Professional Documents
Culture Documents
193
Jack Marsh
Lvinas en
Amrique du Nord
aujourdhui.
Trois vagues
et deux coles.
Panorama
10 (septembre 1970),
p. 402-419 ; Adriaan Peperzak,
Freedom , in : International
Philosophical Quarterly,
n
5
(2008), p. 629-644.
Panorama
204
les tats-Unis possdent dsormais
leur premire association
professionnelle ddie luvre
de Lvinas : la North American
Levinas Society (Nals).
Selon son co-fondateur et secrtaire
excutif, le Dr. Paradiso-Michau,
la Nals, depuis lors, continue
de crotre, en promouvant
une politique qui encourage
les changes intergnrationnels.
ct de la Nals et en grande
partie grce aux eorts de Jerey
Bloechl, 2006 fut aussi lanne
de naissance de la premire revue
annuelle anglophone entirement
consacre luvre de Lvinas,
intitule Levinas Studies et publie
chez Duquesne University Press.
ce jour, la revue prospre et a permis
de prsenter les travaux de quantit
de noms familiers des chercheurs
lvinassiens, dont Jean-Luc Marion,
Jacques Taminiaux, Richard A. Cohen,
Robert Bernasconi, James Falconer,
a Pragmatic Phenomenology,
de Megan Craig. Ces explorations
interdisciplinaires, ces changes
et ces enrichissements rciproques
entre notre Lvinas continental
et la philosophie indigne nord-
amricaine tmoignent donc
dun dveloppement vritablement
nouveau dans les tudes
lvinassiennes aux tats-Unis,
mme sil est encore un peu tt pour
dsigner ce nouveau courant comme
une vague proprement parler.
V. Conclusion
Pour terminer, un mot
sur le renforcement des tudes
lvinassiennes dans le monde
acadmique amricain.
Lanne 2006 a t le thtre
de deux trs importants changements
pour les tudes lvinassiennes.
Tout dabord, grce Michael
Paradiso-Michau et Sol Neely,
Anthony Steinboch, Alphonso Lingis
ou Bettina Bergo.
Si la description que nous
en avons donne est exacte, on peut
donc considrer que les tudes
lvinassiennes nord-amricaines sont
vigoureuses et orissantes. Ltendue
des disciplines et des problmes
concrets dans le cadre desquels
Lvinas est convoqu tmoigne
de la puissance et de la pertinence
de sa pense. Les dizaines darticles,
de livres et de mmoires sur Lvinas
qui voient le jour chaque anne
attestent dune inuence qui ne montre
aucun signe daaiblissement ;
et grce la revue Levinas Studies
et la Nals, notamment, les tudes
lvinassiennes aux tats-Unis
se trouvent maintenant dotes
dune chapelle institutionnelle
et dinfrastructures qui devraient
leur assurer de belles annes encore
aux tats-Unis. Quelles surprises
y a-t-il en rserve ? La troisime
36 Le Dr. Michael Paradiso-Michau,
Matre de confrences au Oakton
Community College, Des Plaines,
Illinois, ma dcrit cette politique
et ses rsultats en ces termes,
lors dun bref change personnel :
Nous voulions rapprocher, dans
le cadre des tudes lvinassiennes,
les tudiants et les jeunes spcialistes
des titulaires et des savants plus gs,
et nous y sommes parvenus.
Un certain nombre de confrences
donnes la Nals ont mri et sont
devenues des articles de journaux
et des chapitres de livres, en grande
partie grce aux ractions critiques
et amicales du public des confrences
et aux changes entre les
intervenants.
Jack Marsh
205
vague des tudes lvinassiennes,
que nous venons dvoquer,
pourrait-elle venir perturber
et transformer lactuelle partition
en deux coles ? Ou quelque autre
texte ou mouvement imprvisible
pourrait-il surgir soudainement ?
Lavenir nous le dira.
Note: Pagination of above (published version) indicated in brackets throughout.
Three Waves and Two Schools: Levinas in North America Today
[p.194]
I. Introduction
What is the contemporary situation of Levinas scholarship in the Untied States? In broaching this
question, one is immediately confronted with many difficulties. I will leave aside, here, such
interminable meta-questions as the structural impossibility of describing the present, and
simply underline much more mundane problems. As we know, the general shape of Levinas
scholarship in the US is largely determined by its history. Hence, I must tell a brief story of the
origin and development of North American Levinas studies before turning to its present
situation. This story refers to a larger one, and hence I must also say something about the North
American philosophical scene. The problematic nature of such narratives is very familiar to all of
us, so I simply note it at the outset. Next, and more obviously, it remains simply impossible to
know every craggy nook in the landscape of Levinas North American dissemination. Inevitably,
and in spite of my best efforts, I will leave out a name, a paper, or a book that in the last analysis
warrants mention. For this I offer my regrets at the outset. Finally, the most formidable problem
that confronts us lies in the fact that Levinas North American story has, from the beginning,
not been properly North American. The story of Levinas scholarship in the United States is
inevitably an international one, as the story I tell will reflect.
