Sgsits Manual

Megnad Saha
C. V. Raman
S. Ramanujan
S. N. Bose
J. C. Bose
Physics Laboratory Manual

S. S. Bhatnagar S. Chandrashekar
AUGUST 2012
H. J. Bhabha
H. Chandra
V. Sarabhai
PHYSICS LABORATORY MANUAL

PH1005-Physics Laboratory
FOR USE BY
B.E. (Regular & PTDC) Students

OF
SHRI G. S. INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY & SCIENCE, INDORE

PREPARED BY
FACULTY MEMBERS
DEPARTMENT OF APPLIED PHYSICS
AUGUST - 2012
Preface
This Laboratory Manual provides the theory of the experiments, the circuit diagram, methodology, observation table etc. for the experiments to be performed in the rst and second semester of B.E. Programme of Shri Govindram Seksaria Institute of Technology & Science, Indore. This manual gives necessary details to perform the experiments. The experiments included are meant to oer basic understanding of Physics. Most of the experiments are designed to go hand to hand with the theoretical courses on Physics being taught during the rst and second semesters. Some additional experiments away from the theory courses are added to enhance the scope of learning beyond the subjects covered in the theory. The necessary theory for this type of experiments is described in the manual in self-explanatory manner. However, all eorts are made to clarify any doubt by the teachers engaging these laboratory classes. We thankfully acknowledge the support, contributions and suggestions received from present and past Faculty members and Research Scholars of Department of Applied Physics. Special thanks to Prof. P. Sen, Prof. S. Kumbhaj, N. Oswal, G. G. Soni, V. Kaushik, K. Choudhary, J. Solanki, K. Kumawat, Om P. Choudhury, A. Tripathi, L. Jain, D. Malviya and A. Pal, for content evaluation of this manual.
Dr. J . T. Andrews Dr. P. K. Sen Department of Applied Physics, Shri G S Institute of Technology & Science, Indore.
August 2012
ii
iii
Following symbols are used in the margin for enhanced understanding. The symbol and meaning are:
Some interesting information may be useful to you. Extra care needed, since these experiments work at high voltage ( 20V - 20kV). Read the corresponding instruction(s) carefully.
These experiments are performed with lasers. Save your eye from direct viewing. You may need to use desktop computers for these experiments. Do not work with unnecessary work with it. USE IT ONLY FOR THE PURPOSE FOR WHICH IT IS DEDICATED. These are some additional questions may be asked during viva-voce as well as in end exam. CAUTION: But these are some sample questions only. Read and perform more for more questions and understanding.
SGSITS, Indore
Department of Applied Physics
Contents
General Instructions 1 To determine the wavelength of sodium light by Newtons rings method.
1 5
2 To study the Variation of magnetic eld along the axis of a circular coil carrying current and to calculate the radius of the coil. 12 3 To measure the numerical aperture of given optical ber 4 To determine the frequency of AC Mains with the help of Sonometer. 5 To study and measure the resolving power of given telescope. 14 18 22
6 To measure Plancks constant using light emitting diodes (LED) and to obtain VI characteristics of junction diodes. 27 7 To determine the variation of refractive index of an equilateral prisms as a function of wavelength. 31 8 CUPS & PhET 34
9 To study the relationship between the length, tension and mass of a string and the frequencies of standing waves on a string using Meldes method. 41 10 To study the Dispersion by a triangular prism and to verify the laws of refraction using Raytrace. 45 11 To study the features of a CRO. Measurement of voltage and frequency of a given signal and to measure an unknown frequency using Lissajous gures. 49 12 To understand and conrm Heisenbergs uncertainty principle using single slit diraction. 53 13 To understand the phenomena of electrical equivalent of heat, to measure the electrical equivalent of heat of water and to measure the eciency of a given incandescent lamp. 58 14 To determine the wavelength of prominent spectral lines of mercury light by a plane transmission grating using normal incidence. 62 15 To measure the charge to mass ratio of electron using Thomson method and to nd the sign charge of electron. 69 16 To understand Error and Analysis in Physics Laboratory measurements. A CRO 2 Color Tables 3 Some useful data and information 4 Brief History of Indian Nobel Laureates section 73 76 80 81 83
General Instructions
1. Objectives of Physics Laboratory
The laboratory component of your physics course has many objectives. Some important ones are: Conduct Academic discussions is allowed while loud talking and disruptive behavior are prohibited.
Partners Generally, you will work with one or two partners. Rotate the experimental tasks so Experience with scientic apparatus: This that each partner becomes familiar with all asranges from being able to read instrument scales, pects of the experiments, e.g., do not have one to know safety hazards, to eectively use specic partner take all the data while the other does all pieces of equipment, to use computer for few vir- the recording or analysis. tual experiments. Data analysis: How do you assess whether theory and experiment are in agreement? You will become familiar with the formal procedures associated with data analysis such as propagation of errors and linear regression analysis. If required, you may use a spreadsheet on the labs personal computers for data analysis. Data Sheets Each partner must have his or her own data sheets. The data sheets may come from the writeup, a ray diagram printout, or you may have to write up your own data sheets. All necessary data should be on these data sheets. All data (single item and tabulated) should be clearly labeled with a description of the number and its units, and when appropriate, its uncertainty. If you use the ray diagram printout, put Communication skills: To learn how to present date at the top and put data labels and units at your results in a report. Guidelines are given be- the top of each column - you can do this by hand. low. The data sheets should be initialed by the instructor at the end of the period. This is not a guarantee that the performance in Physical concepts: The lab should reinforce the lab was adequate, though the instructor the physics from your lecture courses. should check that the data appears reasonable. Graphs made in the lab during the experiment make it much easier to detect 2. Ground Rules errors or omissions. Guard the data sheet it is the only proof that you performed the Attendance You must attend each laboratory experiment. period and do the assigned experiment. In general, you will not be permitted to do your experiments in another day / class. Preparation Before each laboratory class you are expected to read the experimental write-up and any related sections of the text so that you are familiar with the theory and the experimental procedure. As it is often impossible to have the laboratory come after the relevant material has been discussed in lecture, you will often have to read ahead in your textbook. If the write-up has prelab questions, those must be understood before coming to the laboratory for performing the experiments. Repeating All or Part of the Experiment If the instructor nds a report unacceptable, you may not get a chance for repeating the experiment, hence perform the experiment carefully. Checking Out If you nish early, begin preparing the laboratory report. In some cases, you may be able to nish it in class. Clean up your area, leaving it as you found it, unless specied otherwise. Groups coming after you should expect to nd all the equipment in working order. If something broke during your experiment, report it to the instructor so a replacement can be made.
Contents
Contents
Laboratory Exam Two viva-voce examinations will be held. First viva-voce will be held after you complete the third experiment. While the second viva-voce will be on your sixth experiment. However, it will be announced in the Notice-Board of Physics Laboratory.
Usage of rough notebook and pencil for taking data is strictly prohibited in Physics laboratory. If a data taken is found to be wrong, just make a cross mark on the data and proceed further. If a set of data is found wrong, make a new table and record data again. Calculations , including Error analysis: Whenever possible calculations should be done in the lab. Include in your calculations the units associated with any variable and, where appropriate, cancel units or change them to derived units (e.g., change kgm/s2 to N). Describe and show all work. Graphs, when appropriate, should include a title, and axis labels with units. These should also be done in the lab, if possible. If straight line tting is performed on the data, by hand remember to record the slope and intercept and their uncertainties. The graph sheets must be pasted rmly on the note book. Just putting the graph sheets in between the pages is not allowed. Conclusions: This should include a brief discussion of the main ndings. For example: "We found that there is a linear relationship between the measured variable . . . and . . . This can be seen from the graph and is predicted by the theory." Also state whether your results agree with expectations to within the uncertainties of the measurements: For example: "The slope of the graph of . . . versus . . . as determined by (linear regression, hand tting) was . . . . . . (units). This value, together with Eqn. . . . , and the measured quantities . . . =. . . . . . (units), and . . . =. . . . . . (units), allowed for a determination of . . . =. . . . . . (units). This is within . . . standard deviations of the accepted value of . . . (units)." Discuss the main sources of error. "The main sources of uncertainty in the determination of . . . are . . . ." Students are advised to strictly follow the safety regulations necessary for performing the experiments.
3. Laboratory Guidelines
You should take care that the data you obtain is the best possible. Make graphs of the data while you are in the lab and compare them with other groups. Show them to the instructor. Do all the calculations in the lab, including the error analysis. Before you leave the lab, you should know whether the theory and experiment are in agreement.
4. The Report
Your lab write-ups are to be turned in at the beginning of the following lab session. It should contain the following information: The right hand side pages of the notebook may contain the following: Name of the experiment, The date on which the experiment is performed and the serial number of the experiment Aim(s) of the experiment Apparatus required, brief theory of the experiment Procedures for performing the experiment and Results The left hand side pages (unruled pages) may contain diagram, tables, other observations and calculations.
SGSITS, Indore
Contents
Contents
5. List of Experiments & Laboratory Layout

Please, note that you have to perform the experiment in the following order only. Students may not be allowed to perform the experiment if he/she is not adhering to this order. Common to All: Error analysis in Physics Laboratory. Common to all students. To be performed on the rst day of the laboratory course. 1. To determine the wavelength of sodium light by Newtons rings method. 2. To study the Variation of magnetic eld along the axis of a circular coil carrying current and to calculate the radius of the coil. 3. To measure the numerical aperture of given optical ber. 4. To determine the frequency of AC Mains with the help of Sonometer. 5. To study and measure the resolving power of given telescope. 6. To measure Plancks constant using light emitting diodes (LED) of various colors and to understand work function. 7. To determine the variation of refractive index of an equilateral prisms as a function of wavelength. 8. To understand upper level physics using software Consortium for Upper-Level Physics Software with Quantum Mechcanics and Electro-magnetism modules and to study working of laser using PhET Module. 9. To study the relationship between the length, tension and mass of a string and the frequencies of standing waves on a string using Meldes method. 10. To study the Dispersion by a triangular prism and to verify the laws of refraction using Raytrace.
11. To study the features of a CRO. Measurement of voltage and frequency of a given signal and to measure an unknown frequency using Lissajous gures. 12. To understand and conrm Heisenbergs uncertainty principle using single slit diraction. 13. To understand the phenomena of electrical equivalent of heat, to measure the electrical equivalent of heat of water and to measure the eciency of a given incandescent lamp. 14. To determine the wavelength of prominent spectral lines of mercury light by a plane transmission grating using normal incidence. 15. To measure the charge to mass ratio of electron using Thomson method and to nd the sign charge of electron.
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Contents
Contents
Lab
15 13 2
Tec
hni cian
Black Board Teacher 9
10
4 6 6 12 7 14 3 12
11 1
SemiDark Room 5
Dark Room 1 8
Figure 1: Layout of location of dierent experiments in Physics Laboratory. Check the list of experiments given in the above list to nd locations.
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Entrance
1 Interference by Newtons rings Method
1.1
Objective
To determine the wavelength of sodium light by Newtons rings method.
1.2
Short Biography of Sir Issac Newton
Sir Isaac Newton, FRS (4 January 1643 - 31 March 1727) was an English physicist, mathematician, astronomer, natural philosopher, alchemist, and theologian and one of the most inuential men in human history. His Philosophie Naturalis Principia Mathematica, published in 1687, is con- Figure 1.1: A portrait of Isaac Newton (aged sidered to be among the most inuential books 46) by Godfrey Kneller in 1689. The inset is in the history of science, laying the groundwork the signature of Newton. for most of classical mechanics. In this work, Newton described universal gravitation and the Newtons stature among scientists remains at the three laws of motion which dominated the sci- very top rank, as demonstrated by a 2005 survey entic view of the physical universe for the next of scientists in Britains Royal Society asking who three centuries. Newton showed that the mo- had the greater eect on the history of science, tions of objects on Earth and of celestial bodies Newton or Albert Einstein. Newton was deemed are governed by the same set of natural laws by the more inuential. Newton was also highly relidemonstrating the consistency between Keplers gious (though unorthodox), producing more work laws of planetary motion and his theory of gravi- on Biblical hermeneutics than the natural science tation, thus removing the last doubts about helio- he is remembered for today. centrism and advancing the scientic revolution. In mechanics, Newton enunciated the principles of conservation of both momentum and angular momentum. In optics, he built the rst practical reecting telescope and developed a theory of colour based on the observation that a prism decomposes white light into the many colors which form the visible spectrum. He also formulated an empirical law of cooling and studied the speed of sound. In mathematics, Newton shares the credit with Gottfried Leibniz for the development of the differential and integral calculus. He also demonstrated the generalized binomial theorem, developed the so-called "Newtons method" for approximating the zeros of a function, and contributed to the study of power series. 5
1.3
Apparatus required
An optical arrangement for Newtons rings with a plano-convex lens of large radius of curvature (nearly 100 cm) and an optically plane glass plate, A short focus convex lens, sodium light source. Traveling microscope, magnifying lens, reading lamp and a spherometer.
1.4
Description of apparatus
The experimental apparatus for obtaining the Newtons rings is shown in the Figure 1.2. A planoconvex lens L of large radius of curvature is placed with its convex surface in contact with a plane
Expt. 1. Newtonss Rings
1.5. Working Principle
glass plate P. At a suitable height over this combination, is mounted a plane glass plate G inclined at an angle of 45 degrees with the vertical. This arrangement is contained in a wooden box. Light from a broad monochromatic sodium source rendered parallel with the help of convex lens L1 is allowed to fall over the plate G, which partially reects the light in the downward direction. The reected light falls normally on the air lm enclosed between the plano-convex lens L, and the glass plate P. The light reected from the upper and the lower surfaces of the air lm produce interference fringes. At the center the lens is in contact with the glass plate and the thickness of the air lm is zero. The center will be dark as a phase change of radians is introduced due to reection at the lower surface of the air lm as the refractive index of glass plate P (=1.5) is higher than that of the air lm ( = 1). So this is a case of reection by the denser medium. As we proceed outwards from the center the thickness of the air lm gradually increases being the same all along the circle with center at the point of contact. Hence the fringes produced are concentric, and are localized in the air lm (Figure 1.4) The fringes may be viewed by means of a low power microscope (traveling microscope) M as shown in the gure. 1.3.
two interfering rays is given by: x = 2t cos(t + ) + /2 (1.1)
Where t is the thickness of the air lm at B and is the angle of lm at that point. Since the radius of curvature of the plano-convex lens is very large, the angle is extremely small and can be neglected. The term /2 corresponds to a phase change of radians introduced in the ray DE due to reection at the denser medium (glass). For air the refractive index () is unity and for normal incidence, angle of refraction is zero. So the path dierence x becomes: x = 2t + /2 (1.2)
At the point of contact the thickness of the lm is zero, i.e., t = 0, So x = /2. And this is the condition for the minimum intensity. Hence the center of the Newtons rings is dark. Further, the two interfering rays BC and DE interfere constructively when the path dierence between the two is given by x = 2t + (/2) = 2n/2 or 2t = (2n 1)/2 [Maxima] (1.4) (1.3)
1.5
Working Principle
and they interfere destructively when the path dierence
When a plano-convex lens of large radius of curvature is placed with its convex surface in contact with a plane glass plate P a thin wedge shaped lm of air is enclosed between the two. The thickness of the lm at the point of contact is zero and gradually increases as we proceed away from the point of contact towards the periphery of the lens. The air lm thus possesses a radial symmetry about the point of contact. The curves of equal thickness of the lm will, therefore, be concentric circles with point of contact as the center (Fig. 1.4). In Figure 1.3 the rays BC and DE are the two interfering rays corresponding to an incident ray AB. As Newtons rings are observed in reected light, the eective path dierence x between the
x = 2t + /2 = (2n + 1)/2 or 2t = 2n/2 [Minima]
(1.5) (1.6) (1.7)
From these equations it is clear that a maxima or minima of particular order n will occur for a given value of t. Since the thickness of the air lm is constant for all points lying on a circle concentric with the point of contact, the interference fringes are concentric circles. These are also known as fringes of equal thickness.
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1.6. Experimental Methods
1.6
1.6.1
Experimental Methods
If Dn is the diameter of the nth ring then,

2 Dn = 4nR
(1.11)
Calculation of the diameters rings:

Similarly, if the point B lies over a nth order bright ring we have
2 Dn = 2(2n 1)R
(1.12)
1.6.2
Calculation of :
From equation (1.12), if Dn+p is the diameter of (n+p)th bright ring, we have
2 Dn+p = 2[2(n + p) 1]R
(1.13)
Subtracting equation (1.12) , from equation (1.13), we get : 2 Dn+p Dn2 = 4pR (1.14)
2 2 Dn+p Dn = 4pR
(1.15)
By measuring the diameters of the various bright rings and the radius of curvature of the plano convex lens, we can calculate from the equation (1.15).
Figure 1.2: Schematic of experimental setup of Newtons Rings. The lower image is the actual setup used in the experiment. Let rn be the radius of Newtons ring corresponding to a point B, where the thickness of the lm is t, Let R be the radius of curvature of the surface of the lens in contact with the glass plate p, then from the triangle CMB (Figure 1.3), we have:
2 2 R2 = rn + (R t)2 or rn = 2Rt t2 (1.8)
Since t is small as compared to R, we can neglect t2 .and therefore

2 2 Rn = 2Rt, or 2t = rn /R
(1.9) Figure 1.3: Schematic of method used to calculate the diameter of lens and hence the wavelength of light used.
If the point B lies over the nth dark ring then substituting the value of 2t from equation (4) we have,
2 [rn /R = 2n/2], 2 or rn = nR
(1.10)
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1.7. Methodology
1.6.3
Formula used
The wavelength of the sodium light employed for Newtons rings experiment is given by: =
2 2 Dn+p Dn 4pR
Where Dn+p and Dn are the diameter of (n+p)th and nth bright rings respectively, p being an integer number. R is the radius of curvature of the convex surface of the plano-convex lens.
Figure 1.4: Typical Newtons Rings as observed in Physics Laboratory of SGSITS, Indore. Courtesy Ms. K. Dudhe (PG student 2007-2009). 5. Slide the microscope to the left till the crosswire lies tangentially at the center of the 20th dark ring (See Figure ) Note the reading on the vernier scale of the microscope. Slide the microscope backward with the help of the slow motion screw and note the readings when the cross-wire lies tangentially at the center of the 18th , 16th , 14th , 12th , 10th , 8th , 6th , and 4th dark rings respectively [Observations of rst few rings from the center are generally not taken because it is dicult to adjust the cross-wire in the middle of these rings owing to their large width.] 6. Keep on sliding the microscope to the right and note the reading when the cross-wire again lies tangentially at the center of the 4th , 6th , 8th , 10th , 12th , 14th , 16th , 18th , and 20th dark rings respectively. 7. Remove the plano-convex lens L and nd the radius of curvature of the surface of the lens in contact with the glass plate P accurately using a spherometer. The formula to be used is: l2 h + (1.16) 6h 2 Where l is the mean distance between the two legs of the spherometer h is the maximum height of the convex surface of the lens from the plane surface. R= 1. Find the diameter of the each ring from the dierence of the observations taken on
1.7
Methodology
1. Level the traveling microscope table and set the microscope tube in a vertical position. Find the vernier constant (least count) of the horizontal scale of the traveling microscope. 2. Clean the surface of the glass plate p, the lens L and the glass plate G. Place them in position as shown in Figure 1.3 and as discussed in the description of apparatus. Place the arrangement in front of a sodium lamp so that the height of the center of the glass plate G is the same as that of the center of the sodium lamp. Place the sodium lamp in a wooden box having a hole such that the light coming out from the hole in the wooden box may fall on the Newtons rings apparatus such that a parallel beam of monochromatic sodium lamp light is made to fall on the glass plate G at an angle of 45 degrees. 3. Adjust the position of the traveling microscope so that it lies vertically above the center of lens L. Focus the microscope, so that alternate dark and bright rings are clearly visible. 4. Adjust the position of the traveling microscope till the point of inter-section of the cross wires (attached in the microscope eyepiece) coincides with the center of the ring system and one of the cross-wires is perpendicular to the horizontal scale of microscope.
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1.8. Observations
the left and right side of its center. Plot a graph between the number of the ring on X-axis and the square of the corresponding ring diameter on Y-axis. It should be a straight line as given by the equation 9(see gure ). Take any two points on this line and nd the corresponding values of (D2 - D2 ) and p for them. n+p n 2. Finally calculate the value of wavelength of the sodium light source using the formula.
1.8
1.8.1
Observations
Determination of the Least Count:
2 2 Table 1.1: Determination of Dn+p Dn and p
Determination of the Least Count of the Horizontal Scale of traveling Microscope
1. Value of one division of the horizontal main scale of traveling microscope = . . . . . . . . . . . . cm. 2. Total number of divisions on the Vernier scale = . . . .which are equal to . . . . . . . . . . . . divisions of main scale of the horizontal scale of the traveling microscope. 3. Value of one division of the Vernier scale = . . . . . . cm. 4. Least count of the horizontal scale of the microscope (given by the value of one division of main scale the value of one division of Vernier scale)=. . . . . . cm.
2. Number of divisions on circular head = =. . . . . . . . . . 3. Least count of the spherometer = =. . . . . . . . . .cm 4. Mean distance between the two legs of the spherometer, l=. . . . . . . . . cm 5. The radius of curvature R of the plano convex lens is (as given by equation 1.16): R = [l2 /6h+h/2]= . . . . . . . . . cm
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Order .of The Rings 20 18 16 14 12 10 8

