Topic

Salts

8
LEARNING OUTCOMES
By the end of this topic, you should be able to: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Explain how soluble salts and insoluble salts can be prepared; Explain how cations and anions in salts can be identified; Conduct tests to identify gases; Describe how salt can be prepared by crystallisation; and Identify the ions present in an unknown salt using qualitative analysis.

X INTRODUCTION
Hello and welcome to the final topic of this module! Well, first of all, I am sure you are aware that chemical salts are part of our daily life. We use sodium chloride and monosodium glutamate or MSG in food preparation, ammonium nitrate and urea as fertilisers, mercury (II) chloride and copper(II) sulphates in pesticides, sodium benzoate and sodium nitrate as preservatives in our food and so on. In addition, most of the medications we take are salts in tablet form. As an example, for gastric pain due to digestive acids, we take antacids such as natrium hydrogen carbonate, which is a base to neutralise the digestive acids. Another familiar and popular example is Panadol or paracetamol which we use to relieve headaches and fever. For indigestion and bloatedness, we use ENO salt.

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Epsom salts or magnesium sulphate crystals are used for relaxing muscles, as a sedative and to draw toxins from our body. The examples can go on and on because there are so many uses of salts in our daily lives; it is just a matter of whether we realise it or not. So, in this topic, we will learn more about salts, how they are prepared, how cations and anions in salts can be identified, how cations and anions in salts can be analysed through qualitative analysis as well as how salts can be obtained in their crystalline form through the process of crystallisation. Are you ready to start now? Let this exciting lesson begin and enjoy this final topic!

8.1

PREPARATION OF SALTS

We begin this topic by discussing salt. Before we proceed further, what can you say to define salt?
A salt is an ionic compound that contains a cation other than H+ and an anion other than OH- or O2-.

There are many different types of salts which exist in nature. The earth crust contains different types of salt such as calcium chloride, magnesium sulphate and calcium carbonate. There are also salts such as potassium chloride, magnesium chloride and potassium bromide. Keep in mind that not all salts are soluble in water. There are soluble salts and insoluble salts. In Topic 7, we learnt that the solubility of a substance is the amount of that substance (solute) that can be dissolved in a given quantity of solvent. Can you still recall? What does it mean by soluble salts?
Soluble salts are salts that dissolve in water at room temperature while salts that cannot dissolve in water are called insoluble salts.

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However, some salts that do not dissolve in water at room temperature do dissolve in hot water such as lead(II) chloride. You can refer to Table 8.1, which gives you a summary of soluble and insoluble salts.
Table 8.1: Soluble and Insoluble Salts Soluble Salts x Nitrate Salts x Sodium x Potassium x Ammonium Salts x Ethanoate Salts Insoluble Salts x Chloride salts: All are soluble except silver chloride, lead(II) chloride (soluble in hot water) and mercury(II) chloride x Sulphate salts: All are soluble except lead(II) sulphate, barium sulphate, and calcium sulphate (dissolves a little bit in water) x Carbonate salts: All are insoluble except sodium carbonate, potassium carbonate and ammonium carbonate

We can prepare both soluble and insoluble salts using various methods. The methods used depend on the salts solubility in water. These methods will be discussed in the following sections.

8.1.1

Preparation of Soluble Salts

Do you know that there are three methods to prepare soluble salts? These methods are acid-base neutralisation reactions, displacement reactions, and reaction of acids with carbonates. Then, the salt solutions formed are evaporated, cooled, filtered, and dried to obtain dry salt crystals. Figure 8.1 shows the preparation of soluble salts.

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Figure 8.1: Preparation of soluble salts Source: http://wiki.one-school.net

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Now, let us study these three methods further, starting with neutalisation reactions. (a) Neutralisation Reactions Firstly, let us learn the definition of neutralisation reaction. What does it stand for?
Acid-base neutralisation reactions are processes in which an acid reacts with a base to form salt and water.

Do you know which salts can be prepared this way? Salts of sodium, potassium, and ammonium can be prepared by neutralisation reactions. How does this method work? This method works by neutralising the acid by a base/alkali, thus producing the end products which are salt and water. This process can be simplified as follows Acid + Base/Alkali Salt + Water (Neutralisation) One typical example for this particular method is the reaction between hydrochloric acid (acid) and sodium hydroxide (base) to form sodium chloride (salt) and water. HCl(aq) + NaOH (aq) NaCl(aq) + H2O (l) From this example, we can also define salt as a compound that is formed when the hydrogen ion, H+, from an acid is replaced by a metal ion or ammonium ion from the base/alkali. A salt is also an ionic compound which consists of a cation such as a metal ion or an ammonium ion from a base and anion from an acid. For example, in the salt sodium chloride, the cation is sodium ion, Na+, and the anion is the chloride ion, Cl .

