Lecture 2

Renewable Rene able DG So rces: Sources: Wind Power

Objectives and Outlines

Introduction to Wind Power Wi d T bi C t ti Wind Turbine Construction Wind Farm Construction Wind Power Characteristics Overview of Wind Power and DG Interfacing Equipment Interfacing of Wind Power Case Studies

Introduction Types of DG
Distributed Generation Technologies

Renewables

Non-Renewables

Storage Devices

- Wind Power - Solar Photovoltaic - Small Hydro Power - Biomass - Tidal Energy - Waver Energy - Geothermal

- Reciprocating Engine - Micro turbine Micro-turbine - Fuel Cell

- Super-conducting magnetic energy storage (SMES) - Battery energy sto age syste storage system (BESS) - Flywheel - Ultra-capacitors - Modular pumped hydro y

Global wind power generation progress and prediction

Quantify the World

The goal of this study is to quantify the worlds wind power potential. Wind speeds are calculated at 80 m; the hub height of modern, 77-m diameter, 1500 kW turbines
Europe North America N hA i

Africa

Asia

Conclusions
1. 2. 3. Approximately 13% of all stations worldwide belong to class 3 or greater (i.e., pp y g g ( , annual mean wind speed 6.9 m/s at 80 m) and are therefore suitable for wind power generation. The average calculated 80-m wind speed was 4.59 m/s (class 1) when all stations are included; if only stations in class 3 or higher are counted, the average was 8.44 counted 8 44 m/s (class 5). Offshore stations experience mean wind speeds at 80 m that are ~90% greater than over land on average 6

General Characteristics of Wind Power

Performance is very site specific Generally not building integrated Cost effectiveness improves with turbine size
Turbine output increases with height

Structure must consider vibration Maintenance required (1 to 2/ KWh) req ired Installed cost $1K-$22K / kW
Wi d farms: 6to 8/KWh Wind f 6t Small turbines: 20to 30/KWh

Advantages
Wind energy offers many advantages such as: Wind energy is a clean f l source that d d l fuel h doesn't pollute the environment. ll h
Wind turbines don't produce atmospheric emissions that cause acid rain or greenhouse gasses.

Wind energy relies on the renewable power of the wind that can't be used up. Wind energy is one of the lowest-priced renewable energy technologies gy f p gy g available today, costing between 6 and 8 cents per kilowatt-hour.

Disadvantages
In additions to the offered advantages by wind power, there are some associated disadvantages such as: Wind power must compete with conventional generation sources on a cost basis. Wind is irregular and it does not always blow when electricity is needed.
Not all winds can be harnessed to meet the timing of electricity demands. Hi h l l of uncertainty i production ( di t h bl ) High level f t i t in d ti (un-dispatchable)

Wind energy cannot be stored (unless batteries are used).

 Good wind sites are often located in remote locations, far from cities where the electricity is needed. Wind resource development may compete with other uses for the land and those alternative uses may be more valued than electricity generation. There is some concern over the noise produced by the rotor blades, visual impacts and sometimes birds have been killed by flying into impacts, the rotors. Most of these problems have been resolved or greatly reduced through technological development or by properly siting wind plants.

10

Wind Power Distribution in Canada

The total current installed wind capacity in Canada is 1,535 MW 1 535 (June 2007). Currently, the largest wind farm in Canada is the Prince Project wind p y ( farm in Ontario with a total capacity of 189 MW (126 X GE 1.5 MW). The largest wind farm is located in California, USA. It covers 140 km2 and uses 7,300 turbines. Started in 1981; rated at 548.32 MW .

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Wind Turbine Construction

- Wind is a form of solar energy caused by the unequal heating of the atmosphere by the sun. - Wind turbines are used to convert the kinetic energy associated with the wind into mechanical power that rotates generators. These generators convert the mechanical power into electricity. - Wi d turbines are usually mounted on towers to capture the most of the Wind bi ll d h f h kinetic energy. Turbines catch the wind's energy with their propeller-like blades as shown below.

A cross-sectional area of a turbine blade (Manwell, 2002)

12

Turbine Construction

Rotor: It consists of the blade and the hub. Hub: They connect the blades to the low speed shaft. Hubs have three main types; they are rigid, hinged or teetering. The most common is the rigid type. Nacelle: The nacelle contains the gearbox, l h ll i h b low- and hi h d high-speed shafts, generator, d h f controller, and brake. The nacelle is installed at the top of the tower and its cover protects the components inside the nacelle against different weather conditions.
13

Brake: Used to stop the rotor in emergencies and this can be achieved mechanically, electrically, hydraulically. mechanically electrically or hydraulically Yaw drive: The upwind turbine requires a Yaw drive to keep the rotor facing into the wind as the wind direction changes. The downwind depends on aerodynamics to align the rotor of the turbine turbine. Yaw motor: Used to activate the yaw drive. Tower: Towers are used to raise the turbine in the upper air levels (with higher wind speed) to catch as much wind energy as possible. They are made from steel or concrete in case of large turbine. The Tower height normally ranges from 1 to 1.5 times the rotor diameter. Usually it is not less than 20 m high. 14

 Low-speed shaft: It is considered the main shaft of the turbine. The rotor turns the low-speed shaft at about 30 to 60 r p m r.p.m. Gear box: Gears connect the low-speed shaft to the high-speed shaft of the generator. They increase the rotational speeds from about tens-few hundred rpm to about 1000 or 1800 rpm The gearbox is the most expensive and heaviest rpm. component of a wind turbine. High-speed shaft: It is connected between the gear box and the generator and used in driving the generator generator.