1. Pitch of the screw = . . . . . . . . . cm
Reading of the microscope left hand side (a)cm
Right hand side (b) cm
Diameter of the ring (a b) cm.
Diameter2 (a b)2 cm2
D2 -D2 =.. 20 16 D2 -D2 =.. 18 14 D2 -D2 =.. 16 12 D2 -D2 =.. 14 10 D2 -D2 =.. 12 8 D2 -D2 =.. 10 6 D2 -D2 =.. 8 4
D2 -D2 n+p n for p=4 cm2
(1.17)
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1.10. Sources of errors and precautions:
Table 1.2: Determination of R (radius of curvature of the lens L) using a spherometer S. Spherometer H Mean No reading on cm Plane Convex a b h glass surface plate of lens a (cm) b (cm) (cm) (cm)
Percentage error = . . . . . . %
1.10
Sources of errors and precautions:
The optical arrangement as shown in Figure 1.2 should be very clean (use spirit for cleaning these optical elements) and so made that the beam of light falls normally on the plano-convex lens L and glass plate P combination. The plano-convex lens used for the production of Newtons rings should have large value of radius of curvature. This will keep the angle of wedge shape air lm very small and therefore the rings will have a larger diameter and consequently the accuracy in the measurement of the diameter of the rings will be increased. To avoid any backlash error, the micrometer screw of the traveling microscope should be moved very slowly and be moved in one direction while taking observations. While measuring diameters, the microscope cross-wire should be adjusted in the middle of the ring. The amount of light from the sodium light source should be adjusted for maximum visibility. Too much light increases the general illumination and decreases the contrast between bright and dark rings.
6. The wavelength of sodium light is (as given by equation 1.15): = (D2 - D2 )/4pR. = . . . . . . . . . cm. n+p n = . . . . . . . . . Angstrom units.
Calculations from the graph: 1. Plot a graph taking squares of the diameters, D2 along the Y-axis and the number n of rings along the X-axis (See Figure ). 2. The curve should be a straight line. 3. Take two points P1 and P2 on this line and nd the corresponding values of D2 - D2 n+p n and p from it, calculate the value of wavelength of the sodium light from these values.
1.9
Results
The value of the wavelength of the sodium light source as calculated Using the observations directly = . . . . . . . . . Ao Using the graphical calculations = . . . . . . . . . Ao Mean value of the wavelength of Sodium light = . . . . . . . . . Ao Standard average value of the wavelength of the sodium light = 5893 Ao .
1.11
Sample oral questions :
What do you understand by the interference of light? What are essential conditions for obtaining interference of light? What do you understand by coherent sources? Is it possible to observe interference pattern by having two independent sources such as two candles?
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11
1.11. Sample oral questions :
Why should be two sources be monochromatic? Why are the Newtons rings circular? Why is central ring dark? Where are these rings formed? Sometimes these rings are elliptical or distorted, why? What is the dierence between the rings observed by reected light and those observed by transmitted light? What will happen if the glass plate is silvered on the front surface? What will happen when a little water is introduced in between the plano-convex lens and the plate? How does the diameter of rings change on the introduction of liquid? Can you nd out the refractive index of a liquid by this experiment? Is it possible to have interference with a lens of small focal length? What will happen if the lens is cylindrical? Why do the rings gets closer and ner as we move away from the center.
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2 Steward & Gees Tangent Galavanometer
2.1
Aim
2.4
Theory
To study the Variation of magnetic eld along the axis of a circular coil carrying current and to calculate the radius of the coil.
2.2 2.3
History Equipment required
For a current I going around a circular loop of wire of radius r, the strength of the magnetic eld along the axis of the circular loop (z = 0 at the center of the circular loop and is positive above the loop and negative below the loop) is given by 0 I r2 (2.1) 2 3 r2 + z 2 2 This equation assumes SI units, so the current is in amperes, distances are in meters, and the magnetic eld is in Tesla (T). The constant 0 = 4107 N/A2 . Notice that along the axis of the circular loop, the magnetic eld is parallel to the axis. Its relationship to the current in the circular loop is given by a right hand rule. Curl the gures of your right hand around the circular loop so they point in the direction of the current; your thumb then gives the direction of the magnetic eld along the axis of the circular loop. If instead of a single circular loop there are N turns of a coil in the form of a circular loop, then the magnetic eld is simply N times the magnetic eld due to a single circular loop. B(z) = If the tangent-galvanometer is set such that the plane of the coil is along the magnetic meridian i.e. B is perpendicular to BH (BH is the horizontal component of the Earths magnetic eld), the needle rests along the resultant. From tangent law, one can write, B(z) = BH tan . or B(z) tan . (2.3) (2.2)
Stewart & Gees apparatus, DC power supply, commutator, keys, connecting wires, etc.
Figure 2.1: Photography at the top shows the Stewart-Gees apparatus used in SGSITS. The bottom gure is connection diagram for performing the experiment. The inset shows the circuitry. L-lechlanche cell, RhRheostat, K-key, A-Ammeter, C-commutator, S-G-apparatus, N-coil selector.
That means, bu measuring the deection in the tangent galvanometer, one can calculate the value of magnetic led indirectly. From equation 2.1, the maximum value of B = Bmax = 0 I/2r occurs when z = 0. Hence the value of B(z) is found to be Bmax B(r) = 2 2 = 0.35 Bmax . sinceB(r) tan B(r) 0.35 tan max 12 (2.4)
Expt. 2. Tangent Galvanometer
13
2.6. Results
2.5
Procedure
Reverse the current using commutator and record the values of 3 and 4 . Move the box slowly towards center around 2-3cm, and record the values of 1 , 2 , 3 and 4 . Repeat the previous procedure till the other end of the sliding bench. Now select the circular wires at 0-10 turns and repeat steps 5-8. Now select the circular wires at 0-25 turns and repeat steps 5-8. Plot the data as graph between distance (z) in X-axis and tan in Y-axis for all three data sets.
Figure 2.2: Graph between z and tan . Note a horizontal line at tan.
Draw a straight line parallel to 0.35 tan max , draw two vertical lines where the two lines are crossing (see Figure 2.2).
Find the diameter and then the radius of Use the given compass box (tangent Galcoil and report. vanometer - TG) to nd the east and west directions. (The needles of the given compass always show east-west direction, why? No of coils used:......... Why not the North-South as taught in book?) Value of current:........ Now the plane of the circular coil is said to S. distance Deection (deg) be parallel to the magnetic meridian. No. z(cm) 1 2 3 4 mean 1 -24 Place the compass box exactly at the center 2 -21 of the wooden sliding bench. (Why the instrument is made of wood? Is it non9 0 magnetic?). Connect all electrical wires as per the dia18 21 gram given in Figure 2.2. First select the 19 24 circular coil between 0 and 5. Maximum value of tan =....... . Adjust the rheostat to generate a deection of about 70 . Also note that the current is not exceeding ...A. (Why?). Monitor this 2.6 Results value is a constant throughout the experiment. If the value varies adjust the rheostat 1. Magnetic eld along the axis of a circular to keep it constant. coil is studied. Now move the TG to on end (say 30cm) 2. The radius of the circular coil is found to of the sliding bench. Record the correbe ............. cm. sponding value of (z) as -25cm in the table. Observe the value of magnetic needle and record it as (1 and 2 ).
tan
SGSITS, Indore
3 Numerical Aperture of Optical Fiber
3.1
Aim
To measure the numerical aperture of given optical ber.
3.2
Equipment required
He-Ne or semiconductor laser, optical ber, photo detector, translation stage, etc. IMPORTANT : DO NOT LOOK INTO THE LIGHT BEAM EMITTED FROM THE LASER OR FROM THE FIBER. THIS MAY LEAD TO PERMANENT DAMAGE TO YOUR EYE.
cluded a separate glass coating. The innermost region of the ber, or core, was used to transmit the light, while the glass coating, or cladding, prevented the light from leaking out of the core by reecting the light within the boundaries of the core. Commercial applications followed soon after. In 1977, both AT&T and GTE installed ber optic telephone systems in Chicago and Boston respectively. In 1990, Bell Labs transmitted a 2.5 Gb/s signal over 7,500 km without regeneration. Today, DWDM technology continues to develop. As the demand for data bandwidth increases, driven by the phenomenal growth of the Internet, the move to optical networking is the focus of new technologies.
3.3
Brief history of optical ber
The earliest attempts to communicate via light undoubtedly go back thousands of years. Early long distance communication techniques, such as "smoke signals", developed by native North Americans and the Chinese were, in fact, optical communication links. Jean-Daniel Colladon, a 38-year-old Swiss professor at University of Geneva, demonstrated light guiding or Total internal reection (TIR) for the rst time in 1841. He wanted to show the uid ow through various holes of a tank and the breaking up of water jets. In 1870, John Tyndall, using a jet of water that owed from one container to another and a beam of light, demonstrated that light used internal reection to follow a specic path. As water poured out through the spout of the rst container, Tyndall directed a beam of sunlight at the path of the water. The light, as seen by the audience, followed a zigzag path inside the curved path of the water. Fiber optic technology experienced a phenomenal rate of progress in the second half of the twentieth century. Early success came during the 1950 with the development of the berscope. This motivated scientists to develop glass bers that in14
Figure 3.1: Portaits of Jean-Daniel Colladon and John Tyndall. The bottom image shows early TIR demonstration.
3.4
Theory
An optical ber (or bre) is a glass or plastic ber that carries light along its length. Fiber
Expt. 3. Numerical Apertue of OF
15
3.5. Procedure:
optics is the overlap of applied science and engineering concerned with the design and application of optical bers. Optical bers are widely used in ber-optic communications, which permits transmission over longer distances and at higher bandwidths (data rates) than other forms of communications. Fibers are used instead of metal wires because signals travel along them with less loss, and they are also immune to electromagnetic interference. Fibers are also used for illumination, and are wrapped in bundles so they can be used to carry images, thus allowing viewing in tight spaces. Specially designed bers are used for a variety of other applications, including sensors and ber lasers. Light is conned in the core of the optical ber by total internal reection. This causes the ber to act as a waveguide. Fibers which support many propagation paths or transverse modes are called multi-mode bers (MMF), while those which can only support a single mode are called single-mode bers (SMF). Multi-mode bers generally have a larger core diameter, and are used for shortdistance communication links and for applications where high power must be transmitted. Singlemode bers are used for most communication links longer than 550 metres (1,800 ft). Joining lengths of optical ber is more complex than joining electrical wire or cable. The ends of the bers must be carefully cleaved, and then spliced together either mechanically or by fusing them together with an electric arc. Special connectors are used to make removable connections. Multimode optical ber will only propagate light that enters the ber within a certain cone (see Figure 3.2), known as the acceptance cone of the ber. The half-angle of this cone is called the acceptance angle, max . For step-index multimode ber, the acceptance angle is determined only by the indices of refraction: n sin max = N A = n2 n2 , 1 2 (3.1)
Figure 3.2: Demonstration of TIR in an optical ber. sin1 (0.56) = 34 , we determine THE CRITICAL ANGLE. As this ber accepts light up to 34 degrees o axis in any direction, we dene the ACCEPTANCE ANGLE of the ber as twice the critical angle or in this case, 234=68 .
3.5
Procedure:
Important Precaution: Do not look in to the light beam emitted from the laser or from the optical ber. It may lead to permanent damage to you eye. IMPORTANT PRECAUTION: DO NOT LOOK INTO THE LIGHT BEAM EMITTED FROM THE LASER OR FROM THE FIBER. THIS MAY LEAD TO PERMANENT DAMAGE TO YOUR EYE. 1. Switch on the laser. 2. Adjust the hight and position the optical ber such that light is launched into the
where n1 is the refractive index of the ber core, and n2 is the refractive index of the cladding. For example, taking 1.62 for n1 and 1.52 for n2 , we nd the NA to be 0.56. By calculating the
SGSITS, Indore
16
3.6. Data recording:
12. Plot another graph between the distance z and spot size w. Find the slope w/z. 13. The sine of slope of the curve directly gives the Numerical aperture of the given optical ber. NA = sin = sin(tan1 w/2z).
3.6
Data recording:
Figure 3.3: Sample curves obtained at dierent z. The inset shows the method to calculate FWHM w. ber. Use a small paper nearer to the other end of the optical ber to check light output. 3. Mount the detector nearer to the other end of the ber, adjust the height and position the detector for maximum coupling. 4. Make sure that the ber at both ends are parallel to the optical bench. 5. Place the detector nearly 1cm from the end of the optical ber. Move the detector from center to edge. 6. Move the detector towards the center, record the position values and intensity of light as given by the detector in your notebook. 7. Now move the detector around 5cm from the detector and repeat the initial adjustments for detector and measure the intensity prole. 8. Repeat the previous steps for six more distances. 9. In a graph paper plot the Intensity along Y-axis and scan distance along X-axis. 10. To nd the width of the line, draw a horizontal line at 50% of maximum. The intersection of the curve gives the diameter of the spot w (this is also known as Full Width at Hal Maximum (FWHM)). Refer to gure 3.3. 11. Record the values of spot size w at dierent distances z.
z - Distance from ber to detector z=....cm z=....cm Distance Intensity Distance Intensity (cm) (V) (cm) (V) 0.1 .. 0.1 .. 0.3 .. 0.5 .. .. .. .. .. 3.0 .. 5.0 ..
z (cm) w(cm)
1.0 ...
5.0 ...
... ...
40 ...
3.6.1
Results
1. Light is coupled to an optical ber. 2. The numerical aperture of the optical ber is ......... .
3.7
Probable Questions
1. What is an optical ber? 2. How numerical aperture and acceptance cone can be explained? 3. What are the sources for fabricating optical ber? 4. Discuss some applications of FO. 5. Is light of any wavelength can be coupled to optical ber?
SGSITS, Indore
17
3.8. Suggested reading
3.8
Suggested reading
1. www.lightandmatter.com (Download Book on Optics, it is free!). 2. F. A. Jenkins and H. E. White, Fundamentals of Optics, (McGraw-Hill, New York, 1957). 3. M. Born and E. Wolf, Principles of Optics, (Pergamon, Oxford 1986).
SGSITS, Indore
4 Measurement of f using Sonometer.
4.1
Aim
To determine the frequency of AC Mains with the help of Sonometer.
4.2
Apparatus
Sonometer with non-magnetic wire (Nichrome), Ammeter, step down transformer (2-10 Volts), Horse shoe magnet with stand, Set of 50 gm masses, Screw gauge and meter scale (tted with the sonometer).
4.3
Description of the apparatus
Figure 4.1: Circuit diagram for the experiment on determination of ac frequency using sonometer. will move upwards and for the next half the wire will move downwards. Therefore the sonometer wire will receive impulses alternately in opposite directions at the frequency of the alternating current passing through the wire. As a consequence the wire will execute forced vibrations with a frequency of the AC mains (under the conditions of resonance) in the sonometer wire. The frequency of AC Mains, which is equal to the frequency of vibration of the sonometer wire in its fundamental mode (only one loop between the two bridges A and B, i.e., having two nodes and one antinode between the two bridges) is given by (under resonance conditions): n= 1 2l T m (4.1)
As shown in the given gure below, an uniform Nichrome (non-magnetic) wire is stretched on a hollow wooden box (sonometer), one side of which is tied to the hook, while the other passes over a frictionless pulley. A hanger carrying masses is also attached to this end of the non-magnetic wire. A permanent strong horse shoe magnet is kept at the middle of the Nichrome wire in such a way that it produces a magnetic eld perpendicular to the direction of current, to be own in the Nichrome wire. Two movable sharp edged bridges A and B are provided on the wooden box for stretching wire. A step down transformer (210V) is connected across the wire.
4.4
Working Principle
Let a sonometer wire stretched under a constant load be placed in an uniform magnetic eld applied at the right angles to the sonometer wire in the horizontal plane and let an alternating current of low voltage (by means of the step down transformer) be passed through the wire. On account of interaction, between the magnetic eld and the current in the wire (F = il x B ), the wire will be deected. The direction of deection is being given by the Flemings left hand rule. As the current is alternating, for half the cycle the wire 18
where T is the tension applied on the wire and given by T = M g, M being the total mass loaded on the wire (i.e., total mass kept on the hanger and the mass of the hanger) and g the acceleration due to gravity. Symbol l presents the length of the sonometer wire between the two bridges. The mass per unit length of the sonometer wire is represented by symbol m and can be calculated in terms of the radius r of the sonometer wire, and the density d of the material wire (Nichrome)
Expt. 4. Sonometer
19
4.6. Observations
as m = r d.
2
(4.2)
Substitution of value of m, evaluated from the equation (4.1), in equation (4.2), gives the value of frequency of AC mains.
7. Knowing all the parameters, using the relations given in equations 1 and 2 calculate the frequency of AC mains for each set of observation separately and then take mean
4.5
Procedure
1. Measure the diameter of the wire with a screw gauze at several points along its length. At each point two mutually perpendicular diameters should be measured. Evaluate the radius of the sonometer wire.[See observation table (a)] 2. Connect the step down transformer to AC mains and connect the transformer output (6 Volts connection) to the two ends of the sonometer wire through a rheostat, ammeter and a key, as shown in the gure.
8. Also plot a graph between the mass loaded, M along the X-axis and the square of the length l2 along Y -axis. This graph should be a straight line. Find the slope of this line and then using the equations (4.1) and (4.1), calculate the frequency of AC mains from this graph also. (Frequency = g/(4 slope m
4.6
4.6.1
Observations
Measurement of radius of sonometer wire (r)
Least count of screw gauge = ............. cm Zero error of the screw gauge = .......... cm
3. Place the two movable sharp-edged bridges A and B at the two extremities of the wooden 4.6.2 box. 4. Mount the horse shoe magnet vertically at the middle of the sonometer wire such that the wire passes freely in between the poles of the magnet and the face of the magnet is normal to the length of the wire. The direction of current owing through the wire will now be normal to the magnetic eld. 5. Apply a suitable tension to the wire, say by putting 100 gm masses on the hanger [ tension in the wire = (mass of the hanger + mass kept on the hanger) g]. Switch on the mains supply and close the key K and then adjust the two bridges A and B till the wire vibrates with the maximum amplitude (in the fundamental mode of resonance) between the two bridges. Measure the distance between the two bridges (l).[See observation table (b)] 6. Increasing the load M by steps of 50 gm, note down the corresponding values of l for maximum amplitude (in the fundamental mode of resonance). Take six or seven such observations.
Measurement of T , l and frequency of the AC Mains
Mass of the hanger = 50 gm Acceleration due to gravity(g) = 980 cm/sec2 . Density of sonometer wire (nichrome) = 8.18848 gm/cc Mean value of the AC Mains frequency = .. .. ..Hz. Calculations from the graph are also to be given on the left side of paper. The slope of graph plotted between Mass loaded (M) and the square of length S = units AC mains frequency when calculated from the graph = g/(4 slope m) = Hz
4.7
Results
The frequency of AC Mains as calculated
SGSITS, Indore
SGSITS, Indore
Table 4.1: Measurement of radius of sonometer wire (r) S.No. Diameter of wire along one direction. cm 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Diameter of wire in Cm Mean observed diameter cm. mean corrected diameter cm. mean dius r cm ra-
Expt. 4. Sonometer
20
Table 4.2: Measurement of T, l and frequency of the AC Mains Tension in wire T = Mxg Gmcm/s2 Position of rst bridge a cm. Position of second bridge b cm l2 cm2 Length of wire between two bridges l=a-b cm Frequency in Hz
S. No
Total Mass Loaded = Mass of hanger + Mass on it M gm.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
4.7. Results
Expt. 4. Sonometer
21
4.9. SAMPLE ORAL QUESTIONS
A Experimental calculations : .. .. Hz (do not estimate the error from standard value). B Graphical calculations : Hz (Graph is attached)
What is the use of magnet here? What is Flemings left hand rule? What is resonance? What is fundamental mode of vibration?
4.8
Sources of errors and precautions
Why do we take the material of wire to be non-magnetic? What is the principle of this experiment?
The sonometer wire should be uniform and without kinks. The pulley should be frictionless The wire should be horizontal and pass freely in between the poles of magnet. The horse shoe magnet should be placed vertically at the center of the wire with its face normal to the length of wire. The current should not exceed one Ampere to avoid the overheating of the wire. The movement of bridges on the wire should be slow so that the resonance point can be found easily The diameter of the wire must be measured accurately at dierent points in two mutually perpendicular directions. The sonometer wire and the clamp used to hold the magnet should be non-magnetic.
4.9
SAMPLE ORAL QUESTIONS
What do you understand by the frequency of AC Mains? Distinguish between AC and DC. What is the use of magnet here? How does the sonometer wire vibrate when AC is passed through it? If you pass a DC through the wire, will it vibrate? What are the chief sources of errors in this experiment?
SGSITS, Indore
5 Resolving power of telescope
5.1
Aim
To study and measure the resolving power of given telescope with dierent size of aperture, dierent wavelengths and with observation distance..
5.2
Equipment required
Telescope with adjustable height arrangement, standard aperture, color lter, scale (1m), etc.
5.3
History of Telescope
The story of Galileos telescope is well known, as he recounted it himself in the Starry Messenger. In July 1609, Galileo was in Venice, when he heard of an invention that allowed distant objects to be seen as distinctly as if they were nearby. In October 1608, a Flemish spectacle-maker by the name of Hans Lipperhey had already applied for a patent (which was refused), and news of the gadget was widespread in Europe by the time Galileo had heard of it. Around the same time, a foreigner turned up in Padua with the instrument; Galileo rushed back to Padua, only to learn that the foreigner had gone to Venice to sell his instrument. Galileos friend, Paolo Sarpi, had advised the Venetian government against purchasing the instrument from the foreigner, since Galileo could at least match such an invention. By then, Galileo had worked out the principle of the telescope and returned to Venice himself with an eight-power telescope. The Venetian government doubled his salary, though Galileo felt that the original conditions were not honoured. Galileo gradually improved the power of his telescope, grinding lenses himself, and began observing the heavens. In the rst two months of 1610, he was writing The Starry Messenger, and by 12 March, the book was already printed at Venice, dedicated to Cosimo de Medici. Galileo continued his observations with his telescope, some of which he conveyed in ciphers to Johannes Kepler, who had already responded enthusiastically with the Conversation with Galileos Sidereal Messen22
Figure 5.1: Statue of Galileo Galilei outside the Uzi, Florence. The inset is a portrait of Galileo by Giusto Sustermans. ger. Galileos discovery of the handles of Saturn was encoded in Smaismrmilmepoetaleumibunenugttaviras, which could be unscrambled as Altissimum planetam tergeminum observavi: I have observed the highest of the planets threeformed. Kepler deciphered this within one letter as Salve umbistineum geminatum Martia proles: Be greeted, double knob, children of Mars. For the discovery of the phases of Venus, the code Haec immatura a me jam frustra leguntur oy (this was already tried by me in vain too early) hid the message, Cynthiae gurae aemulatur mater amorum (The mother of lovers [Venus] imitates the shapes of Cynthia [the moon]). Despite this exchange, Galileo never accepted Keplers elliptical orbits. From 1616, Galileo tried to apply his knowledge of the satellites of Jupiter to the determination of longitude at sea. In order to ensure observation at sea, the Tuscan arsenal made for Galileo a headgear which had a telescope attached. Around this time, he also designed a brass Jovilabe, a computing device for prediction positions of the satellites. He hoped to gain support from the
Expt. 5. Resolving power of telescope
23
5.5. Resolving power of telescope
Spanish crown for this project, but failed.
5.4
Theory
Due to diraction, the image of a point object formed by an optical instrument has nite dimensions. It consists of a diraction pattern, a central maximum surrounded by alternate dark and bright rings. Two point objects, are resolvable by an optical instrument if their diraction pattern are suciently small or are far enough apart so that they can be distinguished as separate image patterns. The resolving power of an optical instrument is dened as its ability to produce separate and distinguishable images of two objects lying very close together. The diraction eects set a theoretical limit to the resolving power of any optical instrument. The term resolving power is used in two contexts.
optical instrument when their distance apart is such that the central maximum of the diraction pattern of one source coincides in position with the rst diraction maximum of the diraction pattern of the other source. When applied to the resolution of spectral lines, this principle is equivalent to the condition that for just resolution the angular separation between the principle maxima of the two spectral lines in a given order should be equal to half angular width of either of the principal maximum. In this latter case, it is assumed that the two spectral lines have equal intensities. See Fig. 5.4.2, to understand the Rayleigh criterion.
5.4.1
Geometrical resolving power