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Other soluble salts can also be prepared through neutralisation by having an acid react with a metal oxide, just as shown in the following: Acid + Metal Oxide Salt + Water (neutralisation) An example for this method is when you have hydrochloric acid (acid) react with magnesium oxide (base) to form magnesium chloride (salt) and water. HCl(aq) + MgO (aq) MgCl2(aq) + H2O (l) Table 8.2 shows some examples of salts from different acids.
Table 8.2: Examples of Salts from Different Acids Acid Sulphuric acid Nitric acid Carbonic acid Phosphoric acid Ethanoic acid Hydrochloric acid Salt Magnesium sulphate Ammonium sulphate Potassium nitrate Aluminium nitrate Iron(II) carbonate Calcium carbonate Iron(III) phosphate Ammonium phosphate Lead(II) ethanoate Copper(II) ethanoate Sodium chloride Ammonium chloride Formula MgSO4 (NH4)2 SO4 KNO3 Al (NO3) 3 FeCO3 CaCO3 FePO4 (NH4) 3PO4 Pb (CH3COO) 2 Cu (CH3COO) 2 NaCl NH4Cl

(b)

Displacement Reactions Now, let us move on to the second method of preparing soluble salt displacement reactions. How does this method work? In this method, salts are prepared by reacting non-oxidising acids such as hydrochloric acid and sulphuric acid with active metals, just as shown in the following: Acid + Metal Salt + Hydrogen gas

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For example, when zinc is dissolved in sulphuric acid, the reaction produces zinc sulphate; hydrogen is displaced from the acid and it bubbles off as gaseous H2, just like the following equation: H2SO4(aq) + Zn (s) ZnSO4(aq) + H2 (g) Zinc sulphate solution is then evaporated, cooled and filtered to get solid crystals. The reaction is an example of a displacement reaction in which one element displaces another from a compound. The more active the metal (Zn) displaces, the less active it is for hydrogen from its compound in aqueous solution to form zinc sulphate and hydrogen gas. (c) Reaction of Acids with Carbonates Lastly, let us look at the third method, which is reaction of acids with carbonates. What does reaction of acids with carbonates yield? Reaction of acids with carbonates yields salt, water and carbon dioxide gas as shown in the following: Acid + Carbonates Salt + Water + Carbon dioxide gas For example, calcium chloride salt is prepared by the reaction between hydrochloric acid and calcium carbonate. Carbon dioxide gas bubbles off and the salt solution is then evaporated, cooled and filtered to obtain calcium chloride crystals. 2HCl(aq) + CaCO3 (aq) CaCl2(aq + H2O (l) + CO2(g) Let us now learn how to prepare ammonium sulphate salt in Activity 8.1.

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ACTIVITY 8.1
Preparing Ammonium Sulphate Salt You will need: ammonia solution (2M), dilute sulphuric acid (1M), beaker, glass rod, bunsen burner, tripod stand, wire gauze, filter funnel, and filter paper. Step: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. Heat 30 cm3 of dilute sulphuric acid into a beaker. Add ammonia solution little by little into the beaker, stirring the solution. Do not add any ammonia solution when the solution smells amniotic. Heat the solution until it becomes one-third of its original volume. Cool the hot saturated solution in a mixture of ice and water. Filter the salt crystals produced. Dry the crystals using filter paper.

Questions: (a) (b) Which method is used to prepare the salt? How does the addition of ammonium sulphate affect the pH of the soil?

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8.1.2

Preparation of Insoluble Salts

Let us move on to insoluble salts. How do we prepare it? Insoluble salts are prepared by precipitation reactions, which are processes in which two aqueous soluble salts are mixed together to form a soluble salt and an insoluble salt as a precipitate that can be obtained by filtration.

What are the steps involved for this method? Figure 8.2 shows the steps involved in the preparation of insoluble salts.

Figure 8.2: Preparation of insoluble salts by precipitation Source: http://www.docbrown.info/page03/AcidsBasesSalts06.htm

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A typical example of precipitation is the preparation of the insoluble salt, barium sulphate. This is shown in Figure 8.3.