15

 Generator: The generator is used to convert the mechanical power into an electrical power. The most commonly used generators with wind turbines are p y g induction type or a synchronous type AC generator that produce 50 or 60 Hz electricity. The induction generator has been more widely adopted because induction generators offer several advantages over conventional synchronous generators for operation in large power grids. These advantages are the reduced unit cost, brushless rotor construction, absence of separate source for excitation, ruggedness, and ease of maintenance. Induction generators used in wind turbines are either squirrel cage or doubly fed machines. In addition, permanent magnet generators and switched reluctance generators are sometimes used.

16

 Controller: The controller starts up the machine at their cut in speed and shuts off the machine at the cut out speed. Turbines cannot operate at wind speeds above the cut out speed to avoid overheating in their generators and/or mechanical damage of the rotor shaft. A Anemometer: A sensor t measure th wind speed and send thi i f t to the i d d d d this information ti to the controller. The most commonly used anemometers are the cup anemometer and the propeller anemometer. Wind vane: A sensor for the direction of the wind. Wind vanes usually create W W y signal by using contacts or potentiometers. They communicate with the yaw drive to align the turbine properly in the direction of the wind. They are not present in downwind turbines.
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Wind Turbine Classification: .

Wind Turbine Classifications Axis of Rotation Vertical Axis Horizontal Axis Wind Direction Upwind Downwind

18

Wind Turbine Classification:

.
Wind Turbine Classifications
Operation Mode Constant Speed Variable Speed Two # of Blades Three

2-blades WT [2] Credit: Warren Gretz

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Simple Calculations of Wind Turbine Power

Wind Turbines Tip Speed Ratio Wind turbines Tip Speed Ratio (TSR) is defined as the ratio p p ( ) between the moving speed of the outer tip of the turbine blades to the wind speed.

N x D Rotor tip Speed R t ti S d 60 TSR = = Wind Speed v

Where N is the rotational speed of the turbines rotor in RPM; D is the rotor diameter; and v is the incident wind speed.
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Wind Turbines Efficiency

The overall efficiency of the wind turbines is given by;
% overall = Poutput Pwind x 100

Where Poutput is the output generated power from the turbines and Pwind is the power in the wind The Th aerodynamic power i th wind i given b d i in the i d is i by:
P wind = 1 air A v 3 2

Where air is the air density and is equal to 1 225 kg/m3 and A is the 1.225 rotor swept area. The rotor swept area equals to A =

D 2
4

where D is the diameter

21

Example 1
A three-blades, 40 m diameter wind turbine generating 600 kW at an incident wind speed of 14 m/s. Given that the Air density is 1 225 kg / m3 1.225 Calculate:
1. 1 2. 3. 3 4. The Th rpm of th rotor when it operates with TSR of 4 f the t h t ith f 4. The tip speed of the rotor. The needed gear ratio to rotate the generator at 1800 rpm rpm. The overall turbines efficiency.

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Solution
1. The rpm of the rotor can be calculated form the TSR formula as follows.

rpm p x D TSR = 60 v rpm x 40 4 = 60 14

Therefore, the rotors rpm is 26.7 revolution per minute. 2. The tip speed of the rotor is

rpm 26.7 Tip Speed = p p x D = x 40 = 55.9 m / s 60 60

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3.

The needed gear ratio if the generator to rotates at 1800 rpm can be calculated as follows

Generator rpm 1800 G Gear Ratio = = = 67.4 Rotor rpm 26.7

4. To calculate the overall turbines efficiency we need to calculate the power associated by the wind first which is given by

Pwind =

1 1 air A v 3 = x 1.225 x 40 2 x 14 3 = 2112 kW 2 2 4

Then the overall percentage efficiency of the turbine is

% overall =

Poutput Pwind

600 x 100 = x 100 = 28.4 % 2112

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Wind Farm Construction

Wind turbines vary in their ratings from fraction of kW up to 2 MW. They might work as a single unit or connected in few numbers to form what i k h t is known b di t ib t d wind system. Di t ib t d wind systems by distributed i d t Distributed i d t vary in capacities from few kW up to 5 MW. They work either as stand alone systems serving individual customers or as a grid connected to the distribution network. Larger arrays of wind turbines can be connected together to form what is known by wind farms. Wind farms capacities vary from 5 MW to several hundred megawatts. Most probably they are grid connected to the transmission system and sometimes they are connected to the di ib i networks. i h d h distribution k The numbers of wind turbines that constitute a wind farm vary from few turbines up to several thousands of wind turbines connected together together.

