CHAPTER 1 Introduction

1.1 Back ground

Power Electronics has three faces in power distribution, first one that introduces valuable industrial and domestic equipment, a second one that creates problems and finally a third one that helps to solve those problems. Modern semiconductor switching devices are being utilized more and more in a wide range of applications in distribution networks, particularly in domestic and industrial loads. Examples of such applications widely used are Adjustable Speed motor Drives (ASDs), Diode and Thyristor rectifiers, Uninterruptible Power Supplies (UPS), computers and their peripherals, consumer electronics appliances (TV sets for example) and arc furnaces. These semiconductor devices present nonlinear operational characteristics, which introduce contamination to voltage and current waveforms at the Point of Common Coupling (PCC) of industrial loads. Unexplained computer network failures, premature motor burnouts, humming in telecommunication lines and transformer overheating are only a few of the damages that quality problems may bring into home and industrial installations. Complications related to the use of non-linear loads for these systems have been a major issue for a long time for both power providers and users alike [4]. Power problems are partially solved with the help of LC passive filters. However, this kind of filter cannot solve random variations in the load current waveform. They also can produce series and parallel resonance with source impedance. To solve these problems, shunt active power filters have been developed, which are widely investigated today. These filters work as current sources, connected in parallel with the nonlinear load, generating the harmonic currents the load requires. However, the cost of these active filters is high, and they are difficult to implement in large scale. Additionally, they also present lower efficiency than shunt 1

passive filters. For these reasons, different solutions are being proposed to improve the practical utilization of active filters. One of them is the use of a combined system of shunt passive filters and series active filters. This solution allows one to design the active filter for only a fraction of the total load power, reducing costs and increasing overall system efficiency. Now a days Voltage Source Converter (VSC) based custom power devices are increasingly being used in custom power applications for improving the PQ of power distribution systems. Devices such as Distribution Static Compensator (DSTATCOM) and Dynamic Voltage Restorer (DVR) have already been in use. A DSTATCOM can compensate for distortion and unbalance in a load such that a balanced sinusoidal current flows through the feeder, it can also regulate the voltage of a distribution bus. A DVR can compensate for voltage sag/swell and distortion in the supply side voltage such that the voltage across a sensitive/critical load terminal is perfectly regulated. A UPQC can perform the functions of both DSTATCOM and DVR. The UPQC consists of two VSCs that are connected to a common DC bus. One of the VSCs is connected in series with a distribution feeder, while the other one is connected in shunt with the same feeder. The DC links of both VSCs are supplied through a common DC capacitor [1]. PQ survey reports have high lighted voltage sag as the prime reason for which particularly production industries suffer huge loss. Most of these voltage sensitive critical loads are non-linear in nature due to application of fast acting semiconductor switches and their specific control strategy. Undoubtedly they have revolutionized the state of the art technology in almost every field, but their large-scale presence in a system pose some major concerns as they affect the distribution utility in some highly undesirable way. Primarily, this kind of load currents is rich in harmonics and they may require some reactive Volt Amperes (VA) as well. The harmonic currents flowing through the finite source impedance of the utility supply cause the voltage distortion at the Point of Common Coupling (PCC) to the other loads. It results in malfunction of control signals, protection and metering of other loads and system metering devices. 2

1.2 Objective
The aim of the project is to design IUPQC, which is one of the major custom power solutions capable of

Mitigating the effect of supply voltage sag at the load end or at the PCC Protecting the sensitive load from the disturbances occurring in the system by Regulating the bus voltage against sag/swell/momentary interruption and or Preventing load current harmonics from entering the utility, thus canceling

regulating the voltage disturbances in the system voltage harmonics and correcting the input power factor of the load In order to attain these aims, the shunt VSC-1 is operated as a voltage controller while the series VSC-2 regulates the voltage across the sensitive load [5].

1.3 Outline of Thesis

Chapter1 introduces the introduction about the VSC and general problems occuring in the distribution lines and also the basic aim of this project are outlined.Chapter 2 introduces the introduction of PQ, PQ disturbances. Solutions to PQ problems, Facts, basic types of facts controllers, introduction about UPQC are outlined. Chapter 3 introduces configuration of IUPQC, basic design system, STATCOM, DVR, Control strategy for IUPQC, PWM technique are outlined. Chapter 4 introduces results of this project explained. Chapter 5 introduces design considerations of IUPQC and theoritical analysis are outlined. Chapter 6 outlined the conclusion of the project.

