The Gene: Gene is a region of DNA along the chromosome which is the molecular unit of heredity for a living

organism.

. Gene action: Genes action produce various phenotypes in the form of biological traits( characters), some of which are apparent , such as eye color or number of limbs, and some of which are not observable like blood groups . The expression of gene action leads to the formation of a single polypeptide. chain. Proteins like hemoglobin which are composed of more than one polypeptide, their formation require several genes. Living beings need the genes to synthesis many proteins and functional RNA chains. Genes hold the information to build and maintain an organism's cells and pass genetic traits to offspring. Size of the gene: Average gene size is 103 - 104 base pairs , although they can be much larger, such as the human dystrophin gene (produces defective protein in muscular dystrophy) which is 2 x 106 base pairs in size. E. coli has about 4,200 genes, not very many considering that at least 1,000 different enzymes are needed to carry out just the basic biochemical reactions in the cell. The smallest genome for a free-living organism (i.e. a cell, not a virus) is that of the bacterium Mycoplasma which encodes only 467 genes. Humans are at the other end of the spectrum of complexity and have about 20,000 - 25,000 genes. Gene location on chromosome: Each gene occupies a specific region on chromosome - called a gene locus. At the locus the gene is present in two different copies called Alleles that express single trait. These two alleles are inherited one from each parent. The alleles are expressed in the phenotype either as dominant or recessive trait. During chromosome replication each gene is duplicated as the DNA is replicated. A replicated chromosome has two chromatids (sister chromatids) with similar DNA sequences and therefore have identical copies of the genes.

Gene arrangement: The gene structure contains regulatory regions, transcribed regions, and other functional sequence regions A regulatory region shared by almost all genes is known as the promoter, which provides a position that is recognized by the transcription machinery when a gene is about to be transcribed and expressed. A gene can have more than one promoter, resulting in RNA that differs in how far they extend in the 5' end. Some genes have "strong" promoters that bind the transcription machinery well, and others have "weak" promoters that bind poorly. These weak promoters usually permit a lower rate of transcription than the strong promoters, because the transcription machinery binds to them and initiates transcription less frequently. Other possible regulatory regions include enhancers, which can compensate for a weak promoter. Most regulatory regions are "upstream"that is, before or toward the 5' end of the transcription initiation site. Eukaryotic promoter regions are much more complex and difficult to identify than prokaryotic promoters . Gene expression: The expression of genes encoded in DNA begins by transcribing the gene into RNA.

In prokaryotes the coding sequence is a continuous piece of DNA ( not interrupted) and the majority of these genes are organized into operons, or groups of genes whose products have related functions and which are transcribed as one unit. By contrast, eukaryotic genes are transcribed one by one and the coding sequence(exons) is discontinuous and interrupted by long pieces of non coding sequence called introns which are transcribed but never translated into protein (they are spliced out before translation). Splicing can also occur in prokaryotic genes, but is less common than in eukaryotes

Functional structure of a gene

In eukaryotes, promoters and enhancers determine what portions of the DNA will be transcribed into mRNA. The pre-mRNA is then spliced into messenger RNA (mRNA) which is later translated into protein . Whereas the chromosomes of prokaryotes are relatively gene-dense, those of eukaryotes often contain so-called "junk DNA", or regions of DNA that serve no obvious function. Simple single-celled eukaryotes have relatively small amounts of such DNA, whereas the genomes of complex multicellular organisms, including humans, contain an absolute majority of DNA without an identified function. Protein-coding DNA makes up only 2% of the human genome. . Repetitive DNA sequence (satellite DNA) , noncoding sequences , regulatory sequence ,represent the major art of the eukaryotic genome which occupies 98% of total DNA. Gene families A collection of identical or very similar genes is called a multigene family have evolved by duplication of ancestral genes. Some consist of identical genes that may be scattered throughout a genome. With the exception of histone proteins, they code mainly for rRNA.

Gene amplification: Loss or rearrangement can alter a cell genome during an organism lifetime. In some cases an organism may make many additional copies of a gene or genes in preparation for an upcoming period of rapid protein production. After this period passes the extra genes are broken back down into nucleotides. This has been observed in amphibians and in the cells of cancer patients undergoing chemotherapy. The amplified genes in cancer cells may provide resistance to the anti cancer drugs How do genes behave in meiosis? 1. Because genes exist on chromosomes, the behavior of chromosomes in meiosis relates directly to gene behavior in heredity. 2. Observation of all four products of a single meiosis (a tetrad) allows to track both the chromosomes and their genes. 3. Analysis of tetrads confirms the predictions of gene behavior inferred from the patterns of inheritance observed in organisms . . Behavior of 2 different genes at different positions on the same chromosome When chromosomes go through meiosis, there are two possible situations: 1. If no cross-over between the two gene loci: - Alleles segregate together on the same chromosome - A and B together and a and b together 2. If there is a cross-over between the two gene loci - Alleles segregate from each other in Meiosis II Two recombinant products: - A and b now together in one meiotic product - a and B now together in one meiotic product Two parental products the other two meiotic products are still AB and ab