Figure 5.2: Demonstration of conditions of Rayleigh Criterion for resolving power (a) Well resolved (b) just resolved and (c) unresolved. The last one does not able to dierentiate the two lines, hence unresolved. In the present experiment, you will search for a condition similar to (b).
When the purpose is to see as separate two objects close together or when ne structure is seen through a telescope or microscope. In the case of telescope (or eye), the resolving power is dened as the smallest angle subtended at the objective of the telescope (or the eye) by two point objects which can be seen just separate and distinguishable. Smaller is this angle, the greater will be the resolving power of the instrument. For a microscope the resolving power is dened as the linear separation which the two neighbouring point objects can have and yet be observed as just separate and distinguishable when seen through the microscope.
5.5
Resolving power of telescope
5.4.2
Rayleigh Criterion
Lord Rayleigh has set a criterion to decide as to how close the two diraction patterns can be brought together such that the two images can just be recognized as separate and distinguished from each other. The criterion is applicable to both the geometrical as well as spectroscopic resolving powers. According to Rayleighs criterion the two point sources are just resolvable by an
Resolving power is the ability of the components of an imaging device to measure the angular separation of the points in an object. The term resolution or minimum resolvable distance is the minimum distance between distinguishable objects in an image, although the term is loosely used by many users of microscopes and telescopes to describe resolving power. In scientic analysis the term "resolution" is generally used to describe the precision with which any instrument measures and records (in an image or spectrum) any variable in the specimen or sample under study. The imaging systems resolution can be limited
SGSITS, Indore
24
5.6. Procedure:
either by aberration or by diraction. These two phenomena have dierent origins and are unrelated. Aberrations can be explained by geometrical optics and can in principle be solved by improving the optical quality and cost of the system. On the other hand, diraction comes from the wave nature of light and is determined by the nite aperture of the optical elements. The interplay between diraction and aberration can be characterized by the Point Spread Function. The PSF of a lens is ultimately limited by diraction. The lens circular aperture is analogous to a two-dimensional version of the singleslit experiment. Light passing through the lens interferes with itself creating a ring-shaped diraction pattern, known as the Airy pattern, if the wavefront of the transmitted light is taken to be spherical or plane over the exit aperture. The result is a blurring of the image. An empirical diraction limit is given by the Rayleigh criterion invented by Lord Rayleigh: The images of two dierent points are regarded as just resolved when the principal diraction maximum of one image coincides with the rst minimum of the other. If the distance is greater, the two points are well resolved and if it is smaller, they are not resolved. Mathematically, this translates into: sin = 1.22 (5.1) d where is the angular resolution, is the wavelength of light used and d is the diameter of lens aperture. Two more point-like sources separated by an angle smaller than the angular resolution cannot be resolved. A single optical telescope may have an angular resolution less than one arcsecond, but astronomical seeing and other atmospheric eects make attaining this very hard. The angular resolution R of a telescope can usually be approximated by R= d (5.2)
fuse sources, and smaller sources are called point sources. When a point source of diameter a and if the telescope is at a distance of D from the source, equation 5.2 may be rewritten as R== a . D (5.3)
Here, theta is the angular resolution.
Figure 5.3: Ray diagram of a laboratory grade telescope. The lower image is Giant Meterwave Radio Telescope (dish like structures) for radio astronomical research installed at Pune, India.
5.6
Procedure:
1. The axis of the telescope is made horizontal by means of spirit level and its height is so adjusted that the images of the pair of slits are symmetrical with respect to the cross point of the cross wires. Make sure that the standard chart is mounted upside down. 2. Place the telescope nearly 1m from the object. 3. The images are brought into sharp focus by adjusting the telescope. 4. Find the smallest dots which could be well resolved by the telescope (say 5). Find the
Resulting R is in radians with is the wavelength of the source and d is the diameter of the telescope objective. Sources larger than the angular resolution are called extended sources or dif-
SGSITS, Indore
25
5.7. Questions
S. No. Diameter (mm) S. No. Diameter (mm) S. No. Diameter (mm)
1 0.10 5 0.30 9 1.5
2 0.15 6 0.50 10 2.0 Red 545.6
3 0.20 7 0.75 11 3.0 Yellow 616
4 0.25 8 1.0
Color Filter Wavelength (nm)
Green 708
Table 5.1: Details of Standard Chart corresponding diameter of the object from the chart (0.30mm) and record it. 5. Gradually increase the distance (move backward) between the chart and adjust the telescope for best focus every time. Find the place where the separation between the dots vanishes (well resolved resolved not resolved). The corresponding distance may be recorded n the table. Also note down the next smallest object resolvable from the chart (may be 6 or 7) and record the corresponding diameter.
S Lamp
Figure 5.5: Standard chart used for measuring resolving power of telescope at SGSITS, Indore. The dimensions of the holes are given in Table 5.1.
5.7
Questions
1. What do you mean by resolving power of a telescope? 2. On what factors does the resolving power of a telescope depend? 3. Why are the telescopes tted with objectives of large diameter ? 4. Does the resolving power of a telescope depend upon the focal length of its objective?
Figure 5.4: Experimental setup for measuring the resolving power of telescope. 6. Repeat the previous steps for all unresolved objects from the charts within the limitations of the size of laboratory. 7. The distance between the standard chart (sources) and the objective of the telescope is measured by means of measuring tape. 8. After reaching the extreme end of the laboratory repeat the same procedure in the forward direction.
5. What is Rayleigh criterion of resolution? 6. What is the resolving power of the eye? 7. Does the resolving power of a telescope depend upon the distance between the telescope and the objects to be resolved?
SGSITS, Indore
26
5.7. Questions
Table 5.2: Table for collecting data with wavelength; Distance between Telescope and Object (D) = ......... cm Size of. objective (mm) 1 ... ... 25 radius (a) of source Unresolved white Red Yellow Green (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) Resolving Power Red Yellow Rad/sec Rad/sec
White Rad/sec
Green Rad/sec
Table 5.3: Table for collecting data with distance Source Number in chart 4 5 11 Diameter (a) (mm) 0.25 0.30 3.0 Aperture size Increasing Decreasing d1 (mm) d2 (mm) Mean (d) (d1 + d2 )/2 D (mm) RP Rad/sec
SGSITS, Indore
6 Measurement of Plancks constant using LEDs
6.1
Aim
To measure Plancks constant using light emitting diodes (LED) of various colors, to understand work function and to obtaine VI charcateristics of junction diodes and Zenor diode.
6.2
Apparatus required
LEDs of various colors (Blue, Green, Yellow, Orange, Red, Infrared, etc), pn junction diodes, Zener diode, power source, connecting wires, Volt meter, Ammeter etc. Figure 6.1: Max Planck presents Albert Einstein with the Max-Planck medal of the German Physical Society, June 28, 1929 in Berlin.
6.3
6.3.1
Theory
Historical Perspectives
Planck named these discrete units of energy quanta. The smallest discrete amount of energy radiated or absorbed by a system results from a change in state whereby the quantum number, n, of the system changes by one. In 1905 Albert Einstein (1879-1955) published a paper in which he used Plancks quantization of energy principle to explain the photoelectric effect. The photoelectric eect involves the emission of electrons from certain materials when exposed to light and could not be explained by classical models. For this work Einstein received the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1921. Niels Bohr (1885-1962) used Plancks ideas on quantization of energy as a starting point in developing the modern theory for the hydrogen atom. Robert Millikan made the rst measurement of Plancks constant in 1916. The best current value for Plancks constant is 6.62607554 x 1034 Js.
Max Planck (1858-1947) was born in Kiel Germany and attended schools in Munich and Berlin. Planck was pioneer in the eld of quantum physics. Around 1900 Planck developed the concept of a fundamental unit of energy, a quantum, to explain the spectral distribution of blackbody radiation. This idea of a basic quantum of energy is fundamental to quantum mechanics of modern physics. Planck received a Nobel Prize for his work in the early development of quantum mechanics in 1918. Interestingly, Planck himself remained skeptical of practical applications for quantum theory for many years. In order to explain blackbody radiation, Planck proposed that atoms absorb and emit radiation in discrete quantities given by E = nh where: n is an integer known as a quantum number is the frequency of vibration of the molecule, and h is a constant, Plancks constant. (6.1)
6.4
Experiment
In this experiment, you will use light emitting diodes (LED) to measure Plancks constant. You should be familiar with semiconductors and diodes from Modern Physics. To review: LEDs are semiconductors that emit electromagnetic radiation in optical and near optical frequencies when a volt27
Expt. 6. Finding h using LED & VI study of diodes.
28
6.5. Procedure
age is applied to them. LEDs emit light only when the voltage is forward biased and above a minimum threshold value. This combination of conditions creates an electron hole pair in a diode. Electron hole pairs are charge carriers and move when placed in an electrical potential. Thus many electron hole pairs produce a current when placed in an electric eld. Above the threshold value the current increases exponentially with voltage. A quanta of energy is required to create an electron hole pair and this energy is released when an electron and a hole recombine. In most diodes this energy is absorbed by the semiconductor as heat, but in LEDs this quanta of energy produces a photon of discreet energy E = h. Because multiple states may be excited by increasing the voltage across a diode, photons of increasing energies will be emitted with increasing voltage. Thus the light emitted by an LED may span a range of discrete wavelengths that decrease with increasing voltage above the threshold voltage (shorter wavelength higher energy). We are interested in the maximum wavelength that is determined by the minimum energy needed to create an electron hole pair. It is numerically equal to the turn on voltage of the LED. The relation between the maximum wavelength, , and the turn on voltage, V0 , is E = h = where: is the frequency of the emitted photons, c is the velocity of light, e is the electronic charge, and h is Plancks constant. The maximum wavelength of the LED can be measured to a resolution of a few nanometers with a good spectrometer. If the turn on voltage, V0 , is measured for several diodes of dierent color (and dierent maximum wavelength, ), a graph of V0 vs. 1/ should be linear with a slope of hc/e. An experimental value of Plancks constant may then be determined by using the known values of the speed of light, c, and the charge of an electron, e. hc = eV0 = eVthreshold (6.2)
6.5
Procedure
1. Common procedure for LEDs (a) The circuit that will be used to experimentally determine Plancks constant is illustrated in Figure 6.2.
+ V A --
Figure 6.2: Circuit diagram and experimental setup for measuring Plancks constant. (b) Connect any one LED (say red) to the circuit. The wire color almost matches with the color emitted by LED. (c) Put the multimeter to 10mA mode. (d) Make sure that the knobs of power supply are at the lowest. Switch on the power supply and check the voltage is zero. (e) Slowly increase the voltage and observe the corresponding change in the current value.
SGSITS, Indore
29
6.6. Questions
(f) Record the voltage (from power supply) and current values in your note book. (g) Now change the connections to another LED. (h) Repeat steps 2-7 for all LEDS and record your data. (i) Now plot V-I characteristics of all LEDS.
Diode Ultraviolet Blue Green Yellow Orange Red Infrared Zener Diode Si Diode Ge Diode
No. LED-1 LED-2 LED-3 LED-4 LED-5 LED-6 LED-7 D-1 D-2 D-3
(nm) 401 454 505 514 596 647 942
Table 6.1: Wavelength and color of LED