II. The North American Philosophical Scene
As most of us already know, Levinas work has achieved something of a canonical status in the
US, at least within scholarly circles sometimes associated with the name continental
philosophy. The meaning of the term continental philosophy began to emerge in the 1970s
with a minority of philosophers and theorists who drew stylistic inspiration from such diverse
sources as existential phenomenology, German critical theory, and a then emerging structuralism
and post-structuralism. The post-war philosophical scene in the United States was dominated by
a tedious and highly specialized form of language analysis we now call analytic philosophy.
Analytic philosophy was the hegemonic philosophical style in the US, a style oriented by overly
austere ideals of scientificity, logicality, and semantic minimalism inherited from the logical
positivist movement. In this context, continental [p. 195] philosophy came to name a rebellion,
a dissent, an engagement. Names like Kierkegaard, Nietzsche, Marx, and Heidegger represented
thinkers engaged with life or with what really and ultimately matters. Whether the horizon of
meaning specified was faith, art, politics, revolution, or being as such, what ultimately set them
and others apart from the aridity of analytic philosophy was their engagement with the lived
situations through and in which philosophy gets itself done. For these minority philosophers and
the generation of students they taught, continental vs. analytic philosophy named a
distinction between authentic and inauthentic or living and dead philosophy.
1
To this day,
analytic philosophy remains the predominant philosophical style in North America. Though
thanks to thinkers like Rawls, Rorty, and Cavell, and important new traditions in feminist
philosophy and pragmatism, the situation is substantially different. Indeed, one must now
interpose so-called when referring to continental philosophy, because the term no longer
signifies the way it did twenty or thirty years ago.
2
Though still a minority, so-called continental
philosophy occupies a privileged place in numerous reputable faculties across the United
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
1
!This!description!is,!of!course,!oversimplified.!To!my!knowledge,!the!analytic/continental!distinction!
doesnt!actually!show!up!until!the!80s.!Nevertheless,!a!review!of!the!literature!of!the!period!reflects!the!
defiance!this!distinction!came!to!name.!!!
2
!The!analytic/continental!divide!has!been!subject!to!numerous!explicit!treatments!and!debunkings!in!the!
literature.!For!example,!see!Babette!E.!Babich.!On!the!AnalyticKContinental!Divide!in!Philosophy:!Nietzsche's!
Lying!Truth,!Heidegger's!Speaking!Language,!and!Philosophy,!in!
A"House"Divided:"Comparing"Analytic"and"Continental"Philosophy.!C.!G.!Prado!(ed.).!Amherst:!Prometheus!
Books,!2003,!63K103.!
States.
3
And beyond philosophy proper, it still names a hodge-podge of divergent methods and
positions existential phenomenology, Marxism, hermeneutics, psychoanalysis, and post-
structuralism deployed and treated across virtually every department in the humanities and
social sciences. Wherever so-called continental philosophy is today read, practiced, and taught,
Levinas is known and treated. This is evidenced by the sheer quantity of dissertations, articles,
and books published each year that treats Levinas work, as readers of this journal know well.
With this very general sketch in view, we now turn from the overall context in which Levinas
work was received and developed to the story of his North American reception.
III. The Origins and Development of North American Levinas Studies
Levinas studies in the US has proceeded in two distinct phases, or what I will call, following
Atterton and Calarco, two waves.
4
The first wave can be marked chronologically by the 1969
publication [p. 196] of Totality and Infinity [hereafter TI] in English translation. The second
wave emerged primarily as a result of critical exchanges between Levinas and Derrida, which
began to register in the scholarship by the late 1980s and began to receive intense treatment by
the mid-90s. Hence, each wave of Levinas scholarship very roughly corresponds to what
Richard Cohen has called two schools
5
of Levinas studies. If two waves signifies two distinct
temporal periods of scholarship, two schools signifies two distinct ways of reading Levinas.
6
As we will see more concretely below, these two schools remain living traditions in
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
3
!For!instance,!New!School!University,!Boston!College,!SUNY!Stony!Brook,!DePaul!University,!etc.!
4
!I!gratefully!borrow!this!phrase!from!Peter!Atterton!&!Matthew!Calarco!(eds).!Radicalizing"Levinas.!Albany:!
SUNY!Press,!2010,!pg.!x![hereafter!cited!as!RL].!For!those!not!aware!of!the!specificities!of!US!critical!theory,!
the!figure!of!the!wave!is!often!employed!to!characterize!development!in!a!specific!critical!or!methodological!
tradition.!For!example,!feminist!philosophy!in!the!US!is!often!described!as!having!proceeded!in!three!waves,!
with!each!wave!being!described!as!exhibiting!a!unique!set!of!identifiable!traits!within!the!overall!arc!of!
feminist!theory!in!its!living!movement.!!!
5
!I!am!gratefully!indebted!to!Richard!Cohens!brief!account!of!the!history!of!Levinas!US!reception.!See!Richard!
