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Matrices
Basic Definitions:

Row Matrix Transpose of Matrix

One row and any number of columns. The matrix obtained by interchanging rows
and columns of the matrix A is called the
Eg:- [ 1 2 3 4 ]
Transpose of A and is denoted by A/ (or)
Column Matrix AT (read as A Transpose).
Only one column and any number of rows. Eg If A= 123456 AT=142536
Eg:-123 Triangular Matrix
Square Matrix A Square matrix in which all the entries
Number of rows is equal to number of above the main diagonal are zero, is
columns. called Lower Triangular Matrix. If all the
entries below the main diagonal are zero,
Eg:- 1234 123456789 it is called Upper Triangular Matrix.
Zero Matrix (or) Null Matrix Eg:-
All elements are zeros. Upper Traingular Matrix A = 123015001

Eg:- 0 0000 000000000 Lower Traingular Matrix A = 100230123

Diagonal Matrix
Symmetric Matrix
A Square matrix all of whose elements
except those in the leading diagonal are A Square matrix A = {aij} is said to be
zero, is called a diagonal matrix Symmetric when aij=aji for all i and j.
Eg:- 3005 200030004 (i.e., A =AT)
Scalar Matrix
Skew Symmetric Matrix
It is a diagonal matrix whose elements in
diagonal are same. A Square matrix A = {aij} is said to be
Skew Symmetric when aij= - aji for all i
Eg:- 3003 200020002 and j.
Identity Matrix (i.e., A = - AT)
A Square matrix in which diagonal Singular Matrix
elements are ‘1’ and all other elements ‘0’
is called Identity Matrix. A Square matrix A is said to be Singular if
the determinant value of A is zero.
Eg:- 1001 100010001
Inverse of a Matrix
A-1=1Aadjoint A

Multiplication of Matrices :
Two matrices A and B are conformable for the product AB only, if the number of
Column in A (Pre-Multiplier) is the same as the number of rows in B (Post-
Multiplier).
A B = AB
[mxn] [nxp] [mxp]

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Matrix Multiplication is always associative :
If A,B,C are mxn, nxp, pxq matrices, then (AB)C = A(BC).

Multiplication of a matrix by a Unit Matrix :

If A is a Square Matrix of order n and I is the Unit Matrix of same order n, then
A.I = I.A = A.
Note : AB=0 (NULL) does not necessarily imply A=0 (or) B=0 (or) both A,B=0.

Properties of Matrix Addition :

• Matrix Addition is commutative if both are same order. A+B = B+A.
• It is also associative. A+(B+C) = (A+B)+C.
• Additive Identity : A Null matrix of same order is the identity matrix.
• Additive Inverse : For matrix [A], additive inverse is [-A]. [A] + [-A] = 0.

Properties of Matrix Multiplication :

• Matrix Multiplication is not commutative.
• Matrix Multiplication is distributive over matrix addition.
• A,B,C is of order mxn, nxp and nxp, then A(B+C) = AB + AC.
• A,B,C is of order mxn, mxn, and nxp, then (A+B)C = AC + BC.

Characteristic Equation :
The equation A-λI=0 is said to be Characteristic Equation of the transformation or
the Characteristic Equation of the matrix A.

Eigen Values :
To solve the characteristic equation, we get characteristic roots. They are called
Eigen Values.

Eigen Vectors :
To find the eigen vectors, solve (A-λI)=0 for the different values of λ.

Cayley-Hamilton Theorem :
Every Square Matrix satisfies its own characteristic equation.

Properties of Eigen values and Eigen Vectors:

• Sum of the eigen values is equal to the sum of the main diagonal
elements.
• Product of the eigen values is equal to its determinant value.
• The eigen values of A and AT are the same.
• The characteristic roots of a triangular matrix are just the diagonal
elements of the matrix.
• If λ is a eigen value of a matrix A, then 1/λ is the eigen value of A-1.
• If λ is an eigen value of an orthogonal matrix, 1/λ is also its eigen value.
• If λ1,λ2,λ3,…λn are eigen values of a matrix A, then Am has the eigen
values λ1m,λ2m,λ3m,…λnm.
• The eigen values of a real symmetric matrix are real numbers.

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• The eigen values corresponding to distinct eigen values of a real
symmetric matrix are orthogonal.
• The similar matrices have same eigen values.
• If a real symmetric matrix of order Z has equal eigen values then the
matrix is a scalar matrix.
• The eigen vector X of a matrix A is not unique.
• If A and B are nxn matrices and B is a non-singular matrix then A and
B-1AB have same eigen values.

Diagonalisation of a Matrix :
If a Square matrix A of order n has ‘n’ linearly independent eigen vectors, then
a matrix P can be found such that P-1AP is a diagonal matrix.

Fundamental theorem on Quadratic Form :

Any Quadratic form may be reduced to Canonical form by means of a non-
singular transformation.

Quadratic Form :
A homogeneous polynomial of the second degree in any number of variables
called a Quadratic Form. The matrix corresponding to the Quadratic form in
three variables is A= Coefficient of x1212Coefficient of x1x212Coefficient of
x1x312Coefficient of x2x3Coefficient of x2212Coefficient of x2x312Coefficient of
x1x312Coefficient of x2x3Coefficient of x32

Nature of Quadratic Form:

Let X/AX be the given quadratic form in the variables x1,x2,x3,….xn.
i.e., X/AX= d1x12+d2x22+…….dnxn2.
Let the rank of A be r, then X/AX contains only ‘r’ terms. The number of positive
terms in the above equation of X/AX is called the index of the quadratic form
and it is denoted by ‘s’. The difference between the number of positive terms
and the negative term is called the Signature of the quadratic form. Signature
= 2s-r, where ‘s’ is equal to the number of positive terms and ‘r’ is equal to the
rank of A.

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