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 A block diagram for the main components of a general configuration of wind farms.

26

Wind farm components

Wind turbines: are the main components in wind farms. They are usually
mounted on towers to capture the most of the kinetic energy. Turbines catch the gy p p wind's energy with their propeller-like blades. Wind turbines can be used as standalone systems, or they can be connected to a utility power grid. Sometimes they are hybrid with other resources such as photovoltaic systems.

Power collection and transmission system is required in wind farms to

connect the wind turbines arrays with the other components of the wind farms and to transmit the generated power to either the distribution or the transmission networks according to the farm capacity and voltage level. The generated power from each unit is carried by low voltage underground cables to the units step up transformers (which represents the first stage of stepping up the generated voltage). The most common configuration is that each turbine unit has a transformer connected to it. However, in some configurations two or three turbine units can be connected together to one transformer. The output power of the units transforms is carried by medium voltage underground cables to an overhead or underground collection line that transmit the power to the wind farm substation where the main transformer steps up the voltage to the required voltage level of the grid.

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Wind farm components

Anemometers can be mounted on each wind turbine or they can be mounted on towers placed at different spots inside wind farms. Anemometers towers can reach h i h up to 107 m. S A h heights Sometimes each i h anemometer (tower type) can control input data for the control of two or three turbines in order to reduce the cost of the used anemometers. Control, Monitoring and Communication System: Wind farms must be controlled in order to generate electricity when sufficient wind speeds are available and to be disconnected under low wind speed condition or very high wind speed conditions. In addition, the reactive power demand by the wind farm and the voltage at the point of common coupling must also be controlled under all operating conditions; normal, fault conditions, conditions over-loading operation and islanding Wind farm are operation, islanding. generally equipped with two types of control systems; wind turbine control system and central automatic control system.

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 A central control and monitoring system is required in wind farm especially large farms with large arrays of wind turbines. This is usually achieved using a Supervisory Control And Data Acquisition (SCADA) system. SCADA allows a central computer system to monitor and control each turbine operation as well as the entire wind farm operation. The SCADA can b l be located i the central room or the substation of the wind f d in h l h b i f h i d farm, or even it can be located off site and monitor and control the wind farm from remote point. SCADA systems are capable of some features such as: 1. 1 Modify the output power or voltage of the individual units and/or the whole wind farm. 2. Force the individual units to operate at specific modes. 3. 3 Optimize the start up settings of the timers timers. Among the information provided by the SCADA systems in wind farms: 1. Wind Speed. 2. Number of starts, stops and trips. 3. Energy produced b each i di id l unit. 3 E d d by h individual i 4. Total energy produced by the farm. 5. Generation time. 6. Operation conditions at the trip instants. 7. Trip type. 8. Number of subsystem operations such as yaw drive, and breakers. 9. Plot for power versus wind speed.
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Wind Power Characteristics

Wind Power Probability Density Function (p.d.f.)
The figure below presents the probability density function (p.d.f.) for wind speed. The area under the curve between any two points represents the probability that the incident wind speed is within this range. This function f(v) can be expressed numerically using the Weibull probability density function (Weibull p d f ) given by p.d.f.)

k v f (v ) = cc

k 1

v k exp c

Where k is the shape parameter and c is the scale parameters given by c = and v is the average wind speed. speed

v 1.128 v

Wind power probability density function [1] 30

 The effect of changing the shape parameter k on the shape of the g g p p p function is shown below. A special case arise when k = 2 where the function is known as the Rayleigh probability density function and can be expressed numerically by

v 2 exp f (v ) = 2 4 v 2v

Weibull probability density function [1]

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 The effect of changing the average wind speed value (and hence c) on the h th shape of th R l i h probability d it f ti i shown b l f the Rayleigh b bilit density function is h below. The cumulative distribution function for Weibull statistics can be given by:

F (V ) = prob(v V ) = b
V

v k exp dv c 0 V k = 1 exp c k v cc
k 1

Rayleigh p y g probability density function [ ] y y [1]

This function can be rewritten for Rayleigh statistics as follows;

V 2 F (V ) = prob(v V ) = 1 exp 4v

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 Example 2: For a 54 m diameter, 1000 kW wind turbine that has cut in speed VC = 4 m/s, rated wind speed VR = 14 m/s, and a furling (cut-out) p , p , g( ) wind speed of generating VF = 25 m/s. The turbine is located in a site with Rayleigh winds distribution and average wind speed of 10 m/s. Find: 1. The hrs/year when the wind speed is below the cut in wind speed. 2. The hrs/year when th wind t bi i i a shut d 2 Th h / h the i d turbine is in h t down mode d t d due to excessive wind speed. 3. The generated kWh/year when the turbine is running at rated power. The ideal power curve for wind turbines is shown below.

Ideal turbine power curve

33

Solution:

4 F (4 m / s ) = prob(v 4 m / s ) = 1 exp = 0.1181 4 10 Therefore, the number of hours when the wind speed is below the cut in wind speed is Hours (v 4 m/s) = 8760 x 0.1181 = 1034 hrs/year
2.

