshow test - Model Chi-square 3.088 Percentage correct prediction 81.3 Sample Size n = 133 The ** and * represent 1% and 5% levels of significance respectively. __________________________________________________________________________ Source: Authors Survey Data, 2010 Logit regression results (table 4.4) indicated a positive and significant relation between use of pre-emergence wheat herbicides and education level at 1 percent. A unit increase in the level of education was observed to bring about an increase in the log of odds in favor of use of pre-emergence chemicals by 28.241 among wheat farmers in Uasin Gishu County. The positive relationship implies that people who are educated are more likely to use preemergence wheat herbicides in wheat production than those who are not since it is expected that the educated will know how to use the pre-emergence wheat herbicides as well as know the benefits of using agro-chemicals and indeed any other technology in wheat production. Therefore, they would adopt the use of pre-emergence wheat herbicides more easily than those without formal education.

Land tenure system also influenced the use of pre-emergence wheat herbicides in Uasin Gishu County. The relationship between use of pre-emergence wheat herbicides and land tenure system was seen to be negative and significant at 5 percent. The negative relationship was observed when land tenure system was leasehold. For leasehold, a unit change decreased the log of odds in favor of use of pre-emergence wheat herbicides by 5.978 among wheat farmers in Uasin Gishu County. That implies that for those who did not own the land on which they produced their wheat, they would probably not use pre-emergence wheat herbicides in their production. That is attributed to the fact that farmers who produce

62 on leased land incur extra costs for leases and that curtails their production budget. Consequently, farmers end up using inadequate portions of inputs such as agro-chemicals or not using them at all so as to remain within their production budget. This affects the quality of their output and production and income from their farms is not optimized. It would therefore be necessary to encourage farmers who own land to intensify production of wheat. That would be done through extension services campaigns in print and electronic media to enlighten farmers on the benefits of producing on privately owned land. In the long run, that would promote the use of pre-emergence wheat herbicides by wheat farmers. It would also be necessary to ensure that government agencies involved with land registration make the process of acquiring the documentation necessary for obtaining private ownership of land is easy, accessible and timely.

Average annual income of respondents influenced the use of wheat pre-emergence wheat herbicides. The relationship between average income per year and use of pre-emergence wheat herbicides was positive and significant at 1 percent. A unit increase in the average annual income brings about an increase in the log of odds in favor of use of pre-emergence wheat herbicides by 3.154 among wheat farmers in Uasin Gishu County. A positive relationship here implied that those wheat farmers who were able to have a larger amount of annual farm income would increase their usage of pre-emergence wheat herbicides due to larger capital outlays implied by larger incomes. Though the mean annual income for wheat farmers in Uasin Gishu District was Kshs. 10,000,000, it was observed that most of the respondents had annual income below the average figure. These were respondents engaged

63 in small scale production. Those in large scale production were able to have higher incomes than the annual average.

Further analysis with regard to average annual income indicated that most of the income earned by farmers within a production season was not sufficient to purchase adequate preemergence wheat herbicides. Results are presented in table 4.5.

Table 4.5: Sufficiency of Income to Purchase Pre-emergence Wheat Herbicides Response No Yes Total Source: Authors Survey Data, 2010 Frequency 77 56 133 Percent 58 42 100

About 58 percent of the respondents did not have sufficient income to purchase adequate pre-emergence wheat herbicides within a season. It is therefore necessary for farmers to maximize their production by adopting modern technologies in their production so as to increase their income margins. In addition, they should also seek to diversify their farming and not rely on wheat only as their income earner so as to have more avenues of generating income. On the other hand, government should curtail wheat imports so as to boost local production and wheat prices which would in turn ensure that farmers increase their profit margins and by extension, their income. All these strategies will in the long run enable

64 farmers to use pre-emergence wheat herbicides due to the availability of income to cover the costs incurred.