CHAPTER 2 Power Quality

2.1 Introduction
PQ is simply the interaction of electrical power with electrical equipment. If electrical equipment operates correctly and reliably without being damaged or stressed, it can be considered that the electrical power is of good quality. On the other hand, if the electrical equipment malfunctions, is unreliable, or is damaged during normal usage, we would suspect that the power quality is poor. At the generating station utilities create a perfect sine wave with their generators, free of transients, harmonic distortion and high frequency noise. It is then transmitted at various voltage levels to the end user. If the generator were at the customer site, that would be the ideal solution. Since distribution systems are exposed to lightning, accidents, component failures, power factor switching transients, grid switching transients and customers who create harmonics and send them back onto the utility system distorting voltage and adding to reliability problems. As a general statement, any deviation from normal of a voltage source (either DC or AC) can be classified as a power quality issue. Power quality issues can be very highspeed events such as voltage impulses / transients, high frequency noise, wave shape faults, voltage swells and sags, unbalance in voltage and current and total power loss. Power quality issues will affect each type of electrical equipment differently. They may cause equipment heating, measurement faults and scores of other similar problems.

2.2 Power Quality Disturbances

Harmonic distortion: Continuous or sporadic distortions of the 50 hertz (HZ) voltage sine waveform, usually caused by microprocessor-based loads in the building such as 4

computer power supplies, lighting ballasts, and electronic adjustable speed drives. This is shown in Fig. 2.1. Harmonics can also be transmitted from an energy user down the block. These can cause telecommunications or computer interference, overheating in motors, transformers, or neutral conductors, decreased motor performance, deterioration of power factor-correction capacitors or erratic operation of breakers, fuses, and relays.

Fig. 2.1. Harmonic distortion

Interruption, momentary: A very short loss of utility power that lasts up to 2 seconds, usually caused by the utility switching operations to isolate a nearby electrical problem. This is shown in Fig. 2.2.

Fig. 2.2. Interruption, momentary

Interruption, temporary: A loss of utility power lasting more than 2 minutes caused by a nearby short circuit due to something like animals, wet insulators, or accidents. Corrected by automated utility switching. This is shown in Fig. 2.3.

Fig. 2.3. Interruption, temporary

Noise: Sporadic voltage changes consisting of frequencies higher than the normal 60 Hz power frequency due to any number of causes, including arc welders, loose wiring, and nearby radio and TV transmitters. This is shown in Fig. 2.4.

Fig. 2.4. Noise

Sag: A short-term decrease in voltage lasting anywhere from milliseconds up to a few seconds. Sags starve a machine of the electricity it needs to function, causing computer crashes or equipment lock-ups. Usually caused by equipment start-up such as elevators, heating and air-conditioning equipment, compressors, and copy machines or nearby short circuits on the utility system. This is shown in Fig. 2.5.

Fig. 2.5. Sag

Swell: A short term increase in voltage lasting anywhere from milliseconds up to a few seconds. They are usually caused due to start/stop of heavy loads and poorly regulated transformers. Voltage swells may lead to damage of sensitive equipment. This is shown in Fig. 2.6.

Fig. 2.6. Swell

2.3 Solutions To Power Quality Problems

There are three ways to solve the problems of power quality and provide quality power customized to meet users requirement: System improvement. Use mitigation equipment based on power electronics. Improvement of equipment immunity. Of these, the best way to handle power quality problems is to mitigate the effects of distorted voltage or current at the Point of Common Coupling. This would ensure that the harmonics are restricted from entering the distribution system and contaminating the system power as a whole. Thereby, the other loads connected to the system are provided with clean power. Conventionally, passive filters have been used to mitigate the effect of power supply discrepancies, such as line current and voltage harmonics, and increase the load power factor. However, in applications these passive second order filters present the following disadvantages: The source impedance strongly affects filtering characteristics. As both the harmonic and fundamental current components flow into the filter, the filter must be rated by taking into account both currents. When the harmonic current components increase, the filter can be overloaded. Parallel resonance between the power system and the passive filter causes amplification of harmonic currents on the source side at a specific frequency. The passive filter may fall into series resonance with the power system so that voltage distortion produces excessive harmonic currents flowing into the passive filter. The increased severity of harmonic pollution in power networks has attracted the attention of power electronic and power system engineers to develop dynamic and 7

adjustable solutions to the power quality problems. One such solution lies in the use of FACTS controllers, which have acquired significance in recent times.

2.4 Facts
Flexible AC Transmission Systems, called FACTS, got in the recent years a well known term for higher controllability in power systems by means of power electronic devices. Several FACTS-devices have been introduced for various applications worldwide. A number of new types of devices are in the stage of being introduced in practice. In most of the applications the controllability is used to avoid cost intensive or landscape requiring extensions of power systems, for instance like upgrades or additions of substations and power lines. FACTS-devices provide a better adaptation to varying operational conditions and improve the usage of existing installations. The basic applications of FACTS-devices are: Power flow control Increase of transmission capability Voltage control Reactive power compensation Stability improvement Power quality improvement Power conditioning Flicker mitigation Interconnection of renewable and distributed generation and storages. The development of FACTS-devices has started with the growing capabilities of power electronic components. Devices for high power levels have been made available in converters for high and even highest voltage levels. The overall starting points are network elements influencing the reactive power or the impedance of a part of the power 8

system. Fig. 2.7. shows a number of basic devices separated into the conventional ones and the FACTS-devices. For the FACTS side the taxonomy in terms of 'dynamic' and 'static' needs some explanation. The term 'dynamic' is used to express the fast controllability of FACTSdevices provided by the power electronics. This is one of the main differentiation factors from the conventional devices. The term 'static' means that the devices have no moving parts like mechanical switches to perform the dynamic controllability. Therefore most of the FACTS-devices can equally be static and dynamic.