1 1. The probability that the incident wind speeds are below the cut in wind speed is 2

The probability that the incident wind speeds are higher than the furling wind speed is
25 2 25 2 prob(v 25 m / s ) = 1 1 exp = exp = 0.0074 4 10 4 10

Therefore, the number of hours when the wind speed is higher than the , p g furling wind speed and will result in shutting down the turbine is. Hours (v 25 m/s) = 8760 x 0.0074 = 65 hrs/year

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 3. m/s is

The probability that the incident wind speeds are higher than 14
14 2 14 2 prob(v 14 m / s ) = 1 1 exp = exp = 0.2145 4 10 4 10

The number of hours when the wind speed is higher than 14 m/s is Hours (v 14 m/s) = 8760 x 0.2145 = 1879 hrs/year Therefore, the number of hours when the wind speed is ranging between 14 m/s and 25 m/s when the turbine i generating rated power i b / d / h h bi is i d is Hours (14 m/s v 25 m/s) = 1879 - 65 = 1814 hrs/year The corresponding generated energy is Energy (14 m/s v 25 m/s) = 1814 x 1000 = 1814 GWh/year

35

 Example 3: A 60 m diameter, 1 MW wind turbine installed at a site having Rayleigh i d t ti ti h i R l i h wind statistics with an average wind speed of 7 m/s. ith i d d f / The turbine power curve is represented by the following table:

Calculate the annual energy production (kWh/year) from this turbine. For simplicity, assume that the power curve varies in steps during the p y, p p g maximum power tracking period, i.e. Pgenerated (V v < V+1) = Pgenerated (v = V) (example Pgenerated (5 v <6) = Pgenerated (v = 5) =86 kW), g g Where v is the desired wind speed.
36

Solution: The probability that the incident wind speed is less than or equal to h b bili h h i id i d di l h l V for Rayleigh statistics in terms of the average wind speed is given by
V 2 F (V ) = prob(v V ) = 1 exp 4v

Then, the probability that the incident wind speed has a value between V1 and V2 can be expressed by;
V1 2 V2 2 prob(V1 < v < V2 ) = F (V1 ) F (V2 ) = 1 exp 1 exp 4 v 4 v V2 2 V1 2 = exp exp 4 v 4 v

The following table presents the probability function, number of hours, and the energy production for each interval. The summation of the energy production over all i t d ti ll intervals presents th annual energy l t the l production for the turbine under investigation.
37

Therefore, the annual energy production (kWh/year) from this turbine is 2537216.062 kWhr/year or 2.537 GWhr/year.

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Capacity Factor (CF) Calculations

The Capacity Factor (CF) is defined as the average power output during all the hours over a defined period of time divided by the nameplate rating of the generation resource.

CF =

Pave Prated

Wind CF calculations can be performed using different methods. Among them: 1- Capacity Factor Calculation using Wind PDF 2- Hourly Calculation of the CF

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1) Capacity Factor Calculation using Wind PDF

The annual capacity factor is given by

Where Ea is the Wh E i th annual energy produced by the wind turbine l d d b th i d t bi The annual energy is calculated by multiplying the power output of the turbine at certain speed by the probability of having that speed in a year as shown in the following equation: g q
v1 where v1 and v2 are the cut in and cut out speed respectively; cut-in cut-out speed, p(v) is the power output at speed v; f(v) is the Rayleigh PDF value at v. Energy (GWh)
0.3 03 P Probability & En nergy (GWh) 0.2 500 0.1 0.0
0 3 6 9 12 15 18 21 24

Ea CF = Prated * 8760

E a = 8760 f ( v ) P ( v )

v2

Power output (kW)

Probability

Speed (m/s)

Pow output (kW) wer

1000

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Adjustment Loss Factor

Wind energy adjustment loss factor is used to calculate net energy yield yield. Components of this factor include the following: Wake loss which is due to the fact that wind gets disturbed and its speed decreases from the first turbine to the next in a wind park. Part of wind energy content will b used b th fi t t bi t generate electricity. Thi results i a t t ill be d by the first turbine to t l t i it This lt in reduced performance of downwind turbines compared to turbines located at the first raw of a wind farm array. Moreover, wake effect could result in a premature damage of downstream turbines structure due to turbulences caused by upstream turbines. Blade soiling and icing effect because of which the rotors efficiency will be reduced over time. Similarly, accumulation of ice on the blades reduces the rotors efficiency in converting wind power to electricity. Electrical losses occur because not all turbines generated electricity is transmitted to the grid. A small fraction is lost while transmitted to the grid or in the converter. Availability of wind turbines. In practice, wind turbines are not always available; thus can not convert the available wind resources into electricity. Wind turbine availability is due to the fact that wind turbines need regular servicing and inspection to ensure safe operation. Additionally, turbine components failures and accidents decrease turbine availability. A minor factor of wind turbine availability is grid availability.

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Net Capacity Factor calculation

Turbine power Curves

Wind Speed Data

Gross Annual Yield

Loss Correction Factor

Net Annual Yield

Input

Installed Capacity

Output Net Capacity Factor Capacit

42

Example: Consider the wind turbine power curve shown below, where Cut in speed (Vci) = 4 m/s. Nominal speed ( p (Vco Vci) = 15 m/s. ) Cut off speed (Vco) = 25 m/s.