The presence of extension services was also seen as having an impact on the use of preemergence wheat herbicides by farmers in Uasin Gishu County. Presence of extension services and use of pre-emergence wheat herbicides had a positive and significant association at 1 percent. A unit change in the presence of extension services brought about an increase in the log of odds in favor of the use of pre-emergence wheat agro chemicals by 5.757 among wheat farmers in the County. This implies that extension services contribute significantly to the use of wheat pre-emergence wheat herbicides. However, though farmers said that there was extension services carried out in their areas, the frequency with which extension was done was not satisfactory. It was reported that extension services were provided once in a year for most farmers. The extension services were carried out by agents from the Ministry of Agriculture, agro-chemical companies and non-governmental organizations. The farmers were appreciative of the extension services noting that the information acquired through extension was very helpful. Therefore, providers of extension services should ensure that they increase the number of extension visits to farmers within a production period so as to keep track of farmers progress and ensure that the right procedures were followed when using agro-chemicals. This is particularly important because new agro-chemicals keep being developed and one way to make sure that farmers use the right agro-chemicals in the right way and amount is through extension since it is the closest link between the farmers and research.

65 There was a positive and significant relationship at one percent between use of preemergence wheat herbicides and availability of wheat market information in Uasin Gishu County. A unit increase in the access to wheat market information brought about an increase in the log of odds in favor of use of pre-emergence wheat herbicides by 5.796 among wheat farmers in the County. That implies that a farmer with access to market information was more likely to use pre-emergence wheat herbicides than one without such information. Market information enables one to follow the latest developments in a particular industry and be able to know what is required in the market. In so doing, farmers are able to involve themselves in demand driven kind of production as opposed to supply driven production. A farmer will be in a position to know what varieties of wheat he can produce in his area as well as the agro-chemicals that best suite that variety. Thus the farmer is able to meet the market demand and hence consumers are satisfied whereas the farmer gets to sell his produce thereby earning income. It is therefore necessary to ensure that farmers have access to market information. This can be effected through extension services by both government and agro-chemical companies as well as through media and educative forums such as seminars and workshops so as to keep farmers informed.

The use of agro-chemicals requires a farmer to have adequate finances so as to purchase the agro-chemicals sufficient for a full production period. Since wheat farming is practiced on large farms involving mechanized labour, a farmer needs to have sufficient income to sustain production. Inadequate income will require the farmer to seek extra funding through credit. This study sought to establish whether wheat farmers in Uasin Gishu County had access to credit from financial institutions. There was a positive and significant relationship

66 at 5 percent between use of pre-emergence wheat herbicides and access to credit. A unit increase in access to credit brought about an increase in the log of odds in favor of use of pre emergent wheat agro-chemicals by 2.153 in the County. The implication is that farmers with access to credit were more likely to meet the cost of pre-emergence wheat herbicides and therefore use them in the right quantities. Farmers were of the opinion that the cost of acquiring wheat agro-chemicals was very high and therefore there is need to enable them meet these costs by having more accessibility to credit. This can be achieved by ensuring that financial institutions have less costly credit that can be advanced to wheat farmers. Further, credit access can be widened by having agro-chemical companies offer credit to wheat farmers for acquisition of pre-emergence wheat herbicides at fair rates to the farmers. This ensures that wheat farmers do not fail to use agro-chemicals or use inadequate portions due to the inability to purchase them. In the long run, that promotes the use of preemergence wheat herbicides.

Further promotional strategies that would elicit positive impact in the usage of wheat agrochemicals in Uasin Gishu County were observed in the remedies for constraints faced by farmers in the use of wheat agro-chemicals. The major constraints identified include lack of experience in using agro-chemicals, distant supply points, lack of equipment, health risks, small scale production hindering machine use, extortion by middlemen, costly agrochemicals and equipment, poor quality of agro-chemicals, poor timing for application, lack of knowledge on usage and poor handling of agro-chemicals. The suggested remedies for these constraints that would enhance use of pre-emergence wheat herbicides include having more training on the use of agro-chemicals through field-days, demonstrations and more

67 extension, good timing for application of wheat agro-chemicals, have supply points nearer to farmers, using modern equipment and technology and government to subsidize cost of agrochemicals so as to have them more affordable to farmers.