A.!Cohen.!Levinasian"Meditations:"Ethics,"Philosophy,"and"Religion.!Pittsburg:!Duquesne!University!Press,!2010,!
pg.!169K171![hereafter!cited!as!LM].!
6
!As!Cohen!succinctly!notes,!There!are!thosewho!came!to!Levinas!through!Levinas.!And!there!are!
thosewho!came!to!Levinas!through!Derrida!The!result,!not!surprisingly,!is!two!quite!different!readings!of!
Levinas!(LM,!171).!
contemporary Levinas scholarship. The names surrounding the first wave didnt all of sudden
stop writing with the emergence of the second. The second wave was inaugurated precisely by
putting new questions to Levinas work. I will now turn to describe these two waves and two
schools in more detail.
The first wave of English language Levinas studies properly begins with Alphonso
Lingis English translation of TI, published by Duquesne University Press in 1969. As Atterton
& Calarco underline, this phase involved a considerable amount of commentary and exposition,
or in getting a handle on precisely what Levinas was saying in its broad significance. The
publication of TI was quickly followed by the first three English language dissertations dedicated
solely to Levinas work: Edith Wyschogrods beautiful treatment eventually published as
Emmanuel Levinas: The Problem of Ethical Metaphysics (1970); Phillip Lawtons Emmanuel
Levinass Theory of Language (1973), and Richard Cohens Time in the Philosophy of
Emmanuel Levinas (1980). As far as Ive been able to ascertain, some of the first published
papers treating Levinas work in English were Luk Bouckaerts Ontology and Ethics:
Reflections on Levinas Critique of Heidegger, (1970) and Adriaan Peperzaks Freedom
(1971).
7
The first wave of Levinas studies is attended by such well-known and important names
as Cohen, Wyschogrod, and Peperzak, and by other noteworthy names, for example, Theodore
de Boer. It is not accidental that names like Cohen, Wyschogrod, and Peperzak are indissociable
from Levinas studies in the US: they quite simply birthed [p. 197] the entire movement, and we
are forever in their debt.
Throughout the 1970s and 80s Levinas was primarily read as a phenomenologist, and his
philosophical proposals were treated and evaluated within the pale of the phenomenological
method and the fundamental questions it poses. Of course, these questions were not (and still are
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
7
!Luk!Bouckaerts!Ontology!and!Ethics:!Reflections!on!Levinas!Critique!of!Heidegger,!International"
Philosophical"Quarterly.!10!(September,!1970):!402K419.!!Adriaan!Peperzak.!Freedom,!International"
Philosophical"Quarterly.!11!(September,!1971):!341K361.!
!
not) dead: not merely specialist or scholastic discussions, but included Levinas placement in
and contributions to existential phenomenology as a living philosophy irrupting on the American
philosophical scene. The debates to which Levinas work contributed and in which it intervened
involved such still live questions as the proper place of theory in the fundamental meaning
phenomenology opens up, the relation of Husserl, Heidegger, and Levinas respective visions of
phenomenology, the meaning of the limits of meaning, or the proper character of
phenomenologys involvement with its others. Levinas broke upon and was treated within a
living philosophical milieu; a milieu Levinas and his American readers helped to shape. The
work done on Levinas at this time wasnt simply anatomical or uncritical, but reflects the
passions and signatures of those philosophers who read him, clarified him, questioned him,
criticized him, or in other words: affirmed or rejected his philosophy as approaching, or as
failing to approach, what we usually call truth.
With the slow emergence of the second wave of scholarship in the late 1980s, the
questions put to Levinas changed. With the second wave enters Derrida and his disciples.
Derridas justly acclaimed reading of TI Violence and Metaphysics and subsequent critical
exchanges between Levinas and Derrida began to provoke a whole new set of questions.
8
This is
one reason our two-wave description is somewhat artificial, but still remains relatively apt in
designating the trajectory of the scholarship. Derridas essay first appeared in English translation
in 1964.
9
Though Derridas reading of TI [p. 198] remained a reference during the US reception
of Levinas in the 70s and early 80s, its not until Levinas Otherwise than Being or Beyond
Essence appeared in English (1981) and perhaps: not until Derridas own ethics crisis
10
that
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
8
!Jacques!Derrida.!Writing"and"Difference.!Alan!Bass!(trans).!Chicago:!University!of!Chicago!Press,!1980,!pg.!
79K153.!!
9
!Bernasconi!&!Critchley!(eds.).!The"Cambridge"Companion"to"Levinas.!Cambridge:!Cambridge!University!
Press,!2002,!pg.!xxiv.!