Breakdown Reverse Forward
ear part of the cruve to x-axis as shown in gure 6.3. (k) If possible plot all LEDS in the same graph sheet. (l) Record the values of , 1/ and corresponding V0 in another table. (m) Plot another graph of V0 vs 1/. Make a straight line t to the data. (n) The slope of the graph is hc/e. Find the Planks constant by multiplying the slope with e/c. 2. Common Procedure for junction and Zener diodes (a) Connect the junction diodes similar to an LED (b) increase the voltage across the pn junction of diodes (c) Record the values of current and voltage. (d) Once the saturatu (e) In a third graph sheet plot the VI characteristics (use both +ve and -ve axes of X and Y) (f) Report the result with error calculation from the standard value of
Figure 6.3: Sample V-I characteristic of a junction diode, note that the scale used +ve and -ve axes are not same. The middle one shows the LED VI curve of LED. Find Vo by extrapolating the data. The last graph shows the linear t of data V0 vs 1/. (j) Find the threshold voltage (V0 for each one of them, by extrapolating the lin-
6.6
Questions
1. What is photoluminescent?
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6.6. Questions
S. No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
2. What is a LED? What is Laser Diode? What is Photoelectric eect? 3. Which LED has the highest work function (W0 )? Explain what does this mean. 4. Choose one of your LEDs, then calculate the nal velocity of an electron as it travels across the LED point gap. How would this velocity change with color? (Hint: KEmax = qV o = 1 mv 2 ) 2 5. If the point gap approximates 1.0 mm, calculate the acceleration (v 2 = 2ad) of the electron and the time t to cross the gap. What vector eld supplies the accelerating force?
IR
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UV Voltage Current (V) (m/)A 0.01 0.02 3.0 -
Color of LED -.-.Voltage Current (V) (m/)A 0.01 0.02 2.0 -
Voltage (V) 0.01 0.02 1.0
Current (m/)A -
Si-Diode Voltage Current (V) (m/)A 0.01 0.02 -0.01 -0.xx -4.0
Junction Diodes Ge-diode Voltage Current (V) (m/)A 0.01 0.02 -0.01 -3.0 -
Table 6.2: Data from the V-I plots for LEDs.
Zener Voltage Current (V) (m/)A 0.01 0.02 -1.0 -5.0 -3.8
LED Color IR Red Orange Yellow Green Blue UV
(nm)
1/ (nm)1
V0 (Volt)
Table 6.3: Record of V-I data for LEDs. Draw ten sets of similar tables for the seven LEDs and three diodes. For junction and zener diodes the voltage and current values may be taken as negative for reverse bias. The values shown in the tables are for indicative purpose only.
7 Dispersive power of prism
7.1
Aim
To determine the variation of refractive index of an equilateral prisms as a function of wavelength.
7.2
Equipment required
Spectrometer, Mercury gas discharge tube, Prism, reading lens, table lamp, etc.
7.3
Theory
When light propagates through a dense transparent medium (e.g. glass) the interaction varies with the wavelength of the light. The response can be described classically in terms of the response of N oscillators each of mass me and each having an electric charge q. The outcome is a formula - a dispersion equation - for the refractive index n(), where is the angular frequency of the incident light dened as n()2 = 1 + N q2 1 . 2 2) 0 me (o (7.1)
Figure 7.1: Experimental setup to measure the dispersive power of prism. XYZ is the prism, 1, 2, 3 are the adjustment screws of prism table. Light enters the collimator and leaves through the telescope.
Here, o is the vacuum permittivity and e is the oscillator (in present case it is prism) natural frequency of oscillation. Recasting the dispersion equation as an explicit function of , where = 2/, we can write n = + /2 (7.2)
where and are constants for the glass, their values being in the region of 1.6 and 1010 cm2 , respectively, for many types of glass. This is the equation of a straight line (y = mx + c), for which m/c = 2 . The prism spectrometer can o used to measure the refractive index at a given wavelength using the formula sin A+m 2 n= sin(A/2) (7.3)
Figure 7.2: Successive views as the turntable is rotated through the angle of minimum deviation. Measure the angles when you see Position -3 as shown here.
where A is the prism angle and m is angle of minimum deviation for that wavelength. The spectrometer is a precision instrument and is easily capable of measuring the refractive to an accuracy of four signicant gures. 31
Expt. 7. Dispersive power of prism
32
7.4. Procedure:
7.4
7.4.1
Procedure:
Spectrometer Setup
3. Adjust the height of the turntable until the collimator is centred on the vertical dimension of the prism. 4. Rotate the turntable and telescope until a refracted slit image is observed. If the image is not in the centre of the ield of view, the refracting edge of the prism is not parallel to the axis of rotation of the telescope and the turntable will need to be levelled using a sprit level (if required you may contact Lab Technician). 5. Rotate turntable and telescope so that a reected slit image can be observed from face XY. Adjust screw 2 until the reected slit image is in the centre of the ield of view. 6. Rotate turn table (but not the telescope) so that a reected slit image can be observed from face YZ. Adjust screw 3 until the reected slit image is in the centre of the eld of view.
1. Remove prism from the turntable. 2. Bring the spectrometer outside the dark room. 3. Position the instrument so that the telescope can be pointed at some distant object (e.g. the end of the corridor or towards the vehicle parking area). 4. Adjust the eyepiece of the telescope (it slides in and out) until the cross wires are in focus. 5. Focus the telescope on the distant object. 6. Once the focus is clear, you will not be disturbing the telescope through out the experiment. Bring the spectrometer inside the dark room. 7. Position the instrument on the laboratory table - ensure that you can see through the telescope when it is at least 60 to either side of the principal axis of the collimator. 8. Position a mercury vapor lamp close to the slit at the end of the collimator. 9. Rotate the telescope so that it faces the collimator and you can observe the slit image. Adjust the collimator only until the slit image is in focus. 10. Adjust the slit width until its image is just wider than the cross wires.
7.4.3
Measurement of min .
1. Rotate the turntable and telescope until light will pass approximately symmetrically through the prism (see Figure 7.3) 2. Rotate the telescope until the succession of views shown in Figure 7.3 is observed as the turntable is rotated consistently in the same direction. Record the angle of the telescope from both windows (V1 and V2). 3. Rotate the turntable by approximately 120 degrees so that the refracting edge of the prism is pointing in the opposite direction. 4. Rotate the telescope until light will pass approximately symmetrically through the prism. 5. Rotate the telescope until the succession of views shown in Figure 10.2 is observed as the turntable is rotated consistently in the same direction. Record the angle of the telescope from both windows (V1 and V2). 6. The angle between the two telescope positions is twice the minimum deviation angle min .
7.4.2
Turntable Setup
1. The rotation axis of the turntable should be perpendicular to the plane containing the principal axes of the telescope and collimator. 2. Place a prism on the centre of the turntable such that one face is approximately perpendicular to a line joining level adjustment screws 1 and 2.
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Expt. 7. Dispersive power of prism
33
7.5. Calculations
7. Repeat steps 1-6 several times to obtain a best estimate for the minimum deviation angle min 8. Repeat steps 1-7 for light of dierent wavelengths. 9. Record all data in Table 1. Mean Telescope reading (b) for Direct Image: V1 = (b1 ) = ........... deg .......... min ....... sec V2 = (b2 ) =........... deg .......... min ....... sec
7.5
Calculations
Figure 7.3: Graph to verify the prism equation. 1. Using equation 7.2, calculate the refractive index for dierent colors and record it in Table 2. 2. Plot a graph showing refractive index (n as ordinate and 1/2 as abscissa, which should be a straight line, the gradient of which is and the intercept on the axis is (see Fig. 10.2). 3. Determine the values of and from your graph and compare them with the suggested approximate values given under "Theory" above.
7.6
Interesting Notes
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Red Yellow Blue Violet
Check Appendix -B for various spectrum from lamp sources. You may need color printer or color monitor to view the spectrum in color.
Color of the line
Table 7.1: Determination of m Angle for minimum deviation m Window V1 Window V2 V1 V2 Main Scale Vernier Total Main Scale Vernier Total (a1 b1 ) (a2 b2 ) (a1 ) (a2 )
8 Consortium for Upper-Level Physics Software
8.1
Aim
understanding of basic principles, yet are sophisticated enough for explorations of new ideas. They can also be used as a source for lecture demonstrations, or to create computer models for the testing of physics theories. Each chapter of the text provides a large number of exercises which can be assigned as homework or serve as the basis for student projects. The Pascal source code has been provided for all programs and a number of exercises suggest specic ways the programs can be modied; ranging in diculty from the alteration of a single procedure to extensive additions for ambitious projects. The intent is to develop physical intuition and a deeper understanding of the physics, not computational skills. The simulations are programs that include complex, often realistic, calculations of models of various physical systems, and the output is usually presented in the form of graphical (often animated displays. Many of the simulations can produce numerical outputsometimes in the form of output les that could be analyzed by other programs. The user generally may vary many parameters of the system, and interact with it in other ways to study its behavior in real time. The use of the term simulation should not convey the idea that the programs are bypassing the necessary physics calculations, and simply producing images that look "more or less" like the real thing. The simulations will complement the analytical work in each course in a manner that is mutually reinforcing. Considerable analytical work is necessary to modify the programs or to really understand the results of a simulationan important use of the simulations is to suggest conjectures that may then be veried, modied, or falsied analytically.
To understand upper level physics using software Consortium for Upper-Level Physics Software with Quantum Mechcanics and Electro-magnetism modules and to study working of laser using PhET Laser Module.
8.2
Equipment required
PC, CUPS software with appropriate modules.
8.3
CUPS- Brief Introduction
The Consortium for Upper-Level Physics Software (CUPS) has developed a comprehensive series of nine Book/Software packages that have been published by Wiley. CUPS is an international group of 27 physicists, all with extensive backgrounds in the research, teaching, and development of instructional software, that have been carefully developing this series over the last 4 years. All of the computer simulations have been provided in executable form and, although they can be run without reading the text, the text is necessary to achieve an understanding of the underlying physics and for exploring alternative ways to use the programs. The individual chapters and computer programs cover mainstream topics that are found in the standard textbooks for each course. However, because they are intended to be used as supplementary texts, there are topics missing that the standard texts would include.
8.3.1
General Features of CUPS
The simulations are extremely exible, they can be used by everyone from the undergraduate physics major to a Ph.D physicist. They can provide an
34
Expt. 8. CUPS - Upper Level Physics & PhET
35
8.4. Theory
The wavefunction ((x)) is continuous Its derivative also is continuous. It is normalizable
|(x)|2 dx = 1
Figure 8.1: Schematic of an em-wave.
8.4
8.4.1
Theory
Electromagentic waves
8.4.3
Making of a LASER
Maxwell?s equations in free space, there is vacuum, no free charges, no currents, J = = 0, both E and B satisfy wave equation,
2
LASER is an acronym for Light Amplication by Stimulated Emission of Radiation. In other words, it is Coherent Light generation by the process of Light oscillation and Stimulated Emission of radiation. The lasing from laser source need to satisfy the following 1. A lasing medium, cavity mirror and pump. 2. Population inversion between the lasing levels 3. Multiple oscillations between the cavity to enhance number of photons to achieve stable operation. The medium and pump satisfy the following conditions: 1. The pump energy should exactly match with the energy gap between the two level, (in case of 2-level laser, 2LL) 2. In order to achieve the population inversion in a 2LL, the upper level shoul have very large life time. 3. While in a 3LL, the intermediate level needs large life time. 4. In a 3LL population inverstion can be achieved by pumping atoms to third level directly, which is having lower life time. The stimulated emission can be achieved between the lower and intermediate level (this level need to have larger life time.)
E=
0 0
2E . t2
we can use the solutions of wave optics, E(r, t) = E0 exp(it) exp(ik r), B(r, t) = B0 exp(it) exp(ik r), A schematic of propagation of an electro-magnetic wave is exhibited in gure 8.1.
8.4.2
Basic ideas of quantum mechanics.
Postulate 1: An isolated quantum system is described by a vector in a Hilbert space. Two vectors diering only by a multiplying constant represent the same physical state. quantum state: | = i i |i , completeness: i | | = I, probability interpretation (projection): (x) = x| , operator: A| = | representation: |A| , hermitian operator: H = H , unitary operator: U U = U U = I. In addition to these a well-behaved wavefunction satises three conditions, viz.,
In this experiment the above mentioned ideas will be veried and understood.
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8.5. Procedure & Observations
8.5
8.5.1
Procedure & Observations
QUANTUM MECHANICS MOD8. Spectrum -> Wavefun. & Prob. ULE
each line on your notebook. Type 5 or greater number, what is the error message means? Does n > 4 not exist? Repeate the previous steps and record the observations. what are the two lines corresponds to? Why one of them is always positive?
1. Double click the Cups-QM batch le from desktop. 2. Wait till CUPS QUANTUM MECHNANICS appear 3. Click on One Dimensional Bound State Problems After reading the information press ENTER from keyboard 4. Parts menu -> Square well potential. (What is SWP?) 5. Parameters -> Well parameters, enter Depth= 100eV and width=0.2nm (What are eV and nm?) Click on VIEW, what do you see? Click OK
9. File -> Save as -> Give le name with your roll number. 10. Method -> Try energy values from mouse, Click the mouse at energy values corresponding to the previously measured positions. What do you observe? Click the mouse at various other locations. What do you observe? What are the measuring of curves appearing? 11. Change well depth to 25eV nd energy values and record, change depth to 400eV and record data. 12. Change well width to 0.2nm, 0.1nm and 0.05nm, nd the number of energy levels and record them. If required save some of the windows.
8.5.2
ELECTRO-MAGENTISM MODULE
Figure 8.2: A CUPS window showing the calculated values of energy eigenvalue, and ||2 for V = 400eV and width = 0.05nm. 6. Spectrum -> Find Eigen values (What do you see here?, What are the horizontal lines representing?) 7. Spectrum -> See the Wavefunction Type 1, enter, what do you observe? What does the curve represent? Type 2, 3, 4, what do you observe now? What are these curves represent? Record the correspdong energy values of
1. Double click the Cups-EM shortcut from desktop. Wait till CUPS ELECTRICITY & MAGENTISM SIMULATIONS appear. Click on Electromagentic Plane Waves After reading the information press ENTER from keyboard. Find the followig shortcut keys from the top row of the keyboard. Short cut keys: F1 - Help, F2 - Fast, F3 - Slow, F4 - Stepwise, F5 - rotate, F10 Main menu (esc key may also be used), arrow keys for rotate tilt the observation window. Use the arrow keys to understand the input wave, what does the two colors of the oscillations represent?
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2. F10 -> SHOW WHAT -> Wave on Interface. 8. F10 -> Wave + Waveplate Set value of theta to 5 deg, click OK. Record the values of , and . Change the value of = 10, click OK. What do you observe? Are the output plane What happened to the input and output polarised? In answer is NO, what is that? signal? Use F5 key to rotate the waveplate. AT Why the input signal shows huge oscilla45 deg, what do you see? For angles other than 45 and 135, what do you see? tions? At 0 deg, 90deg and at 180deg what do you understand? Use arrow keys to visulaize better. Discuss your observations and understandings. 9. F10 -> Wave + Waveplate + Polaroid Set value of polariser angle 0 and waveplate angle to 30. Observe the output. Rotate the polariser from 0 to 90. At 30 deg, what is the nature of output light, is it plane polarised? Is it identical to that of input? Explain. At 60 and 90deg of polariser, observe and explain. AT 90deg, what happened to the output light?
Figure 8.3: A CUPS window showing the generation of circularly polarised light after passing through a polariser and a waveplate at an angle of 30 deg. 3. F10 -> SHOW WHAT -> Wave on Interface. Change = 1, = 10, repeat your observations and answer the questions.
10. F10 -> Wave + Waveplate + Polaroid Set value of polariser angle 0 and waveplate angle to 45. Observe the output. Repeat the previous set of observations. Explain how and why the situation is dif4. F10 -> SHOW WHAT -> Wave on Interface. ferent here? Change = 10, = 10, repeat your observations and answer the questions. 5. F10 -> Wave + Polaroid Set value of theta to 5 deg, click OK. Press F5 and observe the angle of polaroid shown on the left and observe the output signal. How the amplitude is modied? Why does the signal reduce? 6. F10 -> Wave + Polaroid Set value of theta to 95 deg, click OK. Figure 7. Press F5 and observe the angle of polaroid 8.4: A front panel of PhET window showing the Lamp-1, medium and power levels. shown on the left and observe the output signal. Why does the signal increase? Use left, right, up, down arrow keys, so that 8.5.3 Making of a LASER the direction of em waves are perpendicular to the surface of the monitor. This part of the experiment expects the student Now use F5 key to rotate the angle of po- to understand the processes of Absorption, sponlaroids. Record your observation. Why the taneous emission and stimulated emission proplane of polarization changes? cess. Also, this module will help you understand
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the process of population inversion, laser oscillation, and lasing process. 1. Open the Laser module from desktop shortcut. 2. Observe various parts of the system, locate nd the operating with the following (i) Lamp control with intensity and wavelength, (ii) Laser power indicator, (iii) energ levels of the 2-L system, and (iv) other options. 3. Increase the power of lamp, What do you observe? 4. Hold the Level - 2 and drag up and down, what do you observe? At a particular value the atoms goes from State 1 2, what does this mean? What is the name of this process? What is the minimum requirement here in terms of energies? 5. Now keeping the energy levels constant, adjust the wavelength of source. What is your observation for what values does the atom goes to excited states? What is the minimum requirement here in terms of energies? 6. Make pump and atom energies equal. The atom goes to exited state in both medium and energy level diagram. Reduce the lifetime to minimum. What do you observe? The level system shows the Why does the atom is staying in the exited state (upper level)? 7. Increase the life time, put source power to maximum. Click on the enable mirror (cavity). How many photons are trapped in the cavity. Some of them escape through the system, some does not, why? Is the atom go to excited state? For how long the photons are trapped in the cavity? 8. Now reduce the life time to minimum, are the photons trapped? Explain your observations? 9. Increase lifetime, disable and enable the cavity to trap some more photons. Reduce the reectivity gradually from 100 to 50, record and explain your observations.
10. Select Three level system. 11. Increase the power of Lamp 2, carefully observe what is happening. Is the atom goes to levels 1, 2 and 3. 12. Reduce the lifetime level 2, where does the electron stays? Record and explain your answer. 13. Reduce the lifetime level 3, where does the electron stays? Record and explain your answer. 14. Click Waveview for lower transition. What type of radiation is coming out, explain. 15. Change the internediate energy level, tune wavelength of Lamp - 1 to match. Is the radiation coming out. How critical is this? What type of process is this? Why the energy needs to be many degrees accurate here? 16. Enable mirrors. Make sure that atleast two photons of Lamp -1, are trapped and oscillating, otherwise disable and enable mirror. Once stable conditions is achieved, observe carefully, wait for about 20 seconds and monitor the internal power to build up. When green indicators reaches 50%, slowly reduce the reectivity to 90%, What do you observed. Explain the complete process as per your understanding. 17. Wait for few seconds, why all the energy drains very fast. Repeat the previous step. Make lower transition to Photons. Why the generated photons are always doublet. Compare the results obtained in step - 8, to this. What is their path? Change to wave view. Reduce the refrlactivity to 99%. How long does the lasing continues? How to explain the process happened in this step? 18. Make lifetime of upperlevel to maximum and for lowerlevel minimum. Explain your observations. What are the optimum values of lifetime of levels? 19. Summarise the observations.
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8.7. Results
8.6
Other questions to be answered
Answers to the following questions need to be submitted in the results section: 1. Use the default square well and study the solutions of the Schrdinger equation by using Method: Try energy. Choose the energies 100, 150 and 200 eV and study the behavior of the wave functions. (a) How should the wave functions behave according to the theory when x ? (b) Do the wave functions behave as expected? If not, what may be the reason? (c) Study the physically correct energy levels and the corresponding wave functions by choosing Spectrum. Of the three lowest lying wave functions, which one(s) satisfy the condition (x) = (x) (even function) and which satisfy (x) = (x) (odd function)? 2. Choose asymmetric well and Spectrum: Find eigenvalues. Then, choose Part 2, wave function properties and Psi 1 | Eigenstate, Psi 2 | Eigenstate. (a) Check if the eigenfunctions are normalized to 1 and if functions corresponding to dierent energy eigenvalues are orthogonal to each other. (b) Choose Operator x and let CUPS calculate the expectation value of x for all ve eigenfunctions. What is the physical meaning of this quantity? (c) Try to calculate the expectation values: V of the potential energy, H (= E ) of the total energy, Ekin of the kinetic energy, and p of the momentum as in previous one. Notice how the wave functions are changed when the dierent operators are applied. One has to be careful about the calculation of Ekin . Can you
nd the correct operator in the program, or can the expectation value be calculated in some other way? (Hint: how can the Schrdinger equation be used to nd relations between energy expectation values?) Concerning p , is it possible to determine it using a physical argument without any calculations? 3. Choose double square well with default values and let CUPS calculate the eigenvalues. Then choose part 3: time development. Here, the time development of an arbitrary linear combination (superposition) of the states can be studied. (a) Study the time development of the ground state and the superposi1 tion (1 + 2 )/ 2. Describe how the probability to nd the electron in the left and right well varies with time in the two cases. Notice the time scale: fs (1015 s). (b) Decrease the width of the middle barrier to half of its initial value. How will the time development of the superposition change compared to (a)?
8.7
Results
Report all plots of wavefunction, energies, probability amplitudes Report all results associated with polaroids, waveplates, etc Report a diagram of the laser with conditions for laser output Summarise answers to all questions asked above.
8.8
Additional Resources
Visit the following websites for download simulations and manuals. http://physics.gmu.edu/~cups/
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8.8. Additional Resources
http://www.compadre.org/student/ items/detail.cfm?ID=7 http://www.rose-hulman.edu/Users/ groups/packets/HTML/modern/cupspg. htm Book: ISBN:0471548820 http://www.rpi.edu/dept/phys/Dept2/ cups/ http://phet.colorado.edu/ Read the following books Quantum Mechanics, L. I. Schi Concepts of Modern Physics, A. Beiser, Tata McGraw, New Delhi 2010. Optics, A. Ghatak, Tata McGraw, New Delhi, 2012.
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9 Standing Wave on a String
9.1
Aim
To study the relationship between the length, tension and mass of a string and the frequencies of standing waves on a string using Meldes method. Figure 9.2: Standing waves in a vibration string with four nodes. harmonic motion at the same frequency but the amplitude varies from point to point. The oscillating states are known as stationary or standing waves, and the frequencies of the waves are the natural or resonant frequencies of the stretched string. Standing waves may be regarded as a superposition of propagating waves that are repeatedly reected at the ends of the string; the term standing or stationary refers to the fact that the nodes (minima) and antinodes (maxima) of the wave remain xed in position, as shown in Figure 2. In Meldes Experiment one end of a stretched string is attached to a vibrating support and the other end passes over a pulley to a hanging weight which produces tension in the string. The stretched string is set in motion by the vibrating support, but if the frequency of vibration is not one of the natural frequencies of the string the vibrational amplitude of the string is very small. However, when the frequency f of the vibrating support is the same as one of the natural frequencies (or the harmonics) of the string the vibrational amplitude will be large and will exhibit clearly dened nodes and segments or loops corresponding to the standing wave of that particular frequency. The equations you need to analyze your data are simply given here, but are derived in the textbooks. It will be helpful for you to refer to your textbook. The standing waves are not propagating but they are the superposition of propagating waves and their frequency and wavelength satisfy the wave relation f = v (9.2) where v is the wave velocity on the string. The velocity of a transverse wave on a string that has
9.2
Equipment required
Massless String, pan with mass, meter scale, mechanical wave driver / vibrator and other mechanical components.
9.3
Theory
A mechanical wave is a disturbance which moves through some medium. The apparatus used in this experiment is shown in Figure 9.1. A 50 Hz ac source supplies a sinusoidal voltage that drives the mechanical vibrator. A string is attached to the vibrator at one end, and a weight hanger at the other, stretching over the pulley which is clamped to a table. Ths frequency of oscillation of the vibrator can also be found from the relationship
Figure 9.1: Experimental setup for generating standing wave pattern.
f = 1/T
(9.1)
where T is the period or time for one cycle of the sinusoidal voltage waveform. The waveform is displayed on the oscilloscope screen. A string that is xed at both ends can oscillate at various frequencies that are determined by the length, tension, and mass of the string. When oscillating in this way all parts of the string undergo simple 41
Expt. 9. Meldes Experiment
42
9.4. Procedure:
a mass per unit length and is under tension T is = T (9.3)
2. Switch on the vibrator. Set the frequency to 20Hz. 3. Put 50gm in the pan and adjust the length of wire (move vibrator) to get 2-3 loops. 4. Now adjust the length of the wire slightly to make maximum amplitude and stable standing wave pattern. Make sure that the oscillations are on a single plane only. 5. Record the distance L between the pulley and vibrator, Tension T on the wire, number of loops n, mass per unit length and frequency f . All these ve values of equation 9.7 are known now. 6. Part 1 : to prove f n: (a) Keep the values of T and L constant and record. (b) Using equation 9.7, do calculations for the resonant frequency fcalc for loops 1, 2, 3, 4 ... and enter the values in note book. (c) Change the frequency to obtain the required number of loops. Record the respective frequencies as fmeas in the notebook. (d) Repeat the above procedure for maximum number of loops. 7. Part 2 : to prove f L1 :
In this discussion we are assuming that the ends of the string are xed. The wavelengths of the standing waves are determined by the condition that a whole number of half-wavelengths must equal the length of the string. In this experiment the length and or weight in the pan is adjusted until the string vibrates in segments forming a standing wave pattern. If the standing wave has n segments (n = 4 in Figure 2) then the wavelength and the string length L are related by L = n/2 or = 2L/n Combining these relations leads to f 2L = n T (9.6) (9.5) (9.4)
as the fundamental relation connecting the frequency of oscillation and the parameters of the string (length, tension, mass per unit length) when it is vibrating in a standing wave pattern with n loops. Solving for the frequency n f= 2L T (9.7)
(a) Keep the values of T and n (say n = 3) constant and record. (b) Using equation 9.7, do calculations for the resonant frequency for various resonant lengths for every additional 2 cm and enter the values in note book as fcalc . (c) Move the oscillator slightly to reach the necessary value of length. Change the frequency to obtain the required number of stable loops. Record the respective frequencies as fmeas in the notebook. (d) Repeat the above procedure for maximum possible length L. 8. Part 3 : to prove f T :
The tension is provided by the weight in newtons of the hanging mass. In this experiment, one end of the vibrating string is attached to the mechanical vibrator, which moves up and down a small distance. This end moves with the vibrator, and as a result cannot be a true node, thereby introducing a systematic error. When you report your results you will need to consider the eects of this error.
9.4
Procedure:
1. Arrange vibrator, pan and string as shown in Figure 1.
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9.5. Interesting Notes
(a) Keep the values of n and L constant and record. (b) Using equation 9.7, do calculations for the resonant frequency for various loads starying from 50gm and for every additional 5 gm and enter the values in note book as fcalc . (c) Add weight to pan. Change the frequency to obtain the required number of stable loops. Record the respective frequencies as fmeas in the notebook. (d) Repeat the above procedure for maximum possible load T . 9. Plot all three sets of data in a single graph between for fcalc vs fmeas . Note that the it should be straight line, otherwise t the curve to a straight line t. 10. Plot three other graphs for (i) fcalc vs n, 2 (ii) fcalc vs L and (i) fcalc vs T . Discuss the nature of curve obtained. If necesary t the data linearly.
Table 9.1: Table for collecting data To show f n Load m = ..............g Length L = ...........cm No. of fcalc fmeas Loops (Hz) (Hz) 1 2 3 .. 10 To show f L1 Load m = .............g Loops n = .............. Length fcalc fmeas (cm) (Hz) (Hz) 50 55 .. .. 80 To show f T Length m = .............cm Loops n = .............. Load fcalc fmeas (g) (Hz) (Hz) 50 55 .. .. 80 only blue is visible and a moment at turn-o when only yellow is visible. Because we use alternating current to run these lights, we go through many on-o cycles every second. This produces a repeated sequence of blue and yellow moments. For stationary objects these alternating colors are reected from the same location and persistence of vision causes them to combine into white. However, if the object changes position quickly, like the vibrating string, we see the blue reection in a dierent location than the yellow reection. Because the images dont overlap, our eyes do not combine the colors and we see separate blue and
9.5
Interesting Notes
1. Why do blue and yellow colors become visible when objects spin or vibrate under uorescent lights? You may see yellow and blue on the vibrating string. This has to do with the way uorescent light works. Most uorescent tubes have had the air inside removed and replaced by a small amount of mercury vapor and argon gas. The inside of the glass tube is coated with a white phosphor powder. When electricity ows in the tube, almost instantly the argon emits blue light and the mercury vapor emits ultraviolet. The ultraviolet light strikes the phosphor powder and after a brief delay the phosphor re-emits yellow light. The familiar white uorescent light is due to the combination of the two complementary colors of blue and yellow light. Due to the slight delay in the production of yellow, there is a moment at start-up when
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9.5. Interesting Notes
yellow colors. Reference: www.edgerton. org/kidscorner/blues.html
2. Use Figure 1 to answer the following questions. (a) If the person playing this guitar loosens knob A, which variable in equation (9.7) do they aect, and how does loosening aect the frequency at which the string vibrates? (b) If the person playing this guitar puts her nger across the fret at point B, which variable in equation 5 is aected, and how does it change the frequency at which the string vibrates? (c) The strings of a guitar are not all the same appearance. Some are a lot thicker than others. Which variable is aected by a thicker string, and how would the frequency change for a thicker string? 3. Does the relationship in your graph of frequency vs. number of vibrating segments agree with what was predicted? 4. Are your results consistent with the actual mass values? Explain your conclusion and discuss the sources of experimental error. 5. Does the amplitude of the mechanical driver aect the amplitude of the standing wave?
SGSITS, Indore
10 Raytracing of optical components
10.1
Aim
1. Click on the desktop icon of RAYTRACE. 2. As the window opens, rst press S on the keyboard and then G. You will see small dots appearing in the window. These are called grid points and the whole window is called grid. This helps us in nding distance and pasting objects. 3. Now click on the following menu items in the following order Edit Library Paste from. A new window opens. Click on the Change Library. 4. A new window opens. You will see Conics, Lenses, Prisms etc. 5. Click on Prisms and then click on OK. 6. Now you will see a list of types of prisms under the button Change Library. Choose Triangle 60-60-60 from there. (It is the last type in the list.) 7. Click on Paste. A small window opens Raytrace: Paste element. Click the close button on it. 8. Now click on the center of the screen. 9. You will see a prism on the screen. (Notice that the three vertices of the triangular cross section of the prism lie on three of the grid points. This is the reason we press S and G buttons of the keyboard in the step 1. If we do not do this the prism will not be having its three vertices on three grid points.) 10. Now click on the following menu items in the following order Create Source Point. 11. A new window opens. Make the number of rays 3, which you will see 10, by default. 12. Click on the boxes Drag on create and Drag symmetrically. Click OK. 13. You will see that a + sign appears on the screen and moves with your mouse. In a small box it is written create. This means now we can create rays.
To study the Dispersion by a triangular prism and to verify the laws of refraction using Raytrace.
10.1.1
Apparatus Required
Ray trace software and PC
10.2
Part 1: To study the dispersion