From the logit regression results, six variables were significant in modeling the factors influencing the use of pre-emergence wheat herbicides in Uasin Gishu District. These parameters were level of education, average annual income, and presence of extension services and availability of wheat market information which were significant at 1 percent. The other two significant parameters were land tenure system and accessibility to credit which were significant at 5 percent. To test the hypothesis in the study, t-test was run on the significant parameters and promotional strategies identified. The computed t values exceeded the tabulated t value of 1.960 for the surveyed sample indicating that the parameters and promotional strategies identified were statistically significant at 5 percent. Here promotional strategies are efforts by extension agents to influence behavior of target farmers. This was best exemplified by various aspects of extension work by the agents. Therefore, the null hypothesis that socio-economic factors do not influence use of preemergence wheat herbicides and that there are no promotional strategies that would elicit positive impact in the use of wheat pre-emergence wheat herbicides in Uasin Gishu County were rejected.

68 CHAPTER FIVE SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 5.1 Summary

This study was focused on identifying the factors influencing use of pre-emergence wheat herbicides in Uasin Gishu County. To achieve this, a survey design was used to collect data. One hundred and sixty four wheat farmers were sampled from the County. Data was collected by means of questionnaires. However, data was analyzed for 133 respondents whose questionnaires were returned with accurate information. Eleven variables were considered for evaluation in determining factors influencing use of pre-emergence wheat herbicides. Logit regression was used to analyze the data using the Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS).

The study had three specific objectives. The first and second objectives were aimed at determining socio-economic factors influencing use of pre-emergence wheat herbicides in Uasin Gishu County. Logit regression identified six variables as significant in explaining the factors influencing use of pre-emergence wheat herbicides among the eleven variables considered for evaluation. The six variables were education level, average annual income, presence of extension services, and availability of wheat market information, land tenure system and accessibility to credit. Five variables namely education, average annual income, presence of extension services, availability of wheat market information and accessibility to credit had a direct relationship with use of pre-emergence wheat herbicides while land tenure system had an inverse relationship.

69 The third objective was to identify promotional strategies that would elicit positive impact in the use of pre-emergence wheat herbicides in Uasin Gishu County. The promotional strategy mainly identified was increasing the frequency of extension services. Other strategy was having more training on the usage of pre-emergence herbicides.

5.2

Conclusions

The findings of this study indicate that education level, an example of social factor, favored use of pre-emergence wheat herbicides. It was observed that a farmer was more likely to use pre-emergence wheat herbicides if he / she had formal education than if he / she did not have formal education. Thus the null hypothesis that social factors had no effect on the use of preemergence wheat herbicides in Uasin Gishu County was rejected.

Land tenure system is an economic factor that influenced use pre-emergence wheat herbicides. The association between land tenure system and use of pre-emergence wheat herbicides was negative in the case of leasehold land tenure system. Other economic factors influencing the use of pre-emergence wheat herbicides were average annual farm income and access to credit. However, most of the respondents were in small scale production and had their farm incomes below the annual average and therefore their income was not sufficient to fund a seasons supply of wheat agro-chemicals. Credit access also influenced use of pre-emergence wheat herbicides positively. Access to credit was particularly important in assisting the farmers meet the cost of acquiring pre-emergence wheat herbicides which was reported to be very high. The results led to the conclusion that use of pre-emergence wheat herbicides in Uasin Gishu County is influenced by economic factors

70 and therefore the null hypothesis that economic factors had no effect on the use of preemergence wheat herbicides in Uasin Gishu County was rejected.

It was also established in the study that there are promotional strategies that would elicit positive impact in the usage of pre-emergence wheat herbicides in Uasin Gishu District. Provision of extension services, a promotional factor, influenced use of pre-emergence wheat herbicides positively. As a result, the null hypothesis that there were no promotional strategies that would elicit positive impact in the use of pre-emergence wheat herbicides in Uasin Gishu District was also rejected.