Power

Vci

Speed

Vco

43

The Th energy profile corresponding t fil di to wind turbine power curve can be represented as
0 10 / 11 * (v 4) * f (v) * h E (v ) = 10 * f (v) * h 0 0v4 4 v 15 15 v 25 25 v
Power

Vci

Speed

Vco

To obtain f(v), the mean and maximum wind speeds are utilized by Rayliegh (pdf) to estimate the wind speed profile.
v= v= vmax

Then, Pav can be found as

Pave =

E (v )
v =0

h
44

where h is the total number of hours in the period under study.

a) Three Year Annual Study

Table 1 shows a summary of the annual mean and maximum wind speeds.

In this scenario: 1- The annual mean and maximum wind speeds for each year will be utilized by Rayliegh (pdf) to estimate the wind speed profile during each year P(v). g y ( ) 2- This data will then be used to calculate the capacity factor of each year (using previous equations). 3- The net capacity factor will be the average of the capacity factors calculated for the three years.
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0.12

Calculated wind speed profiles for f each year h

f(v)

0.1

2005

0.08 0 08

0.12

0.1

2004

0.06

0.04

0.08
0.02

f(v)

0.06

10 15 Wind speed (m/s)

20

25

0.04

0.12 0 12

0.02

0.1

2006

0.08 0 5 10 15 Wind speed (m/s) 20 25 f(v) 0.06

E a = 8760 f ( v ) P ( v )
v1

v2

0.04

0.02

10 15 Wind speed (m/s)

20

25

46

35 30 % Capacity factor 25 20 15 10 5 0 2004 2005 Year Y 2006

Ea CF = Prated * 8760
Therefore the net capacity factor can be determined as follows: %Net capacity factor =
CF (2004) + CF (2005) + CF (2006) = 29.947% 3

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b) Three Year Monthly Study

Table 2 shows a summary of the monthly mean and maximum wind speeds for three years.

48

In this scenario: 11 The monthly mean and maximum wind speeds for the past three years will be utilized by Rayliegh (pdf) to estimate the wind speed profile during each month. 2- After this the capacity factor of each month will be calculated using previous equations. 3- The net capacity factor of each month will be the average of the capacity factors of the same month in the three years. 4- Select the final capacity factor

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%Monthly capacity factor

60 2004 50 % Capacity factor 40 30 20 10 0 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec 2005 2006

Average monthly capacity factor

60 % Average capac city facto 50 40 30 20 10 0 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec

50

The two methods that can be used to select the annual capacity factor are: 1- calculate the average of the capacity factors for the twelve months. 2- To minimize the uncertainty of the wind based generators, the CF of the generators can be selected as the minimum average monthly capacity factor during the year.

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Comments
* The advantage of this method is the low amount of data required to accomplish the capacity factor calculations. This means we only require the following: - the annual/monthly (based on the period of study) mean and maximum wind speeds are required f thi study t estimate th wind speed profile f( ) d i d for this t d to ti t the i d d fil f(v). - the wind turbine power curve to calculate the output power at different wind speeds p(v). * There is no need for any load data to perform this study. However, the main disadvantage of this method is the lack of accuracy in estimating the wind speed profile which in turn reflects upon the calculations profile, of the average output power and the capacity factor. This is because only the mean and maximum wind speeds are used to estimate the wind speed profile during the period of study and with this little data, the pdf will not be able to express the wind profile precisely. Therefore, it is fair to say that this method is highly recommended to be used for estimating the capacity factor of wind based generators in the sites that suffer from the lack of time based load profiles.
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2) Hourly Calculation of the CF

In this method: 1- the actual hourly wind speed data is used to calculate the average output power of the wind turbine for each month of the years under study. 2- Using h 2 U i these values and the nameplate rating of the wind turbine, l d h l i f h i d bi the capacity factor for each month can be determined . 3- After this, the average capacity factor for each month will be calculated. 44 Select the final CF To minimize the uncertainty of the wind generators, CF. generators the CF of the generators can be selected as the minimum average monthly capacity factor during the year.
60 2004 50 %Capacity Fac ctor 40 30 20 10 0 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec 2005 2006

%Monthly capacity factor

53

35 % Avera capacity fac age ctor 30 25 20 15 10 5 0 Jan Feb

Average monthly capacity factor

Mar

Apr

May

Jun

Jul

Aug

Sep

Oct

Nov

Dec

Comments
The main advantage of this method is the utilization of the hourly wind speed data. This provides us exact values of the average output power of the wind turbines, which can later be used to calculate the capacity factor. This reduces the uncertainty in windbased generators. Moreover, there is no need for load variation data in this analysis too. However, the main disadvantage in this method is the great amount of time-based wind speed data required to calculate the capacity factor, which may not be available for many sites.
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5. Interfacing and Controls of Wind Power

Operation Types of Wind Turbines p yp
There are four main concepts of operation of currently used grid connected wind turbines. These concepts are; Type A: Constant Speed Wind Turbines, Type B Li it d V i bl S d Wi d T bi T B: Limited Variable Speed Wind Turbines, Type C: Variable Speed Wind Turbines with Partial Scale Frequency Converter, Type D: Variable Speed Wind Turbines with Full-Scale Frequency Converter.