Figure 8.3: Preparation of barium sulphate Source: http://wiki.one-school.net

You may notice that both starting solutions of barium chloride and magnesium sulphate are soluble in water. The reaction between the two solutions yields a precipitate, barium sulphate, and a soluble salt, magnesium chloride, as shown in the following: BaCl2 (aq) + MgSO4(aq) BaSO4(s) + MgCl2(aq)

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How do we predict whether a precipitation reaction will occur or not? In order to predict whether a precipitation reaction will occur on mixing solutions of two substances, you must know the solubilities of the potential products. This can be done by using the solubility guidelines in Table 8.1 shown earlier. Can you still recall? Based on Table 8.1, we can conclude that if a substance has a low solubility in water, it is likely to precipitate from an aqueous solution. If a substance has a high solubility in water, no precipitate will form from this reaction.

ACTIVITY 8.2
Search in the Internet and find out the uses of salt in: (a) (b) (c) Agriculture; Medical field; and Food industries.

8.2

IDENTIFICATION OF CATIONS AND ANIONS

Thus far, we have learnt about the formation of ions in Topic 5. An ion is an atom or group of atoms that carries an electric charge. Ions that possess a positive charge, such as sodium ion, Na+, are called cations. Those carrying a negative charge, such as chloride ion, Cl , are called anions. Ions also exist as polyatomic ions or groups of atoms that bear an electric charge. The first atom in the formula is usually the central atom to which the other atoms are bonded to make a stable unit. Examples include the ammonium ion, NH4+, the sulphate ion, SO42 and the nitrate ion, NO3 .

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Table 8.3 shows the formula, ionic charges and names of some common ions.
Table 8.3: Some Common Cations and Anions Common Cations Formula Li+ Na+ K+ Ag+ NH4+ Cu+ Cu2+ Mg2+ Ca2+ Zn2+ Hg22+ Hg2+ Fe2+ Pb2+ Sn2+ Fe3+ Al3+ Cr3+ Charge 1+ 1+ 1+ 1+ 1+ 1+ 2+ 2+ 2+ 2+ 2+ 2+ 2+ 2+ 2+ 3+ 3+ 3+ Lithium Sodium Potassium Silver/argentum Ammonium Copper(I) Copper(II) Magnesium Calcium Zinc Mercury(I)/mercurous Mercury(II) of mercuric Iron(II) Plumbum(II) Tin(II)/stannous Iron(III) Aluminium Chromium Name Formula F Cl Br I OH MnO4 CH3COO NO3 O2 O22 CO32 CrO42 Cr2O72 S2 SO42 SO32 CO32 PO43 Common Anions Charge 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 3 Name Flouride Chloride Bromide Iodide Hydroxide Permanganate Ethanoate/acetate Nitrate Oxide Peroxide Carbonate Chromate Dichromate Sulphide Sulphate Sulphite Carbonate Phosphate

In the following sections, we will learn how to identify anions and cations.

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8.2.1

Identification of Anions

Do you know that anions are identified by the reaction of the salt or salt solution with silver nitrate solution or barium chloride solution? These are shown in Table 8.4.
Table 8.4: Reactions of Anions Anions Bromide, Br Chloride, Cl Iodide, I Nitrite, NO2 Sulphate, SO42 Silver Nitrate Pale yellow precipitate White precipitate soluble in ammonia Yellow precipitate White precipitate White precipitate if solution is concentrated Black precipitate White precipitate soluble in excess sulphite solution Iron(II) Chloride No reaction No reaction Red colouration Reddish brown precipitate on heating No reaction Barium Chloride No reaction No reaction No reaction No reaction White precipitate insoluble in dilute HCl No reaction White precipitate soluble in dilute HCl

Sulphide, S2 Sulphite, SO32

Black precipitate in alkaline solution Red colouration or brown precipitate

8.2.2

Identification of Cations

How about cations? How do we identify them? Cations are identified by reaction of the salt or salt solution with sodium hydroxide or ammonia solution as shown in Figure 8.4.