5.3

Recommendations

Wheat agro-chemicals are an important aspect of the inputs that are used in wheat production. It is therefore important to ensure that the usage of these agro-chemicals is enhanced amongst wheat farmers. In this regard, the following recommendations were made. Firstly, farmers in Uasin Gishu County with own-land should be encouraged to do wheat farming. In that connection also, government should ensure that the process of acquiring the necessary documentation for private land ownership is easy. Secondly, wheat farmers should be encouraged to maximize their farm income from wheat by adopting modern technologies, and increase overall farm income, by diversifying their farming rather than relying on a single crop. Government should also reduce wheat imports so as to boost local production and thereby increase profit margins through better wheat prices which would translate to higher farm incomes for the farmers. Thirdly, it is important for extension agents to increase the frequency of extension visits to wheat farmers since the farmers

71 recognize the fact that the information gained from extension is very helpful. Fourthly, awareness should be enhanced through media and educative forums such as seminars and workshops so as to increase farmer access to wheat market information. Lastly, accessibility to credit should be increased by having financial institutions offer affordable credit to the farmers and also having agro-chemical companies offer credit to purchase pre-emergence wheat herbicides and other agro-chemicals at fair rates to wheat farmers. It is also necessary to have further research on how extension services can enhance wheat production. 5.4 Areas for Further Research

As stipulated above, there is a necessity of looking into further research on how extension services can enhance wheat production. Various tenets of extension encompassing types of extension and extension targeting and segmentation of farmer aspects in light of this, needs to be looked into. For example advertisement needs to be looked at on its own merits, while farm visits and farmer trainings need to be given more re-emphasis.

A very glaring disparity in analysis of household income came out clearly during the study. It was found that 12% of farmers owned land areas above 80 hactares, while the rest were considered small scale farmers and had less household income. Average income was found to be Kshs 10,000,000 from farming accruing to households. There is need for further research in analyzing household dynamics of the small scale farmers alone, more since their number is expected to increase in future because of the expected population growth in Kenya. The findings will help predict future dynamics that will affect input purchase decisions by majority of farmers in future.

72 Seed care and seed quality also affect yield and therefore profitability of any crop. This needs to be given weight in future studies with an aim of understanding the current status of Seed care policies in Kenya regarding wheat and a possibility of improving this aspects. Seed quality policies and areas of improvement need to be given more emphasis in such studies.

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Nyangito H., and others, (2002). Performance of Kenyas wheat industry and prospects for Regional Trade in Wheat Products. Nairobi, KIPPRA. Republic of Kenya (various years).Economic Survey, Government Printers, Nairobi. Republic of Kenya (various years).Statistical Abstracts, Government Printers, Nairobi. Rogers, E. M. (2003) Diffusion of innovations, fifth edition. Free Press, New York, U.S.A. Rural Finance Services in Kenya. Hp. (2008). Available: www.ruralfinancenetwork.org. May 27th, 2008.

Szentpetery, Zs., Hegedos, Z. and Jolankai, M. (2005a). Impact of Agrochemicals on Yield Quality and Pesticide Residues of Winter Wheat Varieties. Cereal Research Communications, Vol. 33, No. 3 pp. 635 - 640.

79 S zentpetery, Zs., Kleinheincz, Cs., S zoll!si, G. and Jolankai, M. (2005b). Effect of Nitrogen Topdressing on Winter Wheat Yield, Quantity and Quality. Acta Alimentaria, Vol. 34 No. 2, pp. 177 - 185. Tanacs, L., Krisch, J Ger!, L., Monostori, T. and Petroczi, I. M. (2008). Effects of New Type ., Herbicides and Crop Year on Gluten, Rheological and Falling Number Characteristics of Winter Wheat Varieties. Cereal Research Communications, Vol. 36, pp. 74 - 77. United States Department of Agriculture (Various publications). Crop estimates. Uttley, Nigel (2008). Agrochemical Pricing Outlook, 2008: Enigma Marketing Research. Cheshire, United Kingdom, Westfields House 2 Woodlands Drive Goostrey. Wikipedia, (2011). http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logistic_distribution Zeller M., Diagne A., and Mataya C. (1997). Market Access by Smallholder Farmers in Malawi: Implications for Technology Adoption, Agricultural Productivity, and Crop Income. Food Consumption and Nutrition Division Discussion Paper Number 35. Food Consumption and Nutrition Division, International Food Policy Research Institute, 1200 Seventeenth Street, N.W. Washington, D.C. 20036-3006 U.S.A. Retrieved on Jan 19, 2012 from: http://www.ifpri.cgiar.org/sites/default/files/pubs/divs/fcnd/dp/papers/dp35.pdf