10
!I!do!not!mean!this!as!a!cheap!shot!at!Derrida!and!his!apostolate.!In!all!sincerity,!the!only!thing!that!annoys!
more!than!reflexive!critics!of!Derrida!is!Derridas!(and!his!helpers)!own!responses!to!these!critics.!In!any!
case,!it!was!not!mere!chance!that!talk!of!the!ethics!of!deconstruction!happened!to!emerge!in!the!late!1980s.!
the questions begin to change in the scholarship. The questions that emerge in the second wave
of US Levinas studies are no longer simply intra-phenomenological, or the question of living vs.
dead philosophy by which existential phenomenology defined itself in its North American
philosophical context. Intra-phenomenological questions became questions about the very
(im)possibility of phenomenology; authentic vs. inauthentic philosophy becomes the question of
the possibility of philosophy itself. In other words, all the questions asked, and variously
answered in the first wave get put into question in the second wave. Levinas the
phenomenologist becomes Levinas the post-structuralist. Though its initial currents can be felt
as early as the mid-80s, the second wave of Levinas scholarship in the US doesnt decisively
break until the early-1990s.
11
There are two names that are central in turning the tide: Robert
Bernasconi and Simon Critchley. Bernasconi is without a doubt the single most important force
for deconstructive interpretations of Levinas work in the US. He began an in depth exploration
of Levinas and Derridas relationship almost a decade prior to the rest of the scholarship. Along
with Cohen, Wyschogrod, and Peperzak, Bernasconi has indelibly an unalterably marked US
Levinas scholarship. Simon Critchley, too, and his very important Ethics of Deconstruction,
deserves special mention here.
12
In this book Critchley diagnoses the ethical lacuna in
deconstruction precisely by summoning Levinas. Levinas late work is brought to bear to rectify
what was then perceived as deconstructions ethical deficits. Levinas no longer only spoke to the
unique situation of minority methods on the American philosophical scene, no longer was simply
one live option amongst others within existential phenomenology and critical theory, with
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
The!de!Man!affair!and!the!English!publication!of!De"l'esprit!roused!considerable!controversy,!and!gave!the!
impression!that!Derrida!was!soft!on!fascism;!or!at!the!very!least,!on!his!friends!and!influences!that!flirted!with!
it.!Right!in!the!midst!of!this!controversy!Derrida!authored!and!presented!the!text!that!some!consider!to!mark!
or!inaugurate!his!soKcalled!ethical!turn!(Force"of"Law).!On!the!controversy,!see!John!Brenkman!&!Jules!David!
Law.!Resetting!the!Agenda,!Critical"Inquiry.!15,!4!(Summer,!1989):!804K811;!Thomas!Sheehan.!Normal!
Nazi,!in!The"New"York"Review"of"Books.!XL,!1K2!(January!14,!1993):!30K35;!Jacques!Derrida.!Of"Spirit:"of"
Heidegger"and"the"Question.!Bennington!&!Bowlby!(trans.).!Chicago:!University!of!Chicago!Press,!1989;!&!Like!
the!Sound!of!the!Sea!Deep!within!the!Shell:!Paul!de!Mans!War,!Critical"Inquiry.!14!(Spring,!1988):!590K652.!
11
!For!an!early!treatment!of!Levinas!and!the!ethics!of!deconstruction,!see!Stephan!Watsons!Levinas,!the!
Ethics!of!Deconstruction,!and!the!Remainder!of!the!Sublime,!Man"and"World.!21!(January,!1988):!35K64.!!
12
!Simon!Critchley.!The"Ethics"of"Deconstruction:"Levinas"and"Derrida.!London:!Blackwell,!1992.!!
Critchleys Ethics, [p. 199] Levinas comes to have meaning for deconstructions own self-
identity. The question Levinas posed and poses to deconstruction becomes deconstructions own
questions, and as such redeems whatever deficits or deficiencies it was previously thought to
harbor. To their credit, Bernasconi and Critchley, each on their own way, raised these questions
and redeemed deconstruction in the very midst of Derridas own appropriation of Levinas. Their
and others signatures are felt in Derridas own so-called ethical turn.
13
The basic movement
that specifies the character of our so-called second wave is this: Levinas is Aufgehoben in
Derrida.
Of course, there are those who appear to simply defy my two-school description.
Bettina Bergo, for example, is a properly autonomous interpreter of Levinas in her own right.
14
She notes but never yields to deconstructive appropriations of Levinas, and ultimate reads him in
fidelity to his properly phenomenological philosophical pedigree. For this very reason, she can
be classed in school 1, or as one who reads Levinas work as properly phenomenological in
character. Many other names warrant mention here, but each one can ultimately be classed in one
of the two schools outlined above. Why? My two school description remains valid to the extent
that those who do not fit neatly within either side must necessarily refer to one Levinas or
another in enlisting him in their own projects. For instance, Robert Gibbs accepts the
complication of classical phenomenology Levinas performs, but does so not in Derridas name or
in fidelity to deconstruction, but as a Jewish philosopher that presents Levinas contributions as
the contributions of Jewish philosophy to our contemporary situation.
15
This is an eminently
valid and noble project, but one that ultimately involves the position one takes with respect to
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
13
!Derridas!texts!that!are!said!to!compose!the!soKcalled!turn!are:!Jacques!Derrida,!Force!of!Law,!in!