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Figure 8.4: Test for cations Source: http://wiki.one-school.net

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In addition, cations can be identified by a flame test where a small amount of the salt is heated on a nichrome wire moisten with concentrated sulphuric acid to produce a flame characteristic of the cations. The characteristic is shown in Table 8.5.
Table 8.5: Flame Test of Some Cations Colour of Flame Green Red Blue Yellow Violet Cations Barium ion, Ba2+ Calcium ion, Ca2+ Copper(II) ion, Cu2+ Sodium ion, Na+ Potassium ion, K+

8.3

IDENTIFICATION OF GASES

We turn our attention now to gases. How do we identify gases? First of all, you have to understand that many important chemical substances are gases at ambient conditions. The earths atmosphere is a mixture of gases such as nitrogen and oxygen with smaller concentration of other gases. When some chemical compounds are heated, gases are also evolved. For example, when a carbonate salt is heated, carbon dioxide gas is evolved. Each of these gases has characteristic physical properties and can be identified by its colour, smell, and test with damp litmus paper as shown in Figure 8.5.

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Figure 8.5: Identification of gases Source: http://wiki.one-school.net

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The gases that are evolved can be further identified by carrying out confirmatory tests as shown in Table 8.6.
Table 8.6: Confirmatory Test for Gases Gas Carbon dioxide Confirmatory Test Turns lime water or calcium hydroxide milky due to the formation of calcium carbonate. Ca(OH)2(aq) + CO2 (g) Sulphur dioxide Hydrogen sulphide Chlorine Ammonia CaCO3(s) + H2O(l) Decolourises acidified potassium permanganate solution. Decolourises acidified potassium permanganate solution, smells like rotten eggs. Bleaches wet litmus paper. Thick, white fumes of ammonium chloride when in contact with concentrated hydrochloric acid. NH3(g) + HCl(g) Oxygen NH4Cl(g) Burns when a lighted splinter is placed inside a gas jar of oxygen.

8.4

CRYSTALLISATION

Let us start this subtopic by defining crystallisation. Do you know what it stands for?
Crystallisation is the formation of solid crystals from a homogeneous solution.

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You have learnt that a solution is formed when a solute dissolves in a solvent in the Topic 2. Do you still remember? As a solid solute begins to dissolve in a solvent, the concentration of solute particles in a solution increases, and so do their chances of colliding with the surface of the solid. Such a collision may result in the solute particle becoming reattached to the solid. This process, which is the opposite of the solution process, is called crystallisation. Thus, two opposing processes occur in a solution in contact with undissolved solute. This situation is represented in the following by the use of a double arrow. Dissolve Solute + Solvent Crystallise Do you know that crystallisation is also a method to purify solid compounds? Usually, a compound is dissolved in a hot solvent and the hot solution is filtered. This removes extremely insoluble particles. As the hot filtrate is allowed to cool, the compound crystallises. To obtain the best crystals, the crystallisation should proceed slowly. A cold filtration separates the crystals from the solvent. The final stage is to dry the crystals in an oven. Figure 8.6 illustrates to you the process of crystallisation of a salt. Solution

Figure 8.6: Processes for making crystallisation of a salt Source: http://images.google.com

Let us look at an activity which shows you how to make crystals.

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ACTIVITY 8.3
Making Crystals You will need: warm water, about half a cup of baking soda (sodium bicarbonate), a jar, a piece of yarn about 30 cm long, a spoon and a pencil. Step: 1. Fill the jar half way with warm water. Stir in the baking soda to help it dissolve. Tie one end of the yarn around the middle of the pencil. Place the pencil across the top of the jar so that the yarn hangs down into the liquid. Look at the yarn carefully each day for a week and record your observations.

2. 3.

4.

8.5

QUALITATIVE ANALYSIS OF SALTS

Before we end this topic, let us look at qualitative analysis of salts. Firstly, let us learn the meaning of qualitative analysis. Do you have any idea?
Qualitative analysis is a procedure for identifying the ions present in an unknown salt.

However, keep in mind that qualitative analysis determines only the presence and absence of anions and cations in the salt. It does not determine the amount of a particular ion that is present in the salt.

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Do you know that there are three steps of doing qualitative analysis of an unknown salt? These steps are shown in Figure 8.7.

Figure 8.7: Three steps of qualitative analysis

8.5.1

Preliminary Examination of the Salt

What can we do to preliminary examine the salt? Preliminary examination of the salt involves these five following tests as listed in Figure 8.8.

Figure 8.8: Five tests of preliminary examination of salt

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Now, we are going to look at these steps further, starting with the first step physical examination of the salt. (a) Physical Examination of the Salt We can do preliminary examination by looking, touching and smelling. By doing so, we can determine the physical properties of the salt such as its physical state, colour and smell. We can always check our observations against Figure 8.9 to infer the salt.