55

Type A: Constant Speed Wind Turbines They are usually equipped with squirrel cage induction generators as shown below. In this concept, a gear box is used to couple the turbine shaft with the generator shaft. These types of wind turbines have no pitch angle control and their rotors are d i d so that their efficiency d h i designed h h i ffi i decrease i hi h wind speeds thus in high i d d h avoiding very large mechanical power to be extracted from the wind power. Compensation capacitors are also used to provide sufficient reactive power for the induction machines. Sometimes synchronous generators may be used, but in these cases no compensation capacitors ( d i some cases no gear b ) i h i i (and in box) is required. These types lack the presence of active and reactive power control and may be subjected to large fluctuation in the output power.

Type A: Constant speed wind turbines

56

Type B: Limited Variable Speed Wind Turbines These types are equipped with Wound Rotor Induction Generators (WRIG) as shown below. They are characterized by having additional variable rotor resistances th t are controlled using optical controlled converter mounted on th it that t ll d i ti l t ll d t t d the rotor shaft. Controlling the additional resistance controls the generator slip. These types are usually referred to by OptiSlip. The main drawback of these types is the power lost in the additional resistance.

Type B: Limited variable speed wind turbines

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Type C: Variable Speed Wind Turbines with Partial Scale Frequency Converters These types are equipped with doubly fed induction generators as shown below. In this concept, a gear box is also used. These types of wind turbines are equipped with back-to-back voltage source converters used in feeding the rotor windings. They have pitch angle control to limit the extracted power at high wind speeds conditions. No compensation capacitors used.

Type C: Variable Speed Wind Turbines with Partial Scale Frequency Converters
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Type D V i bl Speed Wind Turbines with Full-Scale F T D: Variable S d Wi d T bi i h F ll S l Frequency C Converters These types are equipped with direct drive synchronous generators as shown below. In this concept, no gear box is used as the synchronous generators used p, g y g are low speed multi-pole generators. These types of wind turbines are equipped with back-to-back voltage source converters or diode rectifiers and voltage source converter to couple the generator with the grid. They have pitch angle control to limit the extracted power at high wind speeds conditions. Sometimes p g p Squirrel Cage induction generators are used with these types but in these cases gear boxes must be used and compensation capacitors may be used also.

Type D: Variable speed wind turbines with full-scale frequency converters

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The table below Th t bl b l presents th d l t the developments i i t lli th previously di t in installing the i l discussed d concepts worldwide for the studied period 1998 2002. This table reveals that Type A (constant speed) was the most dominant concept till 2000 when Type C (variable speed with partial scale converter) becomes the most dominant. Currently, i th E C tl in the European U i Union, T Type C (th variable speed wind t bi (the i bl d i d turbines with ith partial scale frequency converters (referred to by DFIG)) represents 45 % of the total installed capacity compared to 28 % for Type A [26].

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Mechanical Power Controls: Stall, A ti St ll St ll Active Stall, and Pitch Control d Pit h C t l
Stall Control (Passive Stall Control) This is the conventional control concept. In this type, the rotor blades have a fixed angle. They are aerodynamically shaped to create turbulence on the side of the rotor blade, which is not facing the wind, when the wind speed becomes too high. It is characterized by its simplicity, low price, and robustness. However, power from stall-regulated turbines can't be controlled during connection sequence.

Pitch Control In this type, the blade pitch mechanism turns the rotor blades slightly out of the wind whenever the power output becomes too high and turns them back into the wind whenever the wind drops again. This type of control has the advantage of power controllability controlled startup and emergency stopping However at high controllability, stopping. However, speeds, small variations in the incident wind speed result in large fluctuations in the generated power as the speed of variation of the pitch angle is not fast enough to avoid such fluctuations.

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Active Stall Control (ASC) This control offers both the advantages of the stall control (stall effect) and the pitch control. At low wind speeds, the blades are pitched controlled in a similar way to that of the pitch control However if the generator is about to be control. However, overloaded, the control mechanism will pitch the blades in the opposite direction to that a pitch controlled mechanism does. Therefore, this will increase the angle of attack of the rotor blades and makes the blades go into a deeper stall. This type of control has the following advantages: The output power is more accurately controlled than with passive stall. This results in avoiding overshooting the rated power of the machine at the beginning of a gust of wind. f i d AT high wind speeds, the generator can be run almost exactly at rated. This is not the case when using the normal passive stall control mechanism where a drop in the g p p electrical output power is observed at higher wind speeds, as the blades go into deeper stall. The major drawback is its high price due to the presence of the pitching mechanism and its control.
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The table below presents that standards wind turbines types and their power control technique. Wind turbine tubes indicated in Grey color are not in use in today wind industry.