Deconstruction"and"the"Possibility"of"Justice.!Cornell,!Rosenfeld,!&!Carlson!(eds).!New!York:!Routledge,!1992,!3K
67;"Specters"of"Marx.!Peggy!Kamuf!(trans.).!New!York:!Routledge,!1994;"The"Politics"of"Friendship.!G.!Collins!
(trans.).!London:!Verso,!1997;"Adieu"to"Emmanuel"Levinas.!Naas!&!Brault!(eds).!Stanford:!Stanford!University!
Press,!1999;"Of"Hospitality.!Stanford:!Stanford!University!Press,!2000.!
14
!See!Bettina!Bergo.!Levinas"Between"Ethics"and"Politics.!Pittsburg:!Duquesne!University!Press,!1999.!
15
Robert!Gibbs.!Jewish!Dimensions!of!Radical!Ethics,!in!Ethics"as"First"Philosophy."Adriaan!T.!Peperzak!(ed).!
New!York:!Routledge,!1995,!pp.!1323.!!
Levinas relatedness to phenomenology and deconstruction. Even when a specific reading simply
refuses to validate its claims through reference to phenomenology or deconstruction, one can
surmise the position in question through a review of the actual arguments and evidences
presented. For instance, Gibbs praises the catachrestical way Levinas comes to relate philosophy
and Judaism, but does so precisely by underlining his phenomenological descriptions.
16
This
contrasts, for example, to Critchleys plainly structural and strategic interpretation in explicitly
Derridean terms.
17
Gibbs Levinas may [p. 200] ultimately be deconstructive, but if he is, he is
only by virtue of the concrete sense or orientation that is opened in Levinas actual
phenomenological descriptions. In just this way, every reader of Levinas can be classed
according to whether she or he reads him first as a phenomenologist, or first as
deconstructionist. With respect to our two school description, it matters little what particular
aspect or theme a reading treats. If the character of the reading is oriented by a sense yielded in
Levinas phenomenological descriptions, it can be said to belong to school 1 or the
phenomenological school of Levinas scholarship. If the character of its reading is governed by
the protocols of double reading that defines deconstruction, it can be said to belong to school
2 or the deconstructive school of Levinas scholarship. These two schools arent always mutually
exclusive in practice, but they are ultimately distinguished by this: the analyses of the former can
ultimately be traced back to an appeal or a showing, to phenomenological evidence and the
transcendental or ontological conditions it involves; whereas the latter tends to proceed as an
apparently pure criticism, though a criticism ultimately premised on a specific account of the
conditions for meaning.
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
16
Ibid.!
17
!I!am!not!necessarily!criticizing!Critchleys!move.!Indeed,!I!welcome!it!within!the!context!of!deconstructive!
method.!But!what!motivates!Critchleys!project!is!the!structural"determinations!that!result!from,!and!will!
subsequently!be!said!to!mediate,!Levinas!actual!phenomenological!descriptions,!and!not!those!descriptions!
themselves.!See!Simon!Critchley.!The"Ethics"of"Deconstruction:"Levinas"and"Derrida.!London:!Blackwell,!1992,!
26K29.!
As my own very partisan description betrays: the two schools that characterize the
questions posed to Levinas work both remain still extant or living traditions in the scholarship.
These schools are fundamentally distinguished by those who (a) read Levinas first as a
phenomenologist and (b) those who read Levinas first as a post-structuralist. Of course,
partisans of the Derridean school will contest this distinction because they have already decided
for a specific interpretation and problematization of phenomenology, already decided for a
specific account of phenomenologys basic problems and (im)possibilities, an account that
remains contested in every quarter of phenomenological research. As we will see below, the only
readings of Levinas that ultimately defies my two school description has been conducted,
unsurprisingly, by those in different methodological traditions.
[p. 201] Finally, no description of the history of Levinas scholarship in the US would be
complete without mentioning his reception by and treatment within North American Jewish
Studies.
18
In the first wave of Levinas US reception, the importance of Levinas Judaism for his
philosophy was always underlined, and in the large, celebrated. The first wave tended to read
Levinas as he himself wanted to be read: as a phenomenologist who drew inspiration from his
heritage. All Levinas most important American readers whether Jewish readers like Edith
Wyschogrod and Richard Cohen, Christian like readers Adriaan Peperzak, or atheist or non-
affiliated readers like Alphonso Lingis all read Levinas in this way. Levinas Judaism and its
relation to his philosophy did not begin to receive explicit treatment until the late 1980s, with
more wide debate only emerging in the mid-90s.
19
Cohen and Wyschogrod again warrant special
mention here: as early as 1988, they began publishing on Levinas relation to modern Jewish
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
18
I am not as familiar with the work done on Levinas in Jewish Studies as I perhaps should be. As such, I heartily
thank Richard A. Cohen and Martin Kavka for offering me their perspective on this matter.