Figure 8.9: Colour of salts Source: http://wiki.one-school.net

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(b)

Solubility of the Salt We can check the solubility of the salt by dissolving it in water. This can be done by putting a small amount of the salt in a test tube. Then, we can refer to Table 8.1 to check the solubility of the salt in water. Action of Heat on the Salt This can be done by heating the salt and then observing the colour change of the salt and the gases that are evolved. These observations can infer the type of that salt as shown in Table 8.7 and Table 8.8 respectively.
Table 8.7: Action of Heat on Salts and Colour Change Colour of Salt Salt Copper(II) chloride Copper(II) sulphate Chromium(III) salts Iron(II) salts Iron(III) chloride Nickel(II) salts Zinc salt or zinc oxide Lead(II) oxide Ammonium salts Sulphur or sulphur compounds such as thiosulphates, sulphites

(c)

Before Heating Greenish blue Blue Violet Green Bright yellow Bright green White Yellow White Yellow Brown White Green White Iron black Yellow

After Heating

Yellow when hot, white when cold Yellow when cold, brownish-red when hot White sublimate Yellow sublimate

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Table 8.8: Action of Heat on Salts and Gases Evolved Observation Water vapour Violet vapour Oxygen Carbon dioxide Ammonia Sulphur dioxide Hydrogen sulphide Chlorine Dark brown or reddish fumes Salts Hydrated salt, hydrogencarbonate, hydroxide Iodine or iodine compounds Oxides, peroxides, nitrates, chlorates and others Carbonates, bicarbonates, oxalates and organic compounds Ammonium salts Sulphites, sulphates, thiosulphates Hydrated sulphides, acid sulphides Hypochlorites, some chlorides Nitrogen dioxide gas from nitrates, bromine from certain bromides

Confirmatory tests are then conducted for specific gases as shown in Table 8.6 (Subtopic 8.3). (d) Reaction of the Salt with Dilute Hydrochloric Acid Now, let us move on to see the reaction of the salt with dilute hydrochcloric acid. We can do this by adding dilute hydrochloric acid to a small amount of the salt in a test tube. If there is no reaction, then we need to heat the mixture slowly. Identify any gases that are evolved to infer the type of salt as shown in Table 8.9.
Table 8.9: Action of Dilute Hydrochloric Acid Observation Reddish brown fumes Odour of vinegar Yellowish green gas which bleaches wet litmus paper Colourless gas which discolourises acidified potassium permanganate solution (no rotten smell) Colourless gas which discolourises acidified potassium permanganate solution (rotten smell) Colourless gas which turns lime water milky Carbon dioxide from carbonates or bicarbonates Inference Nitrogen dioxide from nitrites Acetic acid from acetates Chlorine from hypochlorites Sulphur dioxide from sulphites Hydrogen sulphide gas from sulphides

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(e)

Reaction of the Salt with Concentrated Sulphuric Acid Lastly, let us look at the reaction of the salt with concentrated sulphuric acid. This can be done by adding concentrated sulphuric acid to a small amount of the salt in a test tube. If there is no reaction, heat the mixture slowly. Identify any gases that are evolved to infer the type of salt as shown in Table 8.10.
Table 8.10: Action of Concentrated Sulphuric Acid Observation Inference Insoluble sulphates from barium, calcium and lead(II) salts Hydrogen chloride from chlorides Iodine from iodides Carbon monoxide from formates or oxalates Oxygen from peroxides, permangantes, chromates and dichromates Sulphur dioxide from sulphites

White precipitate Colourless gas which fumes in air or when in contact with ammonia solution Violet vapour Colourless gas burns with blue flame Colourless gas which burns when a lighted wooden splinter is placed Colourless gas which discolourises acidified potassium permanganate solution (no rotten smell) Colourless gas which discolourises acidified potassium permanganate solution (rotten smell) Colourless gas which turns lime water milky

Hydrogen sulphide gas from sulphides

Carbon dioxide from carbonates or bicarbonates

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8.5.2

Identification of Anions and Cations in the Salt

How do we identify anions and cations in the salt? Well, this can be done by preparing an aqueous solution of the salt and do testing for anions and cations present in the salt as discussed in Subtopic 8.3.