80 APPENDICES Appendix 1: Farmers Survey Questionnaire Dear Respondent, I am a postgraduate student at Moi University undertaking an Mphil research on, An Analysis of Use of Pre-emergence Wheat Herbicides in Uasin Gishu County,Kenya. This questionnaire is aimed at collecting data for the above mentioned research. The research is purely for academic purposes and all information provided will be strictly confidential and will be used for the purposes of this study only. Therefore, please feel free to respond frankly. Your co-operation shall be highly appreciated. Please respond by putting a tick or in writing where appropriate.

Thank You.

Yours Sincerely, William Bett.

SERIAL NUMBER ________________________________ DISTRICT DIVISION LOCATION DATE 1) Age ________________________________ ________________________________ ________________________________ ________________________________ Under 25 years [ ] 25 45 Years [ ]

81 46 60 years 2) Education level Uneducated [ ] 3) Household size (Number of persons in the household) ____________________________ 4) Farm machinery Family owned [ ] Hired [ ] [ ] Over 60 years [ ] O level [ ] A level [ ] College [ ]

Primary level [ ]

5) Land size (In Hectares) _____________________________________________________ 6) Land tenure system Private ownership Leasehold [ ] [ ]

7) What is your average income per year? Kshs. ___________________________________ 8) For how long have you been in wheat production? _______________________________ 9) Do you use agrochemicals in your wheat production? Yes [ ] No [ ]

10) Is your income sufficient for the purchase of agrochemicals you require in a season? Yes [ ] 10) Are there any extension services done in your area? No [ ] Yes [ ] No [ ]

11) How often are these extension services carried out? _____________________________ __________________________________________________________________________ 12) Who carries out the extension services in your area? Extension agents from the Ministry of Agriculture [ ] Extension agents from agrochemical companies [ ]

Others (Please specify) _________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________ 13) During the extension visits, are there any teachings or any information given concerning the use of agrochemicals in wheat farming? Yes [ ] No [ ]

82 14) What would you say about the teachings / information given during extension visits concerning use of agrochemicals in wheat farming? Very helpful [ ] Fairly helpful [ ] Helpful [ ] Not helpful [ ]

15) Have you ever attended any of the activities mentioned below? Organized training sessions Yes [ ] Field days Field demonstrations Yes [ ] Yes [ ] No [ ] No [ ] No [ ]

16) a.) If yes in any of the above, are any of these activities carried out on the use of preemergence wheat herbicides? b.) Have you used pre-emergence wheat herbicides? Yes [ ] Yes [ ] No [ ] No [ ]

17) In your own opinion, how would you comment on the knowledge gained from the above mentioned activities? Very helpful [ ] Fairly helpful [ ] Helpful [ ] Not helpful [ ]

18) In your area, are you aware of the existence of any wheat farmers association? Yes [ ] No [ ] Yes [ ] No [ ]

19) Are you member of any of the wheat farmers association?