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Control Schemes for Wind Facilities

Wind facility interface is usually controlled to perform a specific task such as: Maximum Power Point Tracking. g Rated Power Operation. Unity Power Factor Operation. Power Factor Regulation. Terminal Voltage Regulation. Power Quality Problems Mitigation.

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Maximum Power Point Tracking (MPPT)

This scheme is usually carried out by the generator-side converter, which is controlled in such a way to track the maximum generated power at different operating conditions. In some cases (with uncontrolled generator side converter), the DC-to-DC Boost converters perform such task Fig a presents wind turbine task. Fig. characteristic when equipped with MPPT technique. This figure reveals that in case of an increase of the incident wind speed from 7 m/s to 9 m/s, the aerodynamic power, and consequently the associated torque, will be increase along the pass a b. b The difference between the aerodynamic torque and the torque controlled by the MPPT will accelerate the turbine to follow the pass a c. This continues until balance is reached at point c. Fig. b shows the MPP trajectory.

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Rated Power Operation

This is associated with variable speed wind turbine. When the incident wind speeds exceeds the limits corresponding to rated power generation, the pitch angle controllers is activated. This controller increases the turbines blades pitch angle with the increase of the incident wind (above the rated power limit) to reduce the ( p ) capture wind power. As shown in the figure below, when the incident wind speed tends to increase above 10 m/s (the corresponding limit to the turbine rated power generation), the pitch angle is activate to limit the generated power to its rated value.

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Unity Power Factor Operation

The aim of this control scheme is to prevent any reactive power exchange between the wind facility and the utility grid. It is usually carried out by controlling the: f y yg y y g - Generator-side converter in case of the DFIG , while adjusting the reactive command of the grid-side converter to zero. - Inverter in case of other power electronic interfaced wind turbines. - STATCOM installed at the wind facilities terminals and operates parallel to the facility in case of direct connected rotating machines. Most of the currently installed wind farms operate under this control scheme. However, under voltage disturbances, this scheme could result in tripping the protective systems and disconnect the farm due to restricted reactive power injection. i j ti

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Power Factor Regulation

The aim of this control scheme is to operate the wind facility at constant power factor. Thus the generated / absorbed reactive power of the wind facility is regulated according to the generated active power to keep the power factor constant during various operating conditions. This is usually carried out by controlling the: - G Generator-side converter in case of DFIG, while adjusting the reactive command of t id t i f DFIG hil dj ti th ti d f the grid-side converter generate the required reactive power amount that regulates the power factor to its preset valuse. - Inverter in case of other power electronic interfaced wind facilities. - STATCOM installed at the wind facility terminals and operates parallel to the wind facility in case of direct connected rotating machines.

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Terminal Voltage Regulation

The aim of this control scheme is to regulate the wind facilities terminal voltage under various operating conditions. It is usually carried out by controlling the: - Generator-side converter in case of DFIG , while adjusting the reactive command of the grid-side converter to zero. - Inverter in case of other power electronic interfaced wind facilities. - STATCOM installed at the wind facility terminals and operates parallel to the wind facility in case of direct connected rotating machines. machines This scheme is capable of handling voltage disturbance without tripping the wind facility protective systems and disconnecting the wind facility.

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7. Case Study 1: Stand alone operation

System Description: The system under investigation with its different components is shown below. This system consists of: - Asynchronous generator, wind turbine operating at stand-alone mode. - A synchronous machine operating as a synchronous condenser and used to control the load voltage at its nominal value value. - Power Factor (PF) correction capacitor bank. - A secondary load bank consists of eight sets, three-phase resistors, connected in series with GTO thyristor switches. y The system is simulated under the MATLAB/SIMULINK environment.

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Control Principle: p The control technique is based on controlling the wind turbine, via controlling the input mechanical torque, to rotate within a specific rotational speed range inspite of the variation in the incident wind speed A secondary load is used to regulate the speed. system frequency by absorbing the excess wind power whenever the generated wind power exceeds the demand. Finally, a synchronous condenser is used to control the grid voltage at its nominal value. The following slides present a detailed description for the different control loops loops.

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Wind Turbine Control Loop The wind turbine power characteristic data stored in a Lookup Table is used to compute the required input turbine torque (Tm) using the generator rotational speed ( r) and the incident wind speed (U) as shown in Fig A Fig B presents the wind Fig. A. Fig. turbine power characteristic.

Fig. A. Constant speed wind turbine control loop.

Fig. B. Wind turbine power characteristic g p

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Secondary Load Control Loop A Discrete Frequency Regulator block is used to control the frequency The system frequency. frequency is measured via a three-phase Phase Locked Loop (PLL) system. This measured frequency is compared to the reference frequency (in this simulation, the 60 Hz reference frequency is used) to obtain the frequency error. The phase error, obtained by integrating the frequency error is then used a PID controller (operated error, in the Proportional-Differential mode) to produce the required secondary load power signal. This power signal is converted to an 8-bit digital signal controlling switching of the eight three-phase secondary loads. The switching process is performed at zero crossing of voltage to minimize voltage disturbances The disturbances. corresponding block diagrams for the secondary load control loop are shown below.