19
This, again, is a bit oversimplified. Wyschogrod published on the religious dimensions of Levinas work very
early on. See Emmanuel Levinas and the Problem of Religious Language, The Thomist, 26/1, 1972, 38; &
Emmanuel Levinas, in Encyclopedia Judaica, New York: Macmillan, 1971, II: 114.
thought and the religious dimensions of his work.
20
Their respective readings of Levinas
informed and helped to shape subsequent discussion that emerged on Levinas and Judaism in the
1990s, to which, of course, they also contributed.
In the mid-1990s, discussion and debate of Levinas and his Judaism began in vigor across
the scholarship. This period of Levinas Jewish reception can be characterized as claiming
Levinas as a properly Jewish thinker. Robert Gibbs is of decisive importance here. Gibbs work
substantially treats Levinas next to other giants in modern Jewish thought, and presents Levinas
ethics as a religious and specifically Jewish challenge to the philosophical hubris of modernity.
Other noteworthy contributors to this discussion were Annette Aronowicz and Jill Robbins.
21
The debates and discussions of this period eventually opened upon a new discussion by a
younger generation of scholars. With the turn of the millennium, other voices raised questions
about the viability of overly dichotomizing Levinas Judaism and his philosophy. Some
important new voices variously weighing in on this continuing discussion include Claire Elise
Katz, Michael Fagenblat, Martin Kavka, and Michael Morgan.
22
[p. 202] How do Jewish readings of Levinas stand with respect to my two school
description above? I have to confess that I am not as familiar with the discussions in Jewish
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
20
See Edith Wyschogrod, From the Disaster to the Other: Tracing the Name of God in Levinas, in
Phenomenology and the Numinous: The Fifth Annual Symposium of the Simon Silverman Phenomenology Center,
Pittsburgh: Duquesne University Press, 1988, 67-86. Richard Cohen, Levinas, Rosenzweig, and the
Phenomenologies of Husserl and Heidegger, in Philosophy Today, Summer 1988, 165-178.
21
GIBBS (Robert), Correlations in Rosenzweig and Levinas. Princeton: Princeton University Press,
1994; Levinas and Jewish Thought, Jewish Book Annual, 51, 1993-1994, 112-124;
Blowing on the Embers: Two Jewish Works of Emmanuel Levinas, Modern Judaism, 14/1, 1994, 99-
113; Jewish Dimensions of Radical Ethics, in Ethics as First Philosophy, PEPERZAK (ed.), New York:
Routledge, 1995, 1323; ARONOWICZ (Annette), Emmanuel Levinas's Talmudic Commentaries: The Relation of
the Jewish Tradition to the Non-Jewish World, from Dorff & Newman (eds.), Contemporary Jewish Ethics and
Morality. A Reader, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1995. ROBBINS (Jill), Prodigal Son/Elder Brother:
Interpretation and Alterity in Augustine, Petrarch, Kafka, Levinas, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1991;
Altered Reading: Levinas and Literature. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1999.
22
FAGENBLAT (Michael), A Covenant of Creatures: Levinass Philosophy of Judaism,
Stanford, Stanford University Press, 2009; KATZ (Claire Elise), Levinas, Judaism, and the Feminine: The Silent
Footsteps of Rebecca, Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2003; KAVKA (Martin), Jewish Messianism and the
History of Philosophy. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2004. MORGAN (Michael L.), Discovering
Levinas, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 2007; The Cambridge Introduction to Emmanuel Levinas,
Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 2011.
Studies as I ought to be. What is clear is that the scholarship does reflect this two-school
character, with the exception of voices that simply ignore more abstract philosophical
considerations for singularly thematic reasons. There are those who read him as a
phenomenologist and a Jewish thinker, i.e. as reflecting differences of style depending on the
community he is addressing and the particular questions being considered. Of course, those who
read Levinas phenomenologically accept the legitimacy of Levinas heterodox contributions to
phenomenology, contributions that have been questioned from Husserlian and Heideggerian
quarters.
23
This amounts to an intra-phenomenological debate, however, and partisans of this
camp dont simply cede Levinas to the post-structuralists. There are those who accept and read
Levinas as a post-structuralist and Jewish thinker, and hence barely detect a difference between
Levinas and Derridas respective projects. Much of the way Levinas is read with respect to
Derrida depends on a specific scholars estimation Derridas own work and the complicated
question of the Jewish credentials of his thought. It remains possible to class specific readings
as I suggested above, but we must underline that much of the scholarship circulates within the
two-school composition of US Levinas studies without specifically or explicitly locating itself.
What does remain clear is that Levinas has justly joined the ranks of Herman Cohen, Martin
Buber, and Franz Rosenzweig in the pantheon of modern Jewish thought from the North
American perspective.
IV. Contemporary Levinas Studies
As I hinted above, the phenomenological and deconstructive schools of Levinas studies
constitute the current shape of Levinas scholarship in the US. Many if not most of the latest
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
23
CROWELL (Steven Galt), Authentic Thinking and the Phenomenological Method, in DRUMMOND (John) &
LAU (K.-Y.) (eds.), Husserls Logical Investigations in the New Century: Western and Chinese Perspectives, New
York: Springer, 2007, 119-133; & JANICAUD (Dominique) (ed.), Phenomenology and the Theological Turn: The
French Debate, New York: Fordham University Press, 2000.