Introduction
10.2.1
RAYTRACE is a software, that simulates dierent components of an optical system, namely prisms, lenses, glass plates and dierent kind of sources. It enables one to manipulate the environmental variables, like refractive index, wavelength of light etc. and see the eects on light rays. This software is in perfect coordination with the ideas of ray optics and hence is useful in devising optical systems for various operations. It has nothing to do with wave optics, however and this poses a limitation on the user in terms of use. It is in no way able to simulate wave optical phenomena.
10.2.2
Experiment
Objectives The experiment aims at; understanding refraction from prism and nd the angle of minimum deviation for a particular colour and hence nding the refractive index for that colour and comparing it with the standard value for the material of the prism.
10.2.3
Procedure
The following steps are to be followed to attain the objectives.
45
Expt. 10. Virtual experiments
46
10.2. Prism
14. Click with this plus sign on the left of the prism, some distance apart from its base. You will see that with your click the create written in the box with the plus sign changes to aperture and a 1 appears in a box adjacent to the plus sign. 15. Drag this plus sign to the left side of the triangle preferably to the mid-point of the side. As you drag the plus sign you will see that an arrow appears. Make the tip of this arrow touch the mid-point of the side of the triangular prism. By doing this you are choosing the position where the central ray should incident. If you choose this to be the mid-point of the side, you may have a symmetric diagram, that will be easier to handle. in other case you may nd it to be clumsy enough for measurement purpose. 16. As you touch the tip of the arrow to the left side, click you mouse again. you will see the number change from 1 to 2. Keeping mouse at the same position click again. So that all the rays fall on the same point 17. Click once again and you see that the plus sign disappears and the three rays have been created. Note that you see only a single ray. 18. Click on the point from where the rays have initiated. You will see that the rays are selected. This is conrmed by small red rectangles appearing at the end points. 19. Now select the incident ray, then click on the Modify button of the menu and select Ray. A window appears. 20. Click on the buttons in the following sequence red next green next blue OK. You will see that there are three rays coming out. The lower most ray has become blue, the upper most has become red and the ray in between is green. This means we have generated the ray of three colours and that is why in the previous step we have said that the three rays have been created. It is worthwhile to note that initially the rays wer of one
Figure 10.1: Prism at angle of minimum deviation. Note that the ray inside the prism is parallel to the base. colour Red, so even after passing through prism we were able to see a single ray. Now since we have made the three rays of three dierent colours, we see the common phenomenon of dispersion of light. 21. Now you see the incident ray becomes blue, because of the sequence we have chosen the colours. Its nothing to worry about. Chose this ray, as you did it last time. Press F5; this draws a normal at the point of incidence. We will use this to measure the angle of incidence. Press F6, This extrapolates the incident ray. this we will use to measure the angle of deviation. 22. Select the incident ray press F5 then F6, this will extrapolate the incident ray and the draw normal to the incident plane. 23. Select the ray of the colour (on the other side of the prism), for which you have to measure the angle of minimum deviation and press F7. This will extrapolate the out coming ray in the backward direction. Now you are able to see the angle of incidence and the angle of deviation. Refer to gure 10.1 24. Strictly follow this procedure to measure angle of incidence: Click on the menu button Create and select protractor, (Now mouse shows center), click the mouse at the bisecting point of incident ray to the perpendicular. Press E click on the starting point of incident ray, then go to the end of the tangent line and click. You will see a
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10.3. Rectangular Block
Figure 10.2: Finished raytracing of a prism. small line showing the angle. Now you can move the incident ray to change angle of incidence. 25. Click on the vertex of the angle you want to measure. Now click on one arm and then on the other. You see an angle value appears. This is the angle subtended. 26. Adjust the incident ray such that the angle of minimum deviation is satised for ray in RED color. Note down the angle of incidence. 27. Use protractor to measure angle of minimum deviation. Refer to 10.3. Repeat the procedure for green and red. Record your data in the note book. 28. Save your le with your rollnumber as le name. This my be useful for taking print out. 29. The refractive index of the material may be calculated from the formula;
from one transparent medium to another, it deviates from its original path at the interface of the two media. In the second medium the ray either bends towards the normal to the interface or away from the normal. The bending of the lightray from its path in passing from one medium to the other medium is called refraction of light. If the refracted ray bends towards the normal relative to the incident ray, then the second medium is said to be denser than the rst medium. But if the refracted ray bends away from the normal, then the second medium is said to be rarer than the rst medium. The refraction of light takes place according to the following two laws known as the laws of refraction: 1. The incident ray, the refracted ray and the normal to the interface at the incident point all lie in the same plane. 2. For any two media and for light of a given colour (wavelength), the ratio of the sine of the angle of incidence to the sine of the angle of refraction is a constant. If the angle of incidence is i and the angle of refraction is r, then sin i = constant = n sin r (10.2)
10.3.2
Procedure
1. Open New le. In order to make a rectangular block follow this procedure. = sin
A+m 2 sin A 2
(10.1)
2. Select Create Element Region 3. Mouse will be changed to START. You have to make Click at any point on the screen, move horizontally to 10 grid points, then go down six points, go horizontally backwards 10 points, then go up six points. Now you might have reached the start point. Right click the mouse and click on Finished. You will see a blue colored rectangular box now. 4. Select Create menu and select Ray. The mouse change to START. Start a ray from
10.3
Part 2. Verication of laws of refraction

Theory
10.3.1
Light rays travel in straight lines in a homogeneous medium. But whenever a light ray passes
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10.4. Results
Table 10.1: Observation Table for Raytracing with a prism. Angle of the prism = A = 60 Color i m = sin( A+m ) 2
sin
A 2
Figure 10.3: Finished raytracing of a rectangular block. the top side and allow the ray to fall the upper side of the block at some angle. Left click the mouse and select Finished. Now the ray might be making refraction and passing though the block. 5. Select the incident ray and press F2 then f5. you might see reected rays and the Normal drawn from the incident planes. If required, click on the reected rays and reduced the length by dragging the end points to appropriate length. 6. Measure the angle of incidence and refraction as discussed in the previous procedure. 7. Now select the rectangular region, select Modify Element Refractive Index. Change the refractive index of red colour to 1.00. Is i = r ? Why? 8. Now change the refractive index of red colour to 2.00, nd the values of i and r . 9. Record all values of angles in the table.
Red Green Blue
Table 10.2: Observation Table for Raytracing with a rectangular block. Angle of the prism: 60
Refractive index 1.5 1.0 2.0
sin i sin r
10.4
Results
1. Raytracing of a prism and a rectangular block is done with a PC. 2. Laws of reection and refraction are veried.
SGSITS, Indore
11 Measurement of V & f using CRO
11.1
Aim
To study the features of a CRO. Measurement of voltage and frequency of a given signal and to measure an unknown frequency using Lissajous gures.
11.2
Introduction
A cathode ray oscilloscope can be used to measure the voltage and frequency of given unknown signal. (A brief description of CRO is given at the end of this manual as Appendix-A). A RC oscillator can be used to generate an electrical signal of desired frequency and amplitude. In the given experiment the RC oscillator has to be used to generate the signal and the CRO will be used to measure its voltage and frequency.
Figure 11.1: The Cathode ray oscilloscope and function generator used in Physics Laboratory, SGSITS. Alter the controls to get a sharp line in the centre of the screen. Turn the brightness to about half and set the channel you wish to use to A.C. If there is no spot or line visible, make sure the timebase is turned on and the stability control turned fully to one side (clockwise). If this does not produce the spot or line, the trigger level could be set too low.
11.3
11.3.1
Procedure
Preparing the CRO
Before switching on the CRO, set the control switches as follows: 1. FOCUS control to mid-position 2. Y-POSITION control to mid-position 3. X-POSITION control to mid-position 4. Y-gain to 1 V/DIV with the VARIABLE to CAL (calibrated) position 5. Time base to 5 ms/DIV or 10 ms/DIV with the VARIABLE to CAL (calibrated) position 6. TRIG MODE selector to AUTO and LEVEL control to mid-position 7. Source selector INT/EXT to INT 8. Slope selector +/- to + 9. AC/GND/DC selector to DC
Figure 11.2: Schematic of internal wirings of a CRO.
11.3.2
Selection of frequency
The RC oscillator is having several knobs, which can be used to select frequency of the signal to be
49
Expt. 11. C R O
50
11.4. Lissajous Figures
generated. In the top left hand corner you would see three knobs. These knobs can be used to select frequency value, which can be represented by three digits. For example, suppose you are setting the left knob to 6, the middle knob to 5 and the extreme right knob to 4. Then the selected frequency will be 654Hz. below these three knobs you will get a multiplier. The multiplier will multiply the above selected frequency. Thus if you select 654Hz and multiplier position is 10 then the overall frequency will be 6540Hz.
peak value. This will give the value of peak to peak voltage of the signal.
11.3.5
Calculation of frequency
Adjust your waveform so that you are able to count the number of divisions for one wavelength of your trace. Count the number of divisions (x) and obtain from the time-base control, the value for time per division (ms/div) and (t). Note, 1ms = 1 103 s. Period of oscillation by (T = xt)=........... Frequency of oscillation by (f = 1/T ) = ........... Compare your value to that set on your signal generator.
11.3.3
Selecting amplitude of the signal
The RC oscillator provides you option to vary the voltage of the signal to be generated. This can be done using two voltage selecting knobs (Fine and Coarse). Therefore, using dierent knobs a signal of given amplitude and given frequency can be generated by the RC oscillator. This signal can now be used as an input to the CRO and its frequency and voltage can be measured.
11.4
Lissajous Figures
When two simple harmonic motions are plotted against each other at right angles, the resulting conguration is called a Lissajous gure. Simple harmonic motions plotted against time gives sinusoidal congurations. Two sinusoidal electrical inputs given to an oscilloscope will give a Lissajous pattern on the screen. The particular pattern depends upon the frequency, amplitude and phase of the applied inputs. The frequency ratio of the inputs may be determined from an analysis of the Lissajous gure produced. If a Lissajous gure is enclosed in a rectangle whose sizes are parallel to the formation axes of the gure, the frequency ratio of the two inputs may be determined by counting the points of tangency to the sides of the rectangle enclosing the pattern. Once the frequency ratio is known, the input frequency can also be determined from the same.
Figure 11.3: Sample Lissajous Figures for frequency ratio as mentioned in the gures.
11.3.4
Voltage Measurements
Use the signal generated by RC oscillator as an input to CRO. Place the Y amplier in proper value. From vertical scale measure the peak to
SGSITS, Indore
Expt. 11. C R O
51
11.4. Lissajous Figures
11.4.1
Procedure
1. Connect one signal generator to the vertical input and the other (unknown source) to the horizontal input of the oscilloscope. Switch controls so that the oscilloscope accepts the output of the signal generator instead of the horizontal sweep. Set both the generators for 1000 cycles(say) and make gain adjustments until an ellipse of satisfactory size is observed on the screen. Adjust controls as necessary to stop the ellipse. By switching one of the generators o and on, cause the ellipse to change phase, noting the various shapes it assumes. By phase changes and amplitude adjustments, one may try to get a circular conguration. 2. Leaving the vertical input at 1000 cycles and assuming it to be the standard, adjust the horizontal input generator (the variable) approximately 500 c.p.s. to obtain the 1-2 Lissajous gure, a gure 8 on its side. 3. Next obtain the 2:1 pattern by varying the horizontal input frequency This is an upright gure 8. 4. In like manner, obtain Lissajous gures down to 1:5 and upto 5:1. Sketch all the gures obtained and compare the frequency. Obtained from the Lissajous ratios with the dial reading of the horizontal input signal generator.
Figure 11.4: Calculating frequency using Lissajous method. Sample measurements are shown in Figure D and E. Number of tangent points along X and Y idicates the ration of frequency fx and fy . 5. Now, remove one signal generator from the oscilloscope and connect the given unknown source. Changing the frequency of the signal generator, various Lissajous gures may be obtained (e.g. circle, 8 shape, etc.). Hence, from the known ratio of the respective Lissajous gures, the frequency of the AC source can be measured.
SGSITS, Indore
Expt. 11. C R O
52
11.5. Observation Tables
11.5
Observation Tables
Table 11.1: Measurement of voltage by CRO Voltage RMS voltage Vrms Ratio of from Y-amplier Vertical Vpp (V) Vpp /Vrms source setting scale No (V/div) of div.
S. No
1 .. 10
Table 11.2: Measurement of frequency by crest / trough counting method. S.No. Freq. of function genFreq. measurement Ratio erator (f in Hz) using CRO (f in Hz) f /fo Digits Multiplierf (Hz) timeNo. of fo (Hz) base div. value 1 .. 10
Table 11.3: Measurement of frequency by Lissajous method. Horizontal input frequency (Hz) ... ... ... ... ... Shape of gure No. of tangenct points X-axis / Y-axis 2/1 Vertical : Horizontal Horizontal
8
...
2:1
50
SGSITS, Indore
12 Verication of Heisenbergs Uncertainty Principle
12.1
Aim
To determination of the intensity distribution of the Fraunhofer diraction patterns due to various single slits using laser and to calculate the uncertainty of momentum from the diraction patterns of single slits of diering widths and to conrm Heisenbergs uncertainty principle.
Region in his honor.) He also discovered several interstellar nebulae and some double stars. Huygens formulated also what is now known as the second law of motion of Isaac Newton in a quadratic form. Newton reformulated and generalized that law.
12.2
Equipment required
He-Ne or semiconductor laser, single slits diering widths, photo detector, translation stage, etc.
12.3
Brief biography of Huygens
Christiaan Huygens, one of the more signicant physicists during the last three centuries, along with Isaac Newton, was born in April 1629 at The Hague, the second son of Constantijn Huygens, (1596 - 1687), a friend of mathematician and philosopher Ren Descartes. Christiaan studied law and mathematics at the University of Leiden and the College of Orange in Breda before turning to science. Huygens achieved note for his arguments that light consisted of waves, which became instrumental in the understanding of wave-particle duality. He generally receives credit for his role in the development of modern calculus and his original observations on sound perception (see Repetition Pitch). In 1655, Huygens proposed that Saturn was surrounded by a solid ring, "a thin, at ring, nowhere touching, and inclined to the ecliptic." Using a 50 power refracting telescope that he designed himself, Huygens also discovered the rst of Saturns moons, Titan. In the same year he observed and sketched the Orion Nebula. His drawing, the rst such known of the Orion nebula, was published in Systema Saturnium in 1659. Using his modern telescope he succeeded in subdividing the nebula into dierent stars. (The brighter interior of the Orion Nebula bears the name of the Huygens 53
Figure 12.1: A portrait of Huygens. He also worked on the construction of accurate clocks, suitable for naval navigation. In 1658 he published a book on this topic called Horologium. In fact his invention on Christmas 1656, the pendulum clock (patented 1657), was a breakthrough in timekeeping. The oldest known Huygens style pendulum clock is dated 1657 and can be seen at the Museum Boerhaave in Leiden, which also shows an important astronomical clock owned and used by Huygens. Huygens also developed a balance spring clock more or less contemporaneously with, though separately from, Robert Hooke, and controversy over whose invention was the earlier persisted for centuries. In February 2006, a long-lost copy of Hookes handwritten notes from several decades Royal Society meetings was discovered in a cupboard in Hampshire, and the balance-spring controversy appears by evidence contained in those notes to be settled in favor of Hookes claim.
Expt. 12. Heisenberg Uncertainty
54
12.4. Theory
12.4
12.4.1
Theory
Principle
The distribution of intensity in the Fraunhofer diraction pattern of a slit is measured. The results are evaluated both from the wave pattern viewpoint, by comparison with Kirchhos diraction formula, and from the quantum mechanics standpoint to conrm Heisenbergs uncertainty principle Diraction is a wave phenomenon that is dependent on wavelength. Light waves bend as they pass by the edge of a narrow aperture or slit. This eect is approximated by: = D (12.1)
where the diraction angle, wavelength of radiant energy, and D the aperture diameter. A diraction grating uses the interference of waves caused by diraction to separate light angularly by wavelength. Narrow slits then select the portion of the spectrum to be measured. The narrower the slit, the narrower the bandwidth that can be measured. However, diraction in the slit itself limits the resolution that can ultimately be achieved. When a parallel, monochromatic and coherent light beam of wave-length passes through a single slit of width d, a diraction pattern with a principal maximum and several secondary maxima appears on the screen (Fig. 12.2). The intensity, as a function of the angle of deviation , in accordance with Kirchhos diraction formula, is sin n 2 I(n ) = I(0) (12.2) n d sin n The intensity minima are at n = n = sin1 where n = 1, 2, 3 n d where
Figure 12.2: Experimental setup and diraction pattern from a single slit. The angle for the intensity maxima are 0 = 0 1 = sin1 1.430 2 d 1 = sin 2.459 d (12.3) The relative heights of the secondary maxima are: I(1 ) = 0.0472 I(0) I(2 ) = 0.0165 I(0) (12.4)
12.4.2
Heisenberg Uncertainty - Quantum mechanics treatment
The Heisenberg uncertainty principle states that two canonically conjugate quantities such as position and momentum cannot be determined accurately at the same time. Let us consider, for
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12.4. Theory
Figure 12.3: Geometry of diraction at a single slit a) path covered b) velocity component of a photon. example, a totality of photons whose residence probability is described by the function fy and whose momentum by the function fp . The uncertainty of location y and of momentum p are dened by the standard deviations as follows yp h/4 = /2 (12.5)
Figure 12.4: Actual experimental setup for single slit diraction. Thus, py = h sin 1 (12.10)
According to equation 12.2, the angle 1 of the rst minimum is thus
n where h = 6.6262 1034 Js and h = 1.054 = . (12.11) sin 1 = sin sin1 34 Js, Plancks constant (constant of action), 10 d d the equals sign applying to variables with a Gaussian distribution. If we substitute (12.11) in (12.10) and (12.6) we For a photon train passing through a slit of width obtain the uncertainty relationship d, the expression is y = d (12.6) y = py = h (12.12)
Whereas the photons in front of the slit move only in the direction perpendicular to the plane of the slit (x-direction), after passing through the slit they have also a component in the y-direction. The probability density for the velocity component vy is given by the intensity distribution in the diraction pattern. We use the rst minimum to dene the uncertainty of velocity (Figs. 12.2 and 12.3). vy = c sin 1 (12.7)
If the slit width y is smaller, the rst minimum of the diraction pattern occurs at larger angles 1 . In our experiment the angle 1 is obtained from the position of the rst minimum (Fig. 12.3a): tan 1 = a b (12.13)
If we substitute (12.13) in (12.10) we obtain py = h a sin tan1 b (12.14)
where 1 = angle of the rst minimum. The uncertainty of momentum is therefore py = mc sin 1 (12.8)
Substituting (12.6) and (12.14) in (12.12) and after dividing by h gives d a sin tan1 = 1. b (12.15)
where m is the mass of the photon and c is the velocity of light. The momentum and wavelength of a particle are linked through the de Broglie relationship: h = p = mc (12.9)
SGSITS, Indore
If the above parameters are substituted (with =670nm) one can verify Heisenbergs uncertainty principle using single slit diraction. However, the results of the measurements conrm (12.15) within the limits of error.
56
12.6. Probable Questions
12.5
Procedure:
12. Complete the calculations and submit to teacher.
1. Remove the CCD, lter, slit, etc except the laser from the mounts. 2. Switch ON the laser. Align the laser parallel to the ground and optical bench. 3. Mount the detector at the another end of the optical bench. 4. Make sure that the laser falls on the detector and its shows some value.
12.5.1
Data recording:
Table 12.1: Recording Single slit diraction S. No. Distance Intensity (in mV)) 1 1 2 1.1 3 ... .. ... 50 10.1
Table 12.2: Verication of uncertainty relation Figure 12.5: Schematic of experimental setup for Laser diraction from a single slit. LDlaser, F-Filter, S-slit or target and D-detector. The lter may be required if the detector shows saturation. 5. Insert the single slit #1 and put a plain paper behind it. Adjust the position of the slit, so that the laser is passing through the center of the slit. Observe the diraction pattern on the paper. 6. Record the width of the slit in the note book. Move the detector to the other end of the optical bench. 7. Adjust the micrometer screw to minimum value and note down the value of intensity. 8. Rotate the micrometer screw and record the values of position and intensity. 9. After completing the procedure replace with slit #2. #3 .... Repeat the previous procedure to record the diraction pattern in note book. 10. Use a graph paper to draw curves for distance along x-axis and intensity along yaxis. 11. Calculate the value of a as shown in gure 12.2. Record the same in Table 2. slit width d (mm) 0.12 ... 0.4 First Minima (mm) ... ... ... b (mm) ... ... ...
d
sin tan1
... ... ...
12.5.2
Results
1. Single slit diraction using a laser is studied. 2. Diraction pattern for single slits of dierent widths are observed, plotted and the graphs are attached. 3. Heisenberg uncertainty principle is understood and veried.
12.6
Probable Questions
1. What is Huygens principle? 2. What do you understand by interference by light? 3. What are Fraunhofer and Fresnel class of diraction?
SGSITS, Indore
57
12.7. Suggested reading
4. How coherence is important for interference / diraction? 5. What is laser? Do you know laser safety? 6. What are the precautions required while using laser?
12.7
Suggested reading
1. www.lightandmatter.com (Download Book on Optics, it is free!). 2. F. A. Jenkins and H. E. White, Fundamentals of Optics, (McGraw-Hill, New York, 1957). 3. M. Born and E. Wolf, Principles of Optics, (Pergamon, Oxford 1986).
SGSITS, Indore
13 Measurement of Electrical Equivalent of Heat
13.1
Aim
volts, then shut the power o. DO NOT LET THE VOLTAGE EXCEED 12 VOLTS. 7. Insert the EEH Jar into one of the Calorimeters. 8. Insert your thermometer or thermistor probe through the hole in the top of the EEH Jar. Stir the water gently with the thermometer or probe while observing the temperature. When the temperature warms to about 6 or 8 degrees below room temperature, turn the power supply on. 9. NOTE: You may want to turn the lamp on to help the cold water reach this starting temperature. If you do, be sure that you turn the lamp o for several minutes before you begin your measurements, so you are sure the water temperature is even throughout the jar. Record the starting time (ti ) and the temperature (Ti ). 10. Record the current, I, and voltage, V . Keep an eye on the ammeter and voltmeter throughout the experiment to be sure these values do not shift signicantly. If they do shift, use an average value for V and I in your calculations. 11. When the temperature is as far above room temperature as it was below room temperature (Tr Ti = Temperature - Tr ), shut o the power and record the time (tf ). Continue stirring the water gently. Watch the thermometer or probe until the temperature peaks and starts to drop. Record this peak temperature (Tf ). 12. Weigh the EEH Jar with the water, and record the value (Mjw ).
To understand the phenomena of electrical equivalent of heat, to measure the electrical equivalent of heat of water and to measure the eciency of a given incandescent lamp.
13.2
Equipment Required:
Regulated DC power supply, digital Volt-Ammeter, thermometer, stop watch, incandescent lamp, electrical equivalent jar, calorimeter, Indian Ink.
13.3
Part 1: Measurement of the Electrical Equivalent of Heat of water