8.5.3

Confirmatory Tests for Specific Anions and Cations

How about confirmatory tests for specific anions and cations? Confirmatory tests for specific anions and cations can be conducted as described in Table 8.11 and Figure 8.10 respectively.
Table 8.11: Confirmatory Tests for Anions Anion Nitrate ion, NO3 Test Brown ring test. Put an amount of a solution in a test tube; then, slowly pour concentrated sulphuric acid down the side of the test tube. If the solution is a nitrate, a brown ring is obtained where the acid meets the nitrate solution. With chlorine water or bleaching powder, a brown colouration is obtained. A mixture of solid chloride and solid dichromate on heating with concentrated sulphuric acid. It liberates reddish-brown fumes of chromyl chloride. Same method as bromide ion but the organic layer is violet. With dilute hydrochloric acid or dilute sulphuric acid, it evolves brown fumes of nitrogen dioxide.

Bromide ion, Br Chloride ion, Cl

Iodide ion, I Nitrite, NO2

How about cations? Cations in the salt solution are confirmed by reacting it with potassium iodide (KI), potassium thiocyanate (K4Fe(CN)6), and potassium hexacyanoferrate(III) solution (K3Fe(CN)6) as shown in Figure 8.10.

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Figure 8.10: Confirmatory tests for cations Source: http://wiki.one-school.net

ACTIVITY 8.4
You are given a magnesium sulphate solution. 1. Carry out a qualitative analysis on the magnesium sulphate solution; and Describe briefly the chemical tests done to identify and confirm the presence of anions and cations in the solution.

2.

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SELF-CHECK 8.1
Answer the questions below: 1. Ammonia gas is bubbled into a test tube filled with a copper(II) sulphate solution. A blue precipitate is formed. What will happen to the blue precipitate when ammonia gas is continuously bubbled into the test tube? How would you differentiate a barium chloride and a barium nitrate solution? Salt X is soluble in water. The solution is divided into two portions: (a) The first portion produces a white precipitate with a sodium hydroxide solution. The precipitate will dissolve when placed in excess sodium hydroxide solution; and The second portion gives a yellow precipitate with potassium iodide.

2.

3.

(b)

Based on the above description, name salt X.

A salt is an ionic compound that contains a cation other than H+ and an anion other than OH or O2 . It is formed when the hydrogen ion, H+, from an acid is replaced by a metal ion or ammonium ion from the base/alkali. Soluble salts include nitrate salts, salts of sodium, potassium, and ammonium, and ethanoate salts. All chloride salts are soluble except silver chloride, lead(II) chloride (soluble in hot water) and mercury(II) chloride. All sulphate salts are soluble except lead(II) sulphate, barium sulphate and calcium sulphate (dissolves a little bit in water).

x x x

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x x x x x x x x x

All carbonate salts are insoluble except sodium carbonate, potassium carbonate and ammonium carbonate. Soluble salts can be prepared by acid-base neutralisation reactions, displacement reactions, and reaction of acids with carbonates. Insoluble salts are prepared by precipitation reactions. Anions are identified by the reaction of the salt or salt solution with silver nitrate solution or barium chloride solution. Cations are identified by reaction of the salt or salt solution with sodium hydroxide or ammonia solution. Gases can be identified by their colour, smell and a test with damp litmus paper. Crystallisation is the formation of solid crystals from a homogenous solution. Qualitative analysis is a procedure for identifying the ions present in an unknown salt. Qualitative analysis of an unknown salt involves the following steps: preliminary examination of the salt, identification of anions and cations in the salt, and confirmatory tests for specific anions and cations.

Anions Carbonates Cations Chloride salts Crystallisation Displacement reaction Gases Insoluble salts

Nitrates Neutralisation reaction Precipitation reaction Qualitative analysis Salt Soluble salts Solubility of salts Sulphates

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Briggs, J. G. R. (1992). Science in focus chemistry for GCE O Level. Singapore: Pearson Education. Brown, T. L., Lemay, H. E., & Bursten, B. E. (2000). Chemistry: The central science (8th ed.). New Jersey: Prentice Hall. McMurray, J., & Fay, R. C. (2001). Chemistry (3rd ed.). New Jersey: Prentice Hall. Ralph, A. B. (2003). Fundamentals of chemistry. New Jersey: Prentice Hall. Whitten, K. W., Davis, R. E., Peck, M. L., & Stanley, G. G. (2010). Chemistry (9th ed.). Belmont: Brooks/Cole.