!
research finds its home in one of these schools. The noteworthy exception to this involves
readers of Levinas work from different methodological traditions. These readers, I suggest,
[p. 203] are inaugurating what we might call a third wave of North American Levinas studies.
What I will call cross-methodological exchange.
First, let us repeat and re-underline that throughout the entire history of the scholarship,
Levinas has been read, interpreted, and applied across disciplinary boundaries. This has not
ceased. Recently published titles disclose Levinas influence in virtually every corner of the
academy: political theory,
24
Jewish studies,
25
intellectual history,
26
Postcolonial studies,
27
theology,
28
film studies,
29
education,
30
cultural studies,
31
literary theory,
32
and even
organizational management.
33
If anything, contemporary scholarship suggests that Levinas
influence is vibrantly expanding. Perhaps Levinas treatment in management theory and other
empirically guided theoretical disciplines is not surprising to our new generation of scholars. But
twenty or even ten years ago such a thing was scarcely thinkable. Levinas interdisciplinary
treatment is not a distinctively or starkly new development, but the swath of these
interdisciplinary treatments is expanding to new and novel domains.
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
24
!WOLFF!(Ernst),!Political"Responsibility"for"a"Globalised"World:"After"Levinas'"Humanism,!Bielefeld,!
Transcript!Verlag,!2011.!
25
!FAGENBLAT!(Michael),!A"Covenant"of"Creatures:"Levinass"Philosophy"of"Judaism,!
Stanford,!Stanford!University!Press,!2009.!
26
!BOLTON!(Linda),!Facing"the"Other:"Ethical"Disruption"and"the"American"Mind,!Baton!Rouge,!Louisiana!State!
University!Press,!2010.!
27
!DRABINSKI!(John!E.),!Levinas"and"the"Postcolonial:"Race,"Nation,"Other,!Edinburgh,!Edinburgh!University!
Press,!2011.!
28
!MAYAMA!(Alain),!Emmanuel!Levinas!Conceptual!Affinities!with!Liberation!Theology,!New!York,!Peter!Lang!
Publishing,!2011.!
29
!GIRGUS!(Sam),!Levinas"and"the"Cinema"of"Redemption:"Time,"Ethics,"and"the"Feminine,!New!York,!Columbia!
University!Press,!2010.!
30
!EGTAKKUEHNE!(Denise),!Levinas"and"Education:"At"the"Intersection"of"Faith"and"Reason,!London,!Routledge,!
2011.!
31
!SHANKMAN!(Steven),!Other"Others:"Levinas,"Literature,"Transculteral"Studies,!Albany:!SUNY!Press,!2010.!
32
!DAVIS!(Colin),!Critical"Excess:"Overreading"in"Derrida,"Delueze,"Levinas,"Zizek,"and"Cavell,!Stanford:!Stanford!
University!Press,!2010.!
33
!VEN!(Naud!van!der),!The"Shame"of"Reason"in"Organizational"Change:"A"Levinasian"Perspective,!Dordrecht,!
Springer,!2010.!
What is genuinely new in recent philosophical scholarship is Levinas treatment
alongside methods and figures traditionally associated with analytic style, or specifically
American traditions of philosophy. Even this must be qualified, however, since as early as 2002,
Levinas was subject to comment by such well known American philosophers as Hillary Putnam
and Richard J. Bernstein.
34
Nevertheless, the past few years has witnessed the emergence of a
series of substantial studies that sets Levinas into conversation with specifically American
philosophies and philosophical traditions. For example, in his most excellent book Discovering
Levinas,
35
Michael Morgan conducts a series of interesting comparative analyses of Levinas next
to, for example, Stanley Cavell, Christine Korsgaard, and (Canadian) Charles Taylor, among
others. To my knowledge, Morgan is the first to enact a dialogue of this sort between Levinas
and the Anglo-American tradition. Next, Michael Barber published a very interesting
comparative study on Levinas and Darwall, and their respective accounts of the significance of
the second person perspective for ethics and ethical theory.
36
Finally, the past few years has
witnessed two book length treatments of Levinas next to the founders of American pragmatism:
Richard Stevens Burning for the Other: Levinas, Pierce, and an Ethical Aesthetics and Megan
Craigs Levinas and James: Toward a Pragmatic Phenomenology.
37
[p. 204] Such cross-
methodological exploration, exchange, and cross-fertilization between our continental Levinas
and indigenous North American philosophy signal a genuinely new development in US Levinas
studies. Perhaps its a bit too early to call this trend a wave in its own right, but it does signal a
genuinely new development.
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
34
!See!Hilary!Putnam.!Ethics"Without"Ontology.!Cambridge:!Harvard!University!Press,!2004,!15K32;!&!Levinas!
and!Judaism,!in!Cambridge"Companion"to"Levinas.!Bernasconi!&!Critchley!(eds.).!Cambridge:!Cambridge!