Procedure
13.3.1
1. Measure and record the room temperature (T ). 2. Weigh the Jar (with the lid on), and record its mass (Mj ). 3. Remove the lid of the EEH Jar and ll the jar to the indicated water line with cold water. DO NOT OVERFILL. The water should be approximately 5-10 C below room temperature, but the exact temperature is not critical. 4. Add about 3-5 drops of Indian ink to the water; enough so the lamp lament is just barely visible when the lamp is illuminated. 5. Using leads with banana plug connectors, attach your power supply to the terminals of the EEH Jar. Connect a voltmeter and ammeter as shown in Figure 13.3.1.1 so you can measure both the current (I) and voltage (V ) going into the lamp. NOTE: For best results, connect the voltmeter leads directly to the binding posts of the jar. 6. Turn on the power supply and quickly adjust the power supply voltage to about 11.5 58
Data
13.3.2
Calculations
In order to determine the electrical equivalent of heat (Je ), it is necessary to determine both the total electrical energy that owed into the lamp (E) and the total heat absorbed by the water (H).
Expt. 13. Electrical eq. of heat
59
13.4. Part. 2: Eciency of an Incandescent Lamp
Room temperature Mass of jar Mass of Jar + water Voltage Current Starting time Final time Starting temperature Final temperature
Tr = Mj = Mjw = V= I= ti = tf = Ti = Tf =
_______ _______ _______ _______ _______ _______ _______ _______ _______
E, the electrical energy delivered to the lamp: E = Electrical Energy into the Lamp E = V . I . t = _______ t = tf - ti = the time during which power was applied to the lamp = _______
H, the heat transferred to the water (and the EEH Jar): H = (Mw +Me )(1 cal/gm C)(Tf -Ti ) = _______ Mw = Mjw Mj = Mass of water heated Mw = ___________________ Me - thermal mass of jar = 193gram. Hj =H Je = _______________ Some of the heat produced by the lamp is absorbed by the Jar. For accurate results, therefore, the heat capacity of the jar must be taken into acount (The heat capacity of the Jar is equivalent to that of approximately 193 grams of water.)
Je , the Electrical Equivalent of Heat: Figure 13.1: Actual setup and schematic of electrical connections to bulb, multimeter, power supply. Je = E/H = ___________________
13.4
Part. 2: Eciency of an Incandescent Lamp

Procedure
13.4.1
Repeat Experiment 1, except do not use the India ink (step 4) or the styrofoam Calorimeter (step 7). Record the same data as in Experiment 1, and use the same calculations to determine E and H.
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(Convert H to Joules by multiplying by Je from the rst lab.) In performing the experiment with clear water and no Calorimeter, energy in the form of visible light is allowed to escape the system. However, water is a good absorber of infrared radiation, so most of the energy that is not emitted as visible light will contribute to H, the thermal energy absorbed by the water. The eciency of the lamp is dened as the energy converted to visible light divided by the total electrical energy that goes into the lamp. By making the assumption that all the energy that doesnt contribute to H is released as visible light, the equation for the eciency of the lamp becomes: Eciency = (E Hj /E).
H, the heat transferred to the water (and calorimeter): H = (Mw +Me )(1 cal/gm C)(Tf -Ti ) H = = ________ Mw = Mjw Mj = Mass of water heated Mw = = ________ Hj = H Je = = ________ Me = 193 grams. Some of the heat produced by the lamp is absorbed by the EEH Jar. For accurate results, therefore, the heat capacity of the jar must be taken into acount (The heat capacity of the EEH Jar is equivalent to that of approximately 23 grams of water.) Eciency: (E-Hj )/E = = ________
13.4.2
Data 13.4.4 Questions