Secondary load control loop. Simulation Scenarios Two different simulation scenarios were carried out to investigate the system performance. 1- The first scenario is dedicated to evaluate the system performance under wind speed changes 2- In the second scenario, the system performance is investigated when a change in the network loading conditions is simulated
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Scenario 1: Wind Speed Variation - This scenario is dedicated to investigate the system performance when it is subjected to variation in the incident wind from 8 m/s to 12 m/s. In this scenario, both the main load (ML) and the switched load (SwL) are assumed connected. Simulation results are shown in Fig. 1(a) and 1(b). Whenever, the generated wind power is equal to the total network demand (75 kW), the secondary load don't consume any power. On the other hand, whenever, the generated wind power exceeds the network d d h k demand, the secondary l d draws the excess power as shown d h d load d h h in Fig. 1(a). This is also revealed by observing the secondary load current presented in Fig. 1(b). These figures also reveal the effective regulation of the network frequency and the wind turbine rotational speed with the variation of the incident wind speed. i d d

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Scenario 1: Wind Speed Variation Fig. 1(a). Active and reactive power variations

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Scenario 1: Wind Speed Variation Fig. 1(b). System voltages, current and frequency

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Scenario 2: Load 2 Connection at the B 25 Bus B_25 - In this scenario, the effect of changing the network loading condition is considered. - The incident wind speed is assumed constant at 10 m/s. - The switched load (SwL) is assumed initially disconnected and then switched ON (connected to the network) at t = 0 2 s. A ( d h k) 0.2 According to turbine characteristics, f a 10 di bi h i i for m/s wind speed, the turbine output power is 0.75 pu (206 kW). Because of the asynchronous machine losses, the wind turbine produces 200 kW. As the main load is 50 kW, the secondary load absorbs 150 kW to maintain a constant 60 Hz frequency.

- At t=0 2 s the additional load of 25 kW is switched on The frequency momentarily t=0.2 s, on. drops to 59.85 Hz and the frequency regulator reacts to reduce the power absorbed by the secondary load in order to bring the frequency back to 60 Hz. Voltage stays at 1 pu and no flicker is observed. - Simulation results are shown in Fig. 2(a) and 2(b).
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Scenario 2: Load 2 Connection at the B_25 Bus Fig. 2(a). Active and reactive power variations

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Scenario 2: Load 2 Connection at the B 25 Bus B_25 Fig. 2(b). System voltages, current and frequency

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Case Study 2: Voltage-Regulated Grid-Connected DFIG

System Description The system under study with its different components is shown below. This system consists of a 9 MW wind farm equipped with 6 x 1.5 MW variable-speed DFIG wind turbines, grid supply, transmission system, motor based plant, and passive loads. The wind turbines are assumed operating under identical operating p g p g conditions and the farm is modeled using aggregated model. Therefore, the whole farm is modeled by one 9 MW wind turbine unit. The system is simulated under the MATLAB/SIMULINK environment.

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Control Loops DFIG Controls The lt Th voltage regulation t h i l ti technique used i b d on using th rotor-side converter f d is based i the t id t for the wind farm terminal voltage regulation. This is carried out in parallel with its main function and that is to track the maximum active power. While the grid side converter is dedicated to regulate the DC bus voltage of the back-to back converter. The Th connection di ti diagram of th DFIG with a b i f d f the ith brief description f th converters i ti for the t control actions and the required signals are shown below.

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Control Loops - Pitch Angle Control Loop As the turbine rotational speed () exceeds the reference value at which the output power of the turbine is 1 pu, the pitch angle actuator is activated to adjust the turbine mechanical power to 1 pu. The corresponding block diagram for the pitch angle control loop is presented in Fig. 23. The maximum pitch angle is set to be 45 while the pitch angle rate of change is limited to 2/s.

Pitch angle control loop

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Simulation Results Wind Speed Variation Scenario This scenario shows the system performance when it is subjected to variation in the incident wind from 8 m/s to 14 m/s. Simulation results are shown in Figs 3 and 4 In Fig 3 , the generator rotational Figs. 4. Fig. speed increased from 0.8 pu to 1.21 pu when the incident wind speed changed. This is associated by an increase in the generated active power. Once the generated power reach the rated value, the pitch angle controller is activated to maintain the output power at the rated value During the simulation period the control technique value. managed successfully to regulate the terminal voltage to unity and the DC bus voltage at 1200 V. Fig. Fi 4 presents th system performance th t reveals a reverse i th power fl t the t f that l in the flow direction at the B25 bus with the increase of the generated wind power. This is associated with a slight decrease in the system buses voltages. Finally, the motor speed and current are slightly affected during the fast jump of the generated power from point C t point D on th t bi characteristic. f i t to i t the turbine h t i ti

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Simulation Results Wind Speed Variation Scenario Fig. 3. Wind farm performance subjected to disturbances caused by wind speed change.

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Simulation Results Wind Speed Variation Scenario Fig. 4. System performance subjected to disturbances caused by wind speed change.

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