University!Press,!2002,!33K62.!Richard!J.!Bernstein.!Radical"Evil:"An"Interrogation.!Cambridge:!Polity,!2002,!
166K179;!&!Evil!and!the!temptation!of!theodicy,!in!Cambridge"Companion"to"Levinas.!Bernasconi!&!Critchley!
(eds).!Cambridge:!Cambridge!University!Press,!2002,!252K267.!
35
!MORGAN!(Michael!L.),!Discovering"Levinas,!Cambridge,!Cambridge!University!Press,!2007.!
36
!Michael!Barber,!Autonomy,!Reciprocity,!and!Responsibility:!Darwall!and!Levinas!on!the!Second!Person,!
International"Journal"of"Philosophical"Studies.!Vol.!16!No.!5!(2008):!629K644.!
37
!CRAIG!(Megan),!Levinas"and"James:"Toward"a"Pragmatic"Phenomenology,!Bloomington,!Indiana!University!
Press,!2010;!STEVENS!(Richard),!Burning"For"the"Other:"Levinas,"Peirce,"and"an"Ethical"Aesthetics,!
Saarbrcken,!VDM!Verlag,!2009.!
V. Conclusion
In conclusion, we would be remiss to forego mentioning the solidification of Levinas scholarship
within the professional landscape of the North American academy. 2006 witnessed the birth of
two very important venues for Levinas studies. First, thanks to Michael Paradiso-Michau and Sol
Neely, the United States has its first professional association dedicated to Levinas work: the
North American Levinas Society (NALS). According to co-founder and executive secretary Dr.
Paradiso-Michau, NALS continues to experience significant annual growth as it consciously
cultivates an intergenerational culture:
We've been intentional, and successful, at bringing together younger scholars and
students with tenured and senior scholars in Levinas studies. Quite a few NALS
conference papers by presenters have matured into journal articles and book chapters, due
in large part to the critical and friendly feedback generated from conference attendees and
co-panelists.
38
Next to NALS, and thanks in large part to Jeffery Bloechl, 2006 saw the birth of the first annual
journal dedicated explicitly to Levinas work: Levinas Studies, published by Duquesne
University Press. The journal thrives to this day, and has presented research from a plethora of
familiar names, for example, Jean-Luc Marion, Jacques Taminiaux, Richard A. Cohen, Robert
Bernasconi, James Falconer, Anthony Steinboch, Alphonso Lingis, Bettina Bergo, and more.
If what we have described above is accurate, it is safe to describe the present situation of
North American Levinas scholarship as vibrant and thriving. The sheer swath of disciplines and
concrete issues Levinas is summoned to address is a testament to the power and continuing
relevance of his thought. The dozens and taken together and as a whole: hundreds of articles,
books, and dissertations produced each year suggests that his influence shows no signs of
slackening. Thanks especially to Levinas Studies and the NALS, Levinas scholarship in the US
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
38
!Dr.!Michael!ParadisoKMichau!is!a!lecturer!in!philosophy!at!Oakton!Community!College,!Des!Plaines,!Illinois,!
USA.!He!relayed!this!to!me!in!a!brief!personal!interview!I!conducted!via!email.!NALS!website:!
http://www.levinasKsociety.org/!
!
has the institutional niche and infrastructures that should guarantee a North American home to
Levinas study for a long time to come. What surprises lay in store? [p. 205] Could our proposed
third wave of Levinas studies described above come to disturb and transform its present two
school composition? Or will some other, unforeseeable text or movement break upon us? We
will have to wait and see.
English Language Primary Text Bibliography, by date
1949
WILLIAMS (F.) (trans.), Introduction to: Jean Wahl, A Short History of Existentialism
in A Short History of Existentialism, New York, Philosophical Library, 48-53.
1967
KOCKLEMENS (Joseph) (trans.), Intuition of Essences, in The philosophy of Edmund
Husserl and its Interpretation, New York: Doubleday, 87-117.
1969
LINGIS, (Alphonso) (trans.), Totality and Infinity: An Essay on Exteriority, Pittsburgh:
Duquesne University Press.
WYSCHOGROD (Edith) (trans.), Judaism and the Feminine Element, in Judaism,
18/1, 30-38.
1973
ORIANNE (Andre) (trans.), The Theory of Intuition in Husserls Phenomenology,
Evanston: Northwestern University Press.
1978
COHEN (Richard A.) (trans.), God and Philosophy, in Philosophy Today, 22, 127-147.
LINGIS, (Alphonso) (trans.), Existence and Existents, Pittsburgh: Duquesne
University Press.
PEPERZAK (Adriaan) (trans.), Signature, in Research in Phenomenology, VIII, 175-189.
1979
STEPHENSON (A.) & SUCARMAN (R.I.) (trans.), To Love the Torah More than God, in
Judaism, 28, 217-220.
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