Tr = Mj = Mjw = V= I= ti = tf = Ti = Tf = _______ _______ _______ _______ _______ _______ _______ _______ _______
Room temperature Mass of jar Mass of Jar + water Voltage Current Starting time Final time Starting temperature Final temperature
1. What eect are the following factors likely to have on the accuracy of your determination of Je , the Electrical equivalent of Heat? Can you estimate the magnitude of the eects? (a) The inked water is not completely opaque to visible light. (b) There is some transfer of thermal energy between the EEH Jar and the room atmosphere. (What is the advantage of beginning the experiment below room temperature and ending it an equal amount above room temperature?) 2. How does Je compare with J, the mechanical equivalent of heat. Why? 3. Water is not completely transparent to visible light. 4. Not all the infrared radiation is absorbed by the water. 5. The styrofoam Calorimeter was not used, so there is some transfer of thermal energy between the EEH Jar and the room atmosphere.
13.4.3
Calculations
In order to determine the eciency of the lamp, it is necessary to determine both the total electrical energy that owed into the lamp (E) and the total heat absorbed by the water (H).
E, the electrical energy delivered to the lamp: E = Electrical Energy into the Lamp E = V . I . t = = ________ t = tf - ti = the time during which power was applied to the lamp = ________.
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6. Is an incandescent lamp more ecient as a light bulb or as a heater. 7. How does the amount of energy gained by the Water compare to the energy given by the power supply? Explain. 8. Could any heat be gained or lost by the system?
SGSITS, Indore
14 Wavelength of spectral lines by grating
14.1
Aim
To determine the wavelength of prominent spectral lines of mercury light by a plane transmission grating using normal incidence.
14.2
Apparatus required
A spectrometer, mercury lamp, transmission grating. reading lamp and reading lens.
14.3
14.3.1
Description of Apparatus
Spectrometer
This is an arrangement for producing pure spectrum. The essential parts of a spectrometer include collimator, prism table, and a telescope (See Figure 14.1).
14.3.2
Collimator
Figure 14.1: Photo of optical spectrometer mounted with a prism and ray diagrams of the same. The bottom gure shows the three measurements using a grating. T0 is direct reading while T and T are the left and right measurements for a particular order m.
The collimator provides a narrow parallel beam of light. It consists of a horizontal, cylindrical, metallic tube tted with an achromatic convergent lens at one end and a short coaxial tube at the other end. The short coaxial tube, which his provided with a vertical slit of adjustable width at the outer end, can be moved inside the main tube with the help of a rack and pinion arrangement. The slit is illuminated by the source of light, whose spectrum is to be examined and the distance between the slit and the convergent lens is so adjusted that the slit lies in the rst focal plane of the lens. Under this condition, the rays of light emerging from the collimator are parallel. Usually in a spectrometer, the collimator is rigidly xed with its axis horizontal, but in same instruments, it can be rotated about the vertical axis passing through the center of instrument.
14.3.3
Prism Table
It is a circular table supported horizontally on a vertical rod at the center of the spectrometer. It can be rotated independently of the collimator and telescope about the vertical axis passing through instruments center of a circular scale graduated in half degrees carried by the telescope (See Figure 2) the rotation of the prism table can be read with the help of two diametrically opposite verniers attached to it and sliding over the circular scale. The prism table can be clamped to the main body of the instrument in any desired position with the help of a clamping screw and then a ne rotation can be given to it with 62
Expt. 14. Grating Diraction
63
14.4. Measure angle
the help of a tangent screw provided at the base. The prism table can be raised or lowered and may be clamped at any desired height with the help of a clamping screw provided for it. It is also provided with the three leveling screws P, Q, R (See Figure 2) so that the refracting faces of the prism can be adjusted parallel to the axis of the instrument Concentric circles and straight lines parallel to the line joining any two of the leveling screws are drawn on the surface of the prism table, which help in placing the prism in proper position during the experiment.
of an automatically plane transmission grating. If the rulings are made on a metallic surface, the grating is called reection grating. The number of ruled lines in a grating varies from 15000 to 30000 per inch and the ruled surface varies from 2 to 6 . The gratings available in our SGSITS, Physics laboratory are having 15000 ruled lines per inch and the ruled surface is of around 2
14.3.6
Grating Element
14.3.4
Telescope
It is simple astronomical telescope and consists of a horizontal, cylindrical metallic tube tted with an achromatic convergent lens (called the objective) at one end and a short coaxial tube called eyepiece tube at the end. The eyepiece tube (provided with the cross-wires and Ramsden eyepiece) can be moved inside the main tube with the help of rack and pinion arrangement. Pulling or pushing the eyepiece in eyepiece tube by hand can also change the distance between the cross-wires and the eyepiece. Thus the telescope can be adjusted to receive parallel rays and to form a clear image upon the cross-wires, which in their turn are distinctly visible through the eyepiece. The telescope can be rotated about the central axis of the instrument. It is also provided with a clamping and a tangent screw at the base by which a slow rotation can be given to it. The main circular scale is attached with the telescope so that when the telescope is rotated, the main circular scale also rotates with it. The angle, through which the telescope is rotated, can be measured by reading the positions of the Verniers attached to the prism table and sliding over the main scale.
The distance between the centers of any two consecutive ruled lines or transparent spaces acting as a slit is called grating element. Let e be the width of the transparent space and d be the width of ruled space, then the grating element = (e+d)
14.4
Measurement of angles with the help of spectrometer
14.3.5
Plane Transmission Grating
An arrangement, which is equivalent in its action to a large number of parallel slits of same width separated by equal opaque spaces is called diraction grating. It is constructed by ruling ne equidistant parallel lines on an optically plane glass plate with the help of a sharp diamond point
The spectrometer scales are angle measuring utilities for the positions of the telescope which can be rotated about the central axis of the instrument. The main circular scale is attached with the telescope so that when the telescope is rotated, the main circular scale also rotates with it. The angle, through which the telescope is rotated, can be measured by reading the positions of the verniers attached to the prism table and sliding over the main scale. In a spectrometer there are two sets of main circular scales (tted with the telescope) and vernier scale (attached with the prism table). Both sets are diagonally (left hand and right hand sides) xed in the instrument and measures angle for a particular telescope position with a dierence of 180 degrees. These scales can be used in a similar manner as a simple Vernier Caliper or traveling microscope is used. The vernier Caliper or traveling microscope is used to measure small distances (in centimeters and fractions whereas spectrometer scales are used to measure small angular displacements (in degrees, minutes, and seconds){1 degree is equal to 60 minutes, and 1 minute is equal to 60 seconds; (1 = 60 and 1 = 60)
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14.6. Procedure
14.4.1
Least Count of the Spectrometer Scale:
14.6
Procedure
Physics Laboratory, SGSITS has two types of spectrometers in which 1. 60 divisions of vernier Scale are equal to 59 divisions of the Main Scale, and 2. 30 divisions of vernier Scale are equal to 29 divisions of the Main scale. Now, we will nd out the least count in rst case which 60 divisions of Vernier scale are equal to 59 divisions of the main scale. The method is as follows: 1. Value of one division of circular main scale = 0.5 = 30 (as 1 = 60) 2. Value of one division of sliding vernier scale = (59/60) x 0.5 3. Least count of spectrometer scale = Value of 1 div. of main scale - value of 1 div. of vernier = 0.5 - [(59/60) x 0.5] = [0.5 x 1/60] = 0.5 = 30 (THIRTY SECONDS) 4. Similarly the least count of the spectrometer scale in second case in which 30 divisions of Vernier scale are equal to 29 divisions of the circular main scale can also be calculated. In this case the value of least count will be 1 or 60
The whole experiment is divided into two parts (i) Adjustments, and (ii) Measurement of the diraction angle . Adjustment
14.6.1
Adjustment of the Spectrometer:
Before doing any measurement with the spectrometer, the following adjustments exactly in the sequence given below must be made: The axis of the collimator and the telescope must intersect at the perpendicular to the common axis of the prism table and the telescope (usually being made by the manufacturer) The eyepiece should be focused on the crosswires. For doing it turn the telescope towards a white wall and adjust the distance between the objective and eyepiece of the telescope with the help of rack and pinion arrangement such that the eld of view appears bright. Now alter the distance between eyepiece and the cross-wires by pulling or pushing the eyepiece in the eyepiece tube, till the cross-wires are distinctly visible. This focuses the eyepiece on the cross-wires. Adjustment of Collimator and the telescope must be adjusted respectively for emitting and receiving parallel rays of light. This can be done in the following manner. 1. Illuminate the slit of the collimator with the source of light, whose spectrum is to be analyzed (mercury vapor lamp in this experiment). Bring the telescope in line with the collimator with the help of rack and pinion arrangements such that the image of the collimator slit as seen through the telescope appears to be sharp and well focused. Make the collimator slit as narrow as possible (of course with a clear appearance through the telescope).
14.5
Formula Used:
The wavelength of any spectral line using plane transmission grating can be calculated from the formula (e + d) sin = n , Where (e + d) is the grating element, is the angle of diraction, and n is the order of the spectrum. If there are N lines per inch ruled on the grating surface then the grating element is given by (e + d) = 2.54/N cm. Hence (2.54/N) sin = n or = 2.54 sin /nN cm
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14.6. Procedure
2. Mount the prism on the prism table such that its center coincides with the center of the prism table and adjust the height of the prism table such that the prism is in level with the collimator and the telescope. If necessary, the telescope may be slightly turned to keep he spectrum in the eld of view but its (telescope) focusing arrangement is not to be disturbed while focusing collimator. Focus the telescope on he spectrum with the help of its rack and pinion arrangement to make the spectrum as sharp as possible. This time do not disturb the precious arrangement of the collimator.
incident rays and faces the telescope. Now clamp the prism table. The ruling of the grating should be parallel to the main axis of the instrument: For this unclamp the telescope and rotate. The diracted images of the slit or the spectral lines will be observed in the eld of view of the telescope. Adjust the leveling screw K, if necessary, to get these images at the center of the cross wires. When this is done the rulings of the grating will be parallel to the main axis of the instrument. The slit should be adjusted parallel to the rulings of the gratings For this rotate the slit in its own plane till the diracted images of the spectral lines become as bright as possible. The observations may now be taken.
14.6.2
Adjustment of the grating for normal incidence:
For this proceed as follows:
14.6.3
Bring the telescope in line with the collimator such that the direct image of the slit falls on the vertical cross wire of the telescope. Note the readings on both spectrometer scales. Rotate the telescope through 900 from this position and then clamp it. The axis of the telescope will now be perpendicular to the axis of collimator. Mount the grating on the prism table such that its ruled surface passes through the center of the prism table and is also perpendicular to the line joining the two leveling screws E1 and E2 as shown in Figure 14.1b. The prism table is now rotated till the reected image of the slit from the grating surface falls on the vertical cross wire. Adjust the screws E1 and E2 if necessary to get the image in the center of the eld of view. The grating surface is now inclined at an angle of 450 with the incident rays. Note the readings of both the spectrometer scales. Rotate the prism table through 450 or 1350 as the case may be so that the ruled surface of the grating becomes normal to the
Measurement of the Angle of Diraction:
To measure the angle of diraction, proceed as follows: Rotate the telescope to one side (say left) of the direct image of the slit till the spectrum of the rst order (n=1) is visible in the eld of view of telescope. Clamp the telescope and then move it slowly by tangent screw till the vertical cross wire coincides with the red line of the spectrum. Note the readings of both the verniers. Thus go on moving the telescope so that the vertical cross wire coincides in turn with the dierent spectral lines namely, yellow, green, violet, etc. Each time note the readings of both the spectrometer scales (left and right verniers). Unclamp the telescope and rotate it to the other side (say right) of the direct image till the rst order spectrum is again visible in the eld of view. Clamp the telescope and use the tangent screw to coincide the vertical cross wire on various spectral lines in turn and each time note the readings of the verniers.
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14.7. Observations
Find the dierence in the readings of the same kind of vernier for the same spectral line in two settings. This gives an angle equal to twice the angle of diraction for that spectral line in the rst order (n=1). Half of it is will give the angle of diraction. Similarly calculate the angle of diraction for other spectral lines. Repeat the above observations for second order spectrum also. The number of lines per inch on the grating surface is usually written on the grating (the grating used in SGSITS have 15,000 lines per inch).
6. Number of lines N ruled per inch on the grating 7. Grating element (e + d) = 2.54/N
14.7
14.7.1
Observations
For the adjustment of grating for normal incidence:
1. Least count of the Spectrometer scale: Value of 1 division of main scale = . . . . . . . . . . . . Division of main scale are equal to . . . . . . divisions of vernier scale. Value of 1 division of vernier scale. Least count of Spectrometer scale: = value of 1 division of main scale 1 division of vernier scale. 2. Reading of the telescope for direct image of the slit: V1 = . . . . . . . . . . . . V 2 = . . . . . . . . . . . . 3. Reading of the telescope after rotating it through 900 : V1 = . . . . . . . . . . . . V 2 = . . . . . . . . . . . . 4. Reading of prism table when reected image of the slit coincides with the vertical cross wire: V1 =. . . . . . . . . . . . V2 = . . . . . . . . . . . . 5. Reading of prism table when rotated through 450 or 1350 : V1 =. . . . . . . . . . . . V2 = . . . . . . . . . . . .
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14.8. Results
14.7.2
Calculations:
For rst order, n=1, = (e + d) sin /2 cm.
for violet I colour = . . . . . . ..cm. Calculate for all visible spectral lines also. The mean value of for Violet I colour = . . . . . . . . . . . . cm. (Calculate the mean value of for other visible spectral lines also.) Table 14.1: Table for the measurement of the angle of diraction
color
Wndows
Spectrum to the left of the direct images Main Scale Vernier Total Scale (x)
Spectrum to the right of the direct images Main Vernier Total Scale Scale (y)
2 = x-y
Angle
Violet Blue Green Yellow Red
Window Window Window Window Window Window Window Window Window Window
1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2
14.8
Results
Table 14.2: Observations for grating element (e + d) Colour Wavelength Standard measured () () 4047 4358 5461 5770 6234 error (%)
Violet I Blue Green Yellow I Red
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14.9. Sample Questions
14.8.1
Source of Error and Precautions
How do you measure the wavelength of light using grating? What is grating element? How do you adjust telescope and collimator for parallel rays? How do you set the grating for normal incidence? Why should the ruled surface of grating face forwards the telescope? How many orders of spectra are you getting with the grating? What is the dierence between a prism spectrum and a grating spectrum? What are the various series of lines observed in hydrogen spectrum? What is Rydberg constant? . When white light passes through a diraction grating, what is the smallest value of m for which the visible spectrum of order m overlaps the next one, of order m+1? (The visible spectrum runs from about 400 nm to about 700 nm.) Is a CD (compact Disk) a grating?
The axes of the telescope and the collimator must intersect at and be perpendicular to the main axis of the spectrometer. The collimator must be so adjusted as to give out parallel rays. The telescope must be so adjusted as to receive parallel rays and form a well dened image of the slit on the crosswire. The prism table must be optically leveled. The grating should be so mounted on the prism table that its ruled lines are parallel to the main axis of the spectrometer. The plane of the grating should be normal to the incident light and its ruled surface must face the telescope so that the error due to nonparallelism of the incident rays is minimum. The slit should be as narrow as possible and parallel to the ruled surface of the grating. While handling the grating one should not touch its faces but hold it between the thumb and the ngers by edges only. While taking observations of the spectral lines, the prism table must remain clamped. The reading of both the verniers should be recorded. This eliminates the error due to non-coincidence of the center of the graduated scale with the main axis of the spectrometer.
CHECK APPENDIX - B FOR ATOMIC SPECTRA FROM MERCURY
14.9
Sample Questions
What do you understand by diraction of light? How does it dier from interference of light? What is a diraction grating? How is it constructed?
SGSITS, Indore
15 e/m by Thomson Method
15.1
Aim
charged particles.
To measure the charge to mass ratio of electron using Thomson method and to nd the sign charge of electron.
15.2
Apparatus requires
Cathode ray tube, High and low tension power supplies, bar magnets, scale, etc.
15.3
Discovery of electron
Figure 15.1: Sir Joseph John Thomson (1856 1940). Portrait by Arthur Hacker. The present experiment is an exact copy of what J J Thomson performed while discovering a negatively charged particle, later known as electron.
Roentgen set out to study cathode rays but was rewarded, on or about Christmas 1895, with the discovery of X-rays. Becquerel searched for a suspected but nonexistent link between Roentgens rays and phosphorescence. Instead, he found something totally unexpected: radioactivity. Sir John Joseph Thomson at Caven- dish Laboratory at Cambridge University discovered electron in 1898. The word electron rst used by G. J. Stoney in 1891 had been used to denote the unit of charge found in experiments that passed electric current through chemicals. Thomson was investigating Cathode Rays which had been a puzzle for a long time. Through his experiments Thomson put forward a then controversial theory in which the Cathode Rays were made up of streams of particles much smaller than atoms, Thomson called these particles corpuscles. Thomson mistakenly believed that these corpuscles made up the entire atom. This idea was controversial as most people at this time thought that the atom was the smallest particle in matter and was divisible. Thomsons theory was not explicitly supported by his experiments. It took more experimental work by Thomson and others to conclusively prove the theory. The atom is now known to contain other particles as well. Yet Thomsons bold suggestion that Cathode Rays were material constituents of atoms turned out to be correct. The rays are made up of electrons: very small, negatively
15.4
Theory
Electrons are accelerated in an electric eld and enter a magnetic eld at right angles to the direction of motion. The specic charge of the electron is determined from the accelerating voltage, the magnetic eld strength and the radius of the electron orbit.
Figure 15.2: Schematic of an electron-gun used in the experiment. A sample electron gun without housing and phosphor screen is shown at the lower corner. More details may be found in Appendix-A.
69
Expt. 15. e/m by Thomson method
70
15.4. Theory
This experiment is carried out in a special vacuum tube, which contains a small amount of mercury vapor. Electrons emitted by a heated cathode are accelerated by the voltage applied between the cathode and anode. Some of the electrons come out in a narrow beam through a circular hole in the center of the cylinder. This emission is then focused into a narrow beam by the grid of the tube. When electrons of suciently high kinetic energy leaving the cathode collide with a screen coated with phosphor materials, the induced phosphorescence leads to a blue/green glow. This makes the possibility of seeing the invisible electrons indirectly. If an electron of mass m and charge e is accelerated by a potential dierence V it attains the kinetic energy: 1 eV = mv 2 2 where v is the velocity of the electron. A charged particle moving in a magnetic eld experiences a force to the side (perpendicular to the particles motion) and perpendicular to the magnetic eld. If the particles initial velocity is perpendicular to a uniform magnetic eld, it will move in a circle. The magnetic force, equal to ev B, is the only force on the electron. The direction of the force on the electron is given by the right-hand rule. Walker gives this rule as follows: "To nd the direction of the magnetic force on a positive charge, start by pointing the ngers of your right hand in the direction of the velocity, v. Now, curl your ngers toward the direction of B. Your thumb points in the direction of F . If the charge is negative, the force points opposite to the direction or your thumb." Thomson subjected the cathode rays in his tube to electric and magnetic elds at the same time. Suppose the cathode rays are moving in the xdirection. The parallel plates inside the tube, when electried, produce a known electric eld E in the upward z-direction. The eect of this electric eld is to drive the negatively charged cathode rays downward. An magnet placed outside the tube produces a known magnetic eld B in the y-direction. The eect of this eld is to drive the electrons upward. Suppose that both (15.1)
elds extend over the same length l (= L + D) along the trajectory of the cathode rays with D as the distance from the plates to the screen. The electric and magnetic forces cancel one another if the following condition is met v = E/B. (15.2)
Figure 15.3: Demonstration of Flemings Right Hand Rule. The lower gure shows the deection of electron in a uniform electric eld. Suppose that an electron is moving to the right, as shown in Figure 15.3. It passes through a region of length L in which there is an electric E eld pointing up. If the electron is deected downward by a distance d as it passes through the eld, the ratio of e/m, can be calculated as follows (the following procedure is exactly same as that followed by Sir J J Thomson). Since electrons are pushed down by an electric eld pointing up, the charge of the electron is negative. The magnitude of the downward electric force is eE. The electrons accelerate down with the vertical acceleration eE/m during their traversal of the horizontal distance L. (They also fall with the acceleration of gravity g. In practice, however, g is negligible compared to eE/m, the acceleration due to the electric eld.) The vertical displacement d of a uniformly accelerated 1 body is 2 at2 , where a is the acceleration and t is the time interval over which it is accelerated. In Thomsons experiment, t = L/v and a = eE/m. Thus: 2dV e = 2 (15.3) m B Lw(L + 2D)
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15.5. Procedure
where we substituted E = V /Lw, w is the width of the plate.
15.5.2
To measure deection
15.5
Procedure
The measurement has two parts rst to measure the deection then to measure the DC magnetic eld.
1. Now replace the TG with the electron tube. Remove the magnets. Switch on the power supply. Adjust the focus and intensity to best value, so that the spot is smaller and visible clearly at the center of the tube. If the initial deection (d0 ) at zero voltage is nite (= 0, record it otherwise is record it as 0. 2. Now apply nite voltage to electron gun (say 20V). 3. Record the value of deection (d1 ). Place the magnet on the ends of wooden arms. Move the magnets simultaneously towards the center to nullify the deection to d1 d0 . Record the position of magnets. (The corresponding magnetic eld can be calculated from the graph drawn from the previous measurements). 4. Remove the magnet, reverse the voltage and repeat the previous step to nd d2 . 5. Remove the magnet. Apply voltage say 30V. and repeat the previous two steps. 6. Repeat the experiment for dierent values of voltage. 7. Use the calibration curve ploted from the data of Table 15.1, to nd out the mean and hence the magnetic eld corresponding to the mean X observed in this table.
15.5.1
To measure magnetic eld
1. Use the tangent galvanometer (TG) / compass box to align the wooden stand parallel to the North-South Direction to nullify the earths magnetic eld (Why?). 2. Note the value of deections (zero?) 0 in your note book. 3. Mount bar magnets to two extreme points on the scale but at equal distance from center. Move the bar magnets towards the center simultaneously so that equal distance between them is maintained. 4. When the TG starts showing deections record the values of 1 and 2 and corresponding distance X1 and X2 in your note book. Is X1 = X2 ? 5. After calculating the value of magnetic eld B = BH tan , plot a curve between distance X (X-axis) and magnetic eld B (Yaxis). This can also be carried out after completing the next part of experiment.
BH tan0 (Gauss)
X (cm)
Figure 15.4: Experimental setup used in the laboratory to measure e/m of electron. Figure 15.5: Showing calibration curve obtained from Table 15.1.
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15.6. Results
15.6
Results
Charge to mass ratio of electron = ............ C/kg. Actual Value = ............ C/kg. Error in measurement = ...........%.
15.7
Questions
1. What element controls the number of electrons striking the screen? 2. What element is controlled to focus the beam? 3. Why are the electrostatic elds between the electron gun elements called lenses? 4. What is the function of the second anode? 5. What eect do longer deection plates have on the electron beam? 6. If a compass needles north points north, what does that say when it is at the north pole? 7. What do you think will happen if you place a magnet at onto the front of the monitor screen? 8. What do you think the eld around the toroidal magnet would be? (Hint: the poles are on the two at faces). 9. In what direction should the apparatus be aligned to minimize the eects of the Earths magnetic eld? Explain.
Table 15.1: To measure magnetic eld Deection in the absence of magnet = 0 =...... X1 X2 MeanX 1 1 Mean BH (cm) (cm) (cm) tan 25 25 25 22 22 22 The value of Earths Magnetic eld is BH =
Table 15.2: To measure deection d Deection in the absence of applied voltage = d0 =......(mm) S. Applied Deection Magnetic eld No. Voltage d1 d2 Mean D1 D2 Mean D B (V) (mm) (mm) (mm) deg deg deg (Gauss) 1 20 2 30
SGSITS, Indore
16 Error Analysis in Physics Laboratory
All students will be doing this experiment simultaneous on the rst day of your Physics Laboratory class. In case, if you join late or miss this experiment due to unforeseen reasons, you should perform this experiment during extra hours.
16.2
Estimating the Uncertainty in a Single Measurement

Normal analog scale
16.2.1
(e.g. meter stick) Estimate the nal digit by in16.1 Introduction to Uncertainty terpolating between the smallest scale divisions, and make the uncertainty 1 or 2 in that last In introductory lab work, such as in Physics labs, digit (use your judgment in deciding). you usually know in advance what the result is supposed to be. You can compare your actual result with the anticipated result, and calculate an actual error value. In real-world laboratory work, on the other hand, you usually dont know in advance what the result is supposed to be. If you did, you probably wouldnt be doing the experiment in the rst place! When you state your nal result, its important to state also, how much you think you can trust that result, in the form of a numerical uncertainty (or error in measurement). For example, you might state the volume of an object as V = 43.25 0.13cm3 (16.1)
16.2.2
Analog scale with vernier
(e.g. vernier caliper or micrometer) Use the vernier scale to get the last digit, and make the uncertainty 0.5 of that last digit.
16.2.3
Digital scale
(e.g. digital multimeter) If the reading is steady, make the uncertainty 0.5 of the last digit; otherwise take several instantaneous readings, average them, and nd the standard deviation of the mean as described below.
When we state the uncertainty in this form, without further elaboration, it generally means that we think that the true value has about a 68% chance of being within that range. A more precise statement would include the condence level of the uncertainty range, which might be 68% or 95% or even 99%. Usually, in an experiment we measure some number of quantities directly, and combine them mathematically to get a nal result. Therefore, estimating the nal uncertainty usually involves two steps. First, we must estimate the uncertainties in the individual quantities that we measure directly. Second, we must combine those uncertainties to get the overall uncertainty, in a way that corresponds to the way that we combine individual measurements to get the nal result.
16.3
Estimating the Uncertainty in an Averaged Measurement
If you can make several measurements x1 , x2 , . . . x N , calculate the mean, x, and use that as the measurement. Then calculate the standard deviation of the mean: m = (x1 x)2 + (x2 x)2 + . . . + (xN x)2 N
(16.2) and use this as the uncertainty, x. If your calculator has a standard deviation function, divide its result by N to get the standard deviation of the mean.
73
Expt. 16. Error Analysis
74
16.5. General Procedure
16.4
Combining Uncertainties in Calculated Results
In the following equations, x means the absolute uncertainty in x, which is the number you get from one of the methods above; it has units just like the measurement itself has. x % means the percent (or fractional) uncertainty in x, which is the uncertainty expressed as a percentage or fraction of the measurement; it has no units.
combining uncertainties as you go along, and switching back and forth between absolute and percent uncertainties as necessary. However, you cannot do this if the same variable appears more than once in the equation or calculation, or if you have situations not covered by the rules given above, such as trig functions. In such cases you must use the general procedure given below. The following table gives an idea about the relation between error and actual equation: Table 16.1: Some examples S. No. 1 2 2 3 4 5 6 Relation between Z & (A, B) Z=A+B Z=A-B Z = AB Z Z Z Z = = = = A/B An ln A eA Relation between Z & (A, B) (Z)2 = (A)2 + (B)2 (Z)2 = (A)2 + (B)2
2 Z 2 = A Z A 2 Z 2 = A Z A Z A Z =n A Z = A A Z Z = A
16.4.1
Addition and Subtraction
If z = x + y or z = x y, z = x2 + y 2 (16.3)
If youre adding and subtracting more variables, simply add more terms inside the square root.
+ +
B 2 B B 2 B
16.4.2
Multiplication and Division
If z= xy or z = x/y, z = z x x
2
y y
16.5
(16.4)
General Procedure
or (same thing in dierent notation). z% = (x%)2 + (y%)2 (16.5)
If z = f (x,y), rst calculate the dierences caused by the uncertainty in each variable separately: (z)x = f ((x + x), y) f (x, y) (z)y = f (x, (y + y)) f (x, y) (16.7)
If youre multiplying and dividing more variables, simply add more terms inside the square root.
Then combine the dierences to get the total uncertainty: (z) = (z)2 + (z)2 x y (16.8)
16.4.3
If z = xn ,
Powers, Including Roots
16.4.4
If there are more variables, extend these equations appropriately by adding more terms. If a variable occurs more than once in the formula for f (x,y), change all occurrences simultaneously when calMore Complicated Calculations culating the dierence for that variable. z =n z x x (16.6) To illustrate the procedure for calculation the error in an experiment, we will work out the average (mean) value xand the standard deviation
Sometimes you can combine the three rules given above, doing the calculation one step at a time,
SGSITS, Indore
Expt. 16. Error Analysis
75
16.6. Suggested Experiments:
of the mean, and the standard deviation of an individual data point, , using the position measurements in the accompanying Table (16.2). Table 16.2: Position Measurements. xi (m) xi xi (m) (xi xi )2 (m2 ) 15.68 0.15 0.0225 15.42 0.11 0.0121 15.03 0.50 0.2500 15.66 0.13 0.0169 15.17 0.36 0.1296 15.89 0.36 0.1296 15.35 0.18 0.0324 15.81 0.28 0.0784 15.62 0.09 0.0081 15.39 0.14 0.0196 15.21 0.32 0.1024 15.78 0.25 0.0625 15.46 0.07 0.0049 15.12 0.41 0.1681 15.93 0.40 0.1600 15.23 0.30 0.0900 15.62 0.09 0.0081 15.88 0.35 0.1225 15.95 0.42 0.1764 15.37 0.16 0.0256 15.51 0.02 0.0004
0.06 m. This says the average is 15.53 m which has an error of 0.06m. Or putting it another way, there is about a 68% probability that the true value of x falls in the range 15.47 m to 15.59 m. In some cases the fractional error x, or relative error, is of more interest than the absolute value of . It is possible that the size of is large while the fractional error is small. Note that increasing the number of individual measurements on the uncertainty of the average reduces the statistical uncertainty (random errors); this improves the precision. On the other hand, more measurements do not diminish systematic error in the mean because these are always in the same direction; the accuracy of the experiment is limited by systematic errors.
16.6
Suggested Experiments:
1. Measure the diameter of a wire using a screw gauge at 10 dierent places on the wire. Calculate the standard deviation in your measurements. 2. Measure the thickness of a tabletop at using a scale in cm. Calculate the error in your measuremen ts. 3. Measure the period of oscillations of a pendulum using your wrist watch and record your data ten times. Estimate the standard deviation and error in your measurements. 4. Ask your partner to drop a solid object at a same height for 10 times. Measure the time of ight with your wrist watch. The same can be repeated by your other partners also. Compare the standard deviation of each of your measurements.
From the Table (16.2) we can make the following calculations:

N N
N = 21;
i=1
xi = 326.08m,
i=1
(xi xi )2 = 1.61998m2 .
and then evaluate the following quantities: x=