20) Do the farmers associations carry out any awareness activities on the use of agrochemicals in wheat farming? Yes [ ] No [ ]

21) Do the awareness activities by the farmers associations on the use of agrochemicals positively influence your decision to use agrochemicals? Yes [ ] No [ ] No [ ]

22) Do you have a ready market for your wheat in your area? Yes [ ]

83 23) Where do you sell your wheat? Cereals board [ ] Middle-men [ ] Local market [ ] Millers [ ]

24) Is there a readily available and adequate supply of wheat agrochemicals in your area? Yes [ ] No [ ]

25) How far do you have to travel to get to the supply point of your wheat agrochemicals? 500 M [ ] 1 Km [ ] 2 Km [ ] 4 Km [ ] 10 Km and over [ ]

26) In your opinion, how would you comment on the costs involved in your acquisition of agrochemicals? Very cheap [ ]Cheap [ ] Fair [ ] Expensive [ ] Very expensive [ ]

27) In your purchase of agrochemicals, do you consider the company that produces a particular agrochemical? Yes [ ] No [ ]

28) Have you ever applied for credit from any financial institution to facilitate your budget for wheat production? Yes [ ] No [ ] Yes [ ] No [ ]

29) Were you able to access the credit?

30) Are there any agrochemical companies in your area that offer credit facilities to wheat farmers? Yes [ ] No [ ] Yes [ ] Yes [ ] No [ ] No [ ]

31) Have you ever applied for credit from such companies? 32) Were you able to access the credit from these companies?

33) Are there farmers you would consider prominent in wheat production in your area? Yes [ ] No [ ]

34) Have you ever paid such prominent farmers a visit to learn from them? Yes [ ] No [ ]

84 35) Have you used any agrochemical(s) as a result of witnessing it being successfully used by other farmers? Yes [ ] No [ ]

36) What are the major constraints in the usage of wheat agrochemicals? __________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________

37) What are the remedies for these constraints? __________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________

~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ END ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~

85 APPENDIX 2: Tables of Wheat Production, Importation and Demand Variables

Table A1: World Market Prices of Wheat for Years 2003/04 - 2007/08 Source U.S hard red winter U.S soft red winter Argentina Trigo Pan Source: GOK, 2008 Table A2: Quantities and Values of Imported Pesticides 2004/05-2006/07 2003/04 161 149 154 2004/05 154 138 123 2005/06 175 138 138 2006/07 212 176 188 2007/08 331 303 300

2004/2005 Category Quantity in Value tons

2005/2006 in Quantity in Value

2006/2007 in Quantity in Value in

000 Kshs tons

000 Kshs tons

000 Kshs

Insecticide Fungicide Herbicide Others Total

2,881 2,031 1,538 597 7,047

2,077 1,113 650 133 3,973

2,844 2,361 1,311 1,192 7,708

2,031 1,506 620 337 4,494

2,638 2,638 1,902 748 8,071

2,109 2,109 698 205 4,740

86 Source: GOK, 2008

Table A3: Wheat Import Vis a vis Local Production Local Local Production consumption 196 220 200 150 234 297 288 250 314 135 105 230 300 196 197 225 300 225 595 571 529 608 659 593 653 713 738 818 911 863 856 815 671 854 956 900

Year Imports Unit of Measure Yield/Ha 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 485 293 259 618 425 196 365 513 423 683 806 633 656 419 474 629 806 550 (1000 MT) (1000 MT) (1000 MT) (1000 MT) (1000 MT) (1000 MT) (1000 MT) (1000 MT) (1000 MT) (1000 MT) (1000 MT) (1000 MT) (1000 MT) (1000 MT) (1000 MT) (1000 MT) (1000 MT) (1000 MT) 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 1 1 2 2 2 2 2 2 2

Source: United States Department of Agriculture, (2007)

87

Table A4: Wheat Yield for Selected Countries in Tons per Hectare
Year EGYPT Switzerland S.Africa 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 6 6 5 5 6 5 6 6 6 6 5 6 6 6 7 6 6 6 6 3 3 3 4 3 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 5 5 5 6 6 4 4 2 3 3 6 6 8 5 7 6 5 3 4 3 5 5 4 5 3 5 5 4 5 5 5 4 4 5 5 5 5 5 5 Norway N.ZEALAND 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 6 5 5 6 6 7 7 7 7 8 8 8 8

Source: United States Department of Agriculture, (2007)