N i=1 xi
N
N i=1 (xi
326.08 = 15.53m 21
(16.9)
x)2 = N (N 1)
N i=1 (xi
1.6201 = 0.062m 20 21 (16.10) 1.6201 = 0.063m 20 (16.11)
x)2 =
N 1
The error or spread in individual measurements is = 0.28 m. But for the mean x = 15.53
SGSITS, Indore
A Cathode Ray Oscilloscope
This following text is given to make you understand the equipment. The teacher may check your understanding of the equipment by asking questions from this part of the text.
are (i) electron gun, (ii) deecting system, and (iii) uorescent screen. These components are briey discussed below.
A.1
Introduction
The cathode ray oscilloscope (CRO, for short) is a versatile laboratory instrument used for the visual observation, measurement, and analysis of waveforms. With the help of transducers, many physical quantities like pressure, strain, temperature, acceleration etc. can be converted into voltage which can be displayed on CRO. Thus many dynamic phenomena can be studied by means of CRO. The heart or the major component of the oscilloscope is the cathode ray tube (CRT). The rest of the CRO consists of circuitry to operate the CRT. The CRT is discussed in detail in the following section.
Figure A.1: Basic elements of a cathode-ray tube. The width of the electron beam is exaggerated for clarity.
A.2.1
Electron gun:
A.2
CATHODE RAY TUBE
The internal structure of a CRT is schematically shown in Fig. A.1. The CRT consists of a highly The name electron gun originates from the analevacuated funnel-shaped glass tube. The elecogy between the motion of an electron emitted trons are emitted from an indirectly heated thermionic from the CRT gun structure and that of a bullet cathode. A number of electrodes transform the red from a gun. The cathode emitting the elecemitted electrons into a high-velocity electron beam, trons is completely surrounded by a control grid known as a cathode ray. The electron beam consisting of a nickel cylinder with a small hole travels through the evacuated space of the tube at the center. The electrons that manage to pass towards a uorescent screen. When the beam through this small hole constitute the electron strikes the screen, the kinetic energy of the elecbeam. The density of the electrons in the beam trons is converted into light emission. A small is controlled by varying the negative voltage of light spot is thus produced on the CRT screen the control grid with respect to the cathode. If at a place where the electrons hit it. On its the control grid voltage is made more negative, way towards the screen the electron beam can the beam current and hence the brightness of the be deected by suitable voltages. Usually, the spot diminishes. On the other hand, if the consignal under test deects the spot vertically on trol grid voltage is made less negative, the beam the screen. Another voltage proportional to time current and consequently the brightness of the is employed to deect the spot horizontally. The spot increases. The grid bias control is thus a time variation of the signal is thus displayed on brightness or intensity control. the screen. A high positive voltage is applied to the accelerThe main component of a general purpose CRT 76
This part of the CRT emits electrons, transforms them into a narrow beam, and focuses the beam on the uorescent screen. It consists of an indirectly heated cathode, a control grid, an accelerating electrode, a focusing anode, and a nal accelerating anode. These electrodes have a cylindrical shape, and they are connected to the pins on the base.
Appendix
77
A.2. CATHODE RAY TUBE
ating electrode with respect to the cathode. The accelerating electrode thus speeds up the electron beam passing through it. The combined action of the focusing anode and the nal accelerating anode focuses the electron beam into a sharply dened tiny spot on the screen. The action of the anode system is analogous to that of an optical lens focusing a beam of light. Hence the anode system is referred to as an electron optical system. The focusing anode is kept at a positive voltage with respect to the cathode. A higher positive voltage is applied to the nal accelerating electrode with respect to the cathode. Focusing can be obtained by adjusting the relative voltage of the focusing and the nal accelerating anodes. Usually, the nal accelerating anode voltage is kept xed, and focusing is achieved by changing the focusing anode voltage.
Figure A.2: Simple block diagram of an analog cathode ray oscilloscope. spot appears as a continuous luminous vertical line owing to the persistence of the screen and the human eye. If the frequency is very low, the motion of the spot is clearly visible. An alternating voltage, applied to the horizontal deecting plates, will similarly generate a continuous luminous horizontal line.
A.2.2
Deecting system:
The accelerating anode is usually held at the ground potential and the other electrodes are kept at negative voltages with respect to it. Possible highvoltage shock are thus avoided. The aquadag The voltage applied to the vertical deecting plates coating is not directly connected to the screen. deects the beam vertically. The beam is shifted The electrons are removed from the screen by secsideways by the voltage applied to the horizon- ondary emission, and no accumulation of negative tal deecting plates. If an alternating voltage is charge can occur on the screen. The secondary applied to the vertical deecting plates, the spot electrons are trapped by the aquadag coating. is swept up and down on the screen at the fre- These electrons thus move to the anode and then quency of the alternating voltage. The moving to the cathode via the power supply. The circuit
In general purpose oscilloscopes, electrostatic deection of the electron beam is employed. Here the deecting system comprises a pair of horizontal deecting plates and a pair of vertical deecting plates. The electron beam is deected and the spot is swept on the screen by the voltages applied to the deecting plates. Consider two parallel deecting plates A and B between which the electron beam passes. In the absence of any deecting voltage between A and B, the beam is focused at the point O on the screen. Let a positive voltage be applied to the plate A with respect to the plate B. As the electrons are negatively charged, they will be attracted towards the positive plate A and will come to focus at point P1 on the screen. The deection OP 1 is proportional to the deecting voltage between A and B. A reversal of the polarity of the deecting voltage causes the spot to appear at the point P2 on the other side of the point O.
A.2.3
Fluorescent screen:
The inner surface of the face plate of the CRT is coated with a uorescent material, also known as the phosphor. The electrons, after hitting the screen, must come back to the anode so that the circuit is closed. Otherwise, the negative charge accumulated on the screen will repel the electron beam, preventing it from reaching the screen. The return path of the electrons is provided by coating the sidewalls of the CRT with carbon particles, referred to as aquadag and by connecting this coating to the accelerating anode.
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Appendix
78
A.4. A basic oscilloscope
is thereby completed.
A.3
Waveform Display
front panel control marked VOLT/DIV. The sweep and the signal voltages are amplied before application to the deecting plates. The corresponding ampliers are known as horizontal amplier and vertical amplier, respectively. To obtain a stable display of the signal on the CRT screen, the beginning of each sweep is locked or synchronized to the signal to be displayed. This is achieved by starting each sweep at the same point on the signal waveform. For this purpose, a sample of the input waveform is fed to a trigger circuit that generates a trigger pulse at a selected point of the input waveform. This trigger pulse starts the sweep generator. Usually, the leading edge of the signal is used to activate the trigger generator. Since the action requires some denite time interval, the sweep does not operate till the leading edge of the signal has passed. Consequently, the leading edge of the waveform is not displayed on the screen. By means of a delay line the arrival of the signal at the vertical deecting plates is retarded till the sweep is started. In this way the leading edge of the waveform can be viewed.
For the visual display of signal waveform on the CRT screen, a time-base generator is needed. This generator gives a sawtooth voltage waveform, as depicted in gure. Each cycle of this periodic waveform has a linearly increasing part followed by a linearly decreasing part. The time over which the voltage V increases linearly with time is termed the sweep time. The time over which the voltage falls linearly with time to return to initial value is known as the return time or the yback time. The return time is a small fraction of the sweep time. The sawtooth voltage can be generated using a unijuntion transistor The sawtooth voltage, also referred to as the sweep voltage is applied to the horizontal deecting plates of the CRT. Since the sweep voltage increases linearly with time, the spot moves horizontally at a constant velocity across the screen from left to right. At the end of the sweep, when the sawtooth voltage drops, the spot returns quickly to its starting position at the left. This cycle is repeated. Let a sinusoidal voltage wave of frequency equal to the recurrence frequency of the sawtooth voltage be applied to the vertical deecting plates simultaneously with the sawtooth voltage applied to the horizontal deecting plates. The spot now suers a horizontal deection proportional to time and a vertical deection in accordance with the magnitude and the polarity of the vertical signal. The resulting motion of the spot thus traces the waveform of the signal to be displayed (which is sinusoidal here) as a function of time. Such a pattern on the CRT screen is referred to as an oscillogram. If the frequency of the signal to be displayed is n times the repetition frequency of the sweep voltage, n cycles of the sine wave are traced on the CRT screen in the sweep time. To measure time, the horizontal displacement on the CRT screen is calibrated in time. The horizontal axis is then referred to as time base. The calibration of the horizontal axis is read from the
A.4
A basic oscilloscope
The major components of a general purpose CRO are depicted in the simplied block diagram of Fig. A.2 They are: (i) cathode-ray tube (CRT), (ii) vertical amplier, (iii) delay line, (iv) trigger circuit, (v) sweep generator, (vi) horizontal amplier, and (vii) power supply. The horizontal displacement of the CRT spot is obtained by the sweep generator incorporated in the CRO assembly or by an external signal applied to the horizontal input terminal. The vertical displacement of the spot is caused by the signal applied to the vertical input terminal. The gain of the vertical amplier can be usually varied, but it is calibrated for quantitative measurements. The bandwidth of the amplier determines the frequency range over which the oscilloscope can be used. The greater the bandwidth of he amplier, the greater the usable frequency range of the CRO. The gain and the bandwidth of horizontal
SGSITS, Indore
Appendix
79
A.5. Applications of CRO:
amplier are usually less than those of the vertical amplier. The trigger circuit of the sweep generator can be activated either by the signal applied to the vertical input terminal or by an external trigger signal. The power supply incorporated in the CRO assembly has high-voltage section to operate the CRT and a low-voltage section to operate the associated electronic circuitry. These supplies are conventionally designed. The impedance oered by the CRO to the signal at the input terminals is referred to as the input impedance of the CRO. Typically, the input impendence consists of a resistance (about 1 M) in shunt with a capacitance (about 40 pF). The measurement error for a CRO is generally about 5 percent, but in specially designed oscilloscopes, it can be less than 1 percent.
the CRT screen. If N complete cycles of the ac signal are found to appear in a time interval t, the time period of the signal is T = t/N . The frequency of the signal is f=1/T = N/t. (b) Using Lissajous gures: The patterns generated on the CRT screen upon simultaneous application of sine waves to the horizontal and the vertical deection plates, are known as Lissajous gures. Various patterns are obtained depending on the relative amplitudes, frequencies and phases of the waveforms. Using Lissajous gure frequency of a wave form can be determined.
A.5
Applications of CRO:
1. Visual display and qualitative study of signal waveforms: To display a signal on the CRT screen, the signal is applied to the vertical input terminals. The time variation of the signal is visualized by means of the sweep generator displacing the spot in proportion to time in the horizontal direction. The nature of the signal can be qualitatively studied from the trace on the CRT screen. For example, one can get a visual impression if the signal is sinusoidal or rich in harmonics. 2. Measurement of voltage: The calibration of the vertical scale gives the voltage corresponding to the vertical deection of the spot on the CRT screen. Thus the magnitude of an applied dc voltage or the voltage at dierent times of a time-varying signal can be measured. 3. Measurement of frequency: (a) Using the time base: The calibration of the horizontal scale, i.e. the time base helps to determine the frequency of a time-varying signal displayed on
SGSITS, Indore
2 Color Tables
2.1
Color and wavelength (nm)

Take color print-out for clarity or use color monitor to viewing.
360 380 400 420 440 460 480 500 520 540 560 580 600 620 640 660 680 700 720 740 760 780 800
Wavelength and the
corrsponding color.
2.2
Standard values for Mercury Spectrum.

Name Color (nm) yellow 2 579.0 yellow 1 577 green 546 blue-green 491 blue 435 violet 2 407 violet 1 404
Table 2.1: Standard values for Mercury Spectrum and corresponding color.
2.3
A Mercury Spectrum obtained from a spectrograph.
Figure 2.1: Typical spectrum one observes in Physics Laboratory at SGSITS, Indore.
80
3 Some useful data and information
Table 3.1: Base SI units Name Symbol Unit length m meter time s second mass kg kilogram electric current A ampere Temperature K kelvin Amount of substance mol mole Luminous intensity cd candela
Table 3.2: Derived SI Units Name Symbol Unit energy J joule electric charge C coulomb electric potential V volt electric capacitance F farad electric resistance ohm electric conductance S siemens magnetic Flux Wb weber inductance H henry pressure Pa pascal magnetic Flux density T tesla frequency Hz hertz power W watt force N newton angle rad radian angle sr steradian
81
Appendix
82
Table 3.3: Common Exponent Symbol Name name of ten Factor Y yatta 1024 Z zetta 1021 E exa 1018 p peta 1015 T tera trillion 1012 G giga billion 109 M mega million 106 k kilo thousand 103 h hecto hundred 102 da deca ten 101 d deci tenth 101 c centi hundredth 102 m milli thousandth 103 micro millionth 106 n nano billionth 109 p pico trillionth 1012 f femto 1015 a atto 1018 z zepto 1021 y yocto 1024
symbol h R kB c e me N
Table 3.4: Constants Name Value Plancks constant 6.626 068 76 1034 gas constant per mole (8.205450.00037) 102 Boltzmanns constant (1.380420.00010) 1023 Stefan-Boltzmann con- (5.66860.0005)108 stant velocity of light (2.997930.00001) 108 elementary charge (1.602070.00007) 1019 mass of electron (9.109580.00005) 1031 Avogadro number (6.024720.00036) 1023 1/0 C permittivity of (8.85420.0001) 1012 free space permeability of free 4 = 12.5664 107 space Mass per unit length of 1 Nichrome
units Js liter atm/K-mole J/K W/m2 K4 m/s coulombs kg molecule/mole farad/m henry/m mg/cm
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4 Brief History of Indian Nobel Laureates
The Nobel Prize is the most respected award the world over and here is a list of those Indians who have won this award and made the country proud.
4.1
Rabindranath Tagore (1861 - 1941)
Nobel Prize for Literature (1913) Tagore was born and lived in Calcutta for most of his life. He was one of modern Indias greatest poets and the composer of independent Indias national anthem. In 1901 he founded his school, the Santiniketan, at Bolpur as a protest against the existing bad system of education. The school was a great success and gave birth to Viswabharati. He was awarded the 1913 Nobel Prize in Literature for his work "Gitanjali"; for the English version, published in 1912. The noble citation stated that it was "because of his profoundly sensitive, fresh and beautiful verse, by which, with consummate skill, he has made his poetic thought, expressed in his own English words, a part of the literature of the West." In 1915, he was knighted by the British King George V. Tagore renounced his knighthood in 1919 following the Amritsar massacre or nearly 400 Indian demonstrators.
4.2
Sir C.V. Raman (Chandrasekhara Venkata Raman)(1888 1970)
Nobel Prize for Physics (1930) C V Raman was born on 7th Nov. 1888 in Thiruvanaikkaval, in the Trichy district of Tamil Nadu. He nished school by the age of eleven and by then he had already read the popular lectures of Tyndall, Faraday and Helmoltz. He acquired his BA degree from the Presidency College, Madras, where he carried out original research in the college laboratory, publishing the results in the philosophical magazine. Then went to Calcutta and while he was there, he made enormous contributions to vibration, sound, musical instruments, ultrasonics, diraction, photo electricity, colloidal particles, X-ray diraction, magnetron, dielectrics, and the celebrated "RAMAN" eect which fetched him the Noble Prize in 1930. He was the rst Asian scientist to win the Nobel Prize. The Raman eect occurs when a ray of incident light excites a molecule in the sample, which subsequently scatters the light. While most of this scattered light is of the same wavelength as the incident light, state (i.e. getting the molecule to vibrate). The Raman eect is usef
4.3
Dr. Hargobind Khorana
Nobel Prize for Medicine and Physiology (1968) Dr. Hargobind Khorana was born on 9th January 1922 at Raipur, Punjab (now in Pakistan). Dr. Khorana was responsible for producing the rst man-made gene in his laboratory in the early seventies. This historic invention won him the Nobel Prize for Medicine in 1968 sharing it with Marshall Nuremberg and Robert Holley for interpreting the genetic code and analyzing its function in protein synthesis. They all independently made contributions to the understanding of the genetic code and how it works in the cell. They established that this mother of all codes, the biological language common to all living organisms, is spelled out in three-letter words: each set of three nucleotides codes for a specic amino acid.
83
4.4
Dr. Subramaniam Chandrasekar
Nobel Prize for physics (1983) Subramaniam Chandrashekhar was born on October 19, 1910 in Lahore, India (later part of Pakistan). He attended Presidency College from 1925 to 1930, following in the footsteps of his famous uncle, Sir C. V. Raman. His work spanned over the understanding of the rotation of planets, stars, white dwarfs, neutron stars, black holes, galaxies, and clusters of galaxies. He won the Nobel Prize in 1983 for his theoretical work on stars and their evolution.
4.5
Mother Teresa (1910 - 1997)
Nobel Prize for peace (1979) Born in 1910, Skoplje, Yugoslavia (then Turkey) and originally named Agnes Gonxha Bojaxhiu, Mother Teresa dedicated her life to helping the poor, the sick, and the dying around the world, particularly those in India, working through the Missionaries Of Charity in Calcutta. The Society of Missionaries has spread all over the world, including the former Soviet Union and Eastern European countries. They provide eective help to the poorest of the poor in a number of countries in Asia, Africa, and Latin America, and they undertake relief work in the wake of natural catastrophes such as oods, epidemics, and famine, and for refugees. The order also has houses in North America, Europe and Australia, where they take care of the shut-ins, alcoholics, homeless, and AIDS suerers. Mother Teresa died on September 5, 1997.
4.6
Dr. Amartya Sen
Nobel Prize for Economics (1998) Born in 1933, Bolpur, in West Bengal, Amartya Sen is the latest in our list of Nobel Laureates. He was honored with the Nobel Prize for his work in Welfare economics. When Thailands Baht plummeted, markets from Bombay to New York were in turmoil and there was talk of worldwide depression, Sens argument that growth should be accompanied by democratic decision-making seemed only too correct. Amidst the human suering caused by mass unemployment and exacerbated as many felt by the stringent economic policies of the International Monetary Fund and ideas of free-market capitalism, Sens call for social support in development appeared humane and wise. A new brand of softer, gentler economics seemed in order. Although Sen is probably best known for his research on famines, his work on women the attention he has drawn to their unequal status in the developing world, and his calls for gender-specic aid programs is just as important.
4.7
V.S. Naipaul (1932- )
British writer of Indian origin, Sir Vidiadhar Surajprasad Naipaul was awarded the Nobel Prize for Literature 2001 "for having united perceptive narrative and incorruptible scrutiny in works that compel us to see the presence of suppressed histories."
4.8
___________________
(Do you want to have your name here?) Work hard, read and understand more science, may be one day your dream might become true.
We hope you enjoyed working in Physics Laboratory.
This manual is typeset by Dr. J. T. Andrews, usA ing L TEX 2 with binaries of MikTEX 2.9 and using TEXniCenter24 frontend with report class option and other packages. For more information visit:
http://www.miktex.org http://www.sourceforge.net http://www.ctan.org http://www.tug.org/usergroups.html
The front cover page theme is Scientists of India. The photographs shown are clockwise from top left corner in a circle, Megnad Saha (1893), Sir Chandrasekhara Venkata Raman(1888), Srinivasa Ramanujan (1887), Sir Jagadish Chandra Bose (1858), Subramaniam Chandrasekhar (1910), Vikram Sarabhai (1919), Harish Chandra (1923), Homi Jehangir Bhabha (1909), Shanti Swarup Bhatnagar (1894) and Satyendra Nath Bose (1894). There are no women scientists in this page, Why? Read http://science.education.nih.gov/women/index.html, http://www.nature.com/nature/debates/women/women_ frameset.html Courtesy: Archieves of TIFR, Mumbai, India.
Megnad Saha
C. V. Raman
S. Ramanujan
S. N. Bose
J. C. Bose
Physics Laboratory Manual

S. S. Bhatnagar S. Chandrashekar
AUGUST 2012
H. J. Bhabha
H. Chandra
V. Sarabhai

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Megnad Saha

Physics Laboratory Manual

PHYSICS LABORATORY MANUAL

B.E. (Regular & PTDC) Students

SHRI G. S. INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY & SCIENCE, INDORE

DEPARTMENT OF APPLIED PHYSICS

Department of Applied Physics

Department of Applied Physics

5. List of Experiments & Laboratory Layout

Department of Applied Physics

Black Board Teacher 9

Department of Applied Physics

1 Interference by Newtons rings Method

To determine the wavelength of sodium light by Newtons rings method.

Short Biography of Sir Issac Newton

Expt. 1. Newtonss Rings

1.5. Working Principle

two interfering rays is given by: x = 2t cos(t + ) + /2 (1.1)

and they interfere destructively when the path dierence

x = 2t + /2 = (2n + 1)/2 or 2t = 2n/2 [Minima]

(1.5) (1.6) (1.7)

Department of Applied Physics

Expt. 1. Newtonss Rings

1.6. Experimental Methods

If Dn is the diameter of the nth ring then,

Calculation of the diameters rings:

Since t is small as compared to R, we can neglect t2 .and therefore

Department of Applied Physics

Expt. 1. Newtonss Rings

Department of Applied Physics

Expt. 1. Newtonss Rings

Determination of the Least Count of the Horizontal Scale of traveling Microscope

Order .of The Rings 20 18 16 14 12 10 8

1. Pitch of the screw = . . . . . . . . . cm

Reading of the microscope left hand side (a)cm

Right hand side (b) cm

Diameter of the ring (a b) cm.

Diameter2 (a b)2 cm2

D2 -D2 n+p n for p=4 cm2

Expt. 1. Newtonss Rings

1.10. Sources of errors and precautions:

Sources of errors and precautions:

Sample oral questions :

Department of Applied Physics

Expt. 1. Newtonss Rings

1.11. Sample oral questions :

Department of Applied Physics

2 Steward & Gees Tangent Galavanometer

History Equipment required

Expt. 2. Tangent Galvanometer

Department of Applied Physics

3 Numerical Aperture of Optical Fiber

To measure the numerical aperture of given optical ber.

Brief history of optical ber

Expt. 3. Numerical Apertue of OF

Department of Applied Physics

Expt. 3. Numerical Apertue of OF

3.6. Data recording:

Department of Applied Physics

Expt. 3. Numerical Apertue of OF

3.8. Suggested reading

Department of Applied Physics

4 Measurement of f using Sonometer.