Fig. 2.7. Overview of major FACTS-Devices

The left column in Fig. 2.7. contains the conventional devices build out of fixed or mechanically switch able components like resistance, inductance or capacitance together with transformers. The FACTS-devices contain these elements as well but use additional power electronic valves or converters to switch the elements in smaller steps or 9

with switching patterns within a cycle of the alternating current. The left column of FACTS-devices uses Thyristor valves or converters. These valves or converters are well known since several years. They have low losses because of their low switching frequency of once a cycle in the converters or the usage of the Thyristors to simply bridge impedances in the valves [8]. The right column of FACTS-devices contains more advanced technology of voltage source converters based today mainly on Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistors (IGBT) or Insulated Gate Commutated Thyristors (IGCT). Voltage Source Converters provide a free controllable voltage in magnitude and phase due to a pulse width modulation of the IGBTs or IGCTs. High modulation frequencies allow to get low harmonics in the output signal and even to compensate disturbances coming from the network. The disadvantage is that with an increasing switching frequency, the losses are increasing as well. Therefore special designs of the converters are required to compensate this.

2.5 Basic Types of Facts Controllers

Series Controllers: The series controller could be a variable impedance such as capacitor, reactor, etc., or a power electronics based variable source of main frequency, sub-synchronous and harmonic frequencies (or a combination) to serve the desired need. In principle, all series controllers inject voltage in series with the line. Even a variable impedance multiplied by the current flow through it, represents an injected series voltage in the line. As long as the voltage is in phase quadrature with the line current, the series controller only supplies or consumes variable reactive power. Any other phase relationship involves handling real power as well.

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Shunt Controllers: The shunt controller could also be a variable impedance, variable source or a combination of these. In principle, all shunt controllers inject current into the system at the point of connection. Even a variable shunt impedance connected to the line voltage causes variable current flow and hence represents injection of current into the line. As long as the injected current is in phase quadrature with the line voltage, the shunt controller only supplies or consumes variable reactive power. Any other phase relationship involves handling real power as well. Combined series-shunt controllers: Combined series-shunt controllers could be a combination of separate shunt and series controllers, which are controlled in a coordinated manner, or a Unified Power Quality Controller with series and shunt elements. In principle, combined shunt and series controllers inject current into the system with the shunt part of the controller and voltage in series with the line using series part of the controller. However, when the shunt and series controllers are unified, there can be a real power exchange between the series and shunt controllers via the power link. Using the concept of basic facts controllers and understanding the requirement of the given power quality problem, it is possible to provide the consumer with power, that is tailored to suit the load requirement. Custom power: Custom power is the concept of employing power electronic (static) controllers in 1kv through 38kv distribution systems for supplying a compatible level of power quality necessary for adequate performance of selected facilities and processes.

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Custom power controller: An active power electronic device has the ability to perform current interruption and/or voltage regulation in the distribution system to improve power quality. Two classes of custom power devices are: Reactive power injection/harmonic compensation devices: Protect the source (Utility) from the load. Voltage sag/Interruption mitigation devices: Protect the load from the source (Utility). Reactive power injection/Harmonic compensation devices: Static Var Compensator (SVC), based on reactors and capacitors controlled source converter connected on shunt with the system). Voltage sag/Interruption mitigation devices: Static Transfer Switch (STS) based on two thyristor switches to perform quick load transfer. Static series Compensator (SSC), series-connected voltage source converter based on IGBT technology. Static Voltage Regulator (SVR), based on transformer with taps controlled by thyristor switching. Back-up stored energy source, like a DSTATCOM with energy storage. Each of the above-mentioned controllers handles effectively either current related or voltage related issues but not both simultaneously. Also, each of the controllers handles actual currents and voltages, which are of high value. In this context, there exists a requirement for a controller that can tackle both current and voltage related issues 12 by thyristors. D-STATCOM (STATCOM based on IGBT technology, voltage

simultaneously. The solution lies in designing a controller with shunt active and series active filter that needs to handle only a fraction of the total load power, thereby reducing costs and increasing overall system efficiency.

2.6 Introduction of UPQC

The use of non-linear and unbalanced loads in distribution systems is increasing drastically, due to which the currents in the network become unbalanced and distorted. Also, supply voltages have power quality problems such as sag/swell, flicker, harmonics and asymmetries. Under these circumstances, a new technology called custom power has emerged, which is applicable to distribution systems for enhancing the reliability and quality of the power supply. A UPQC is a power electronic converter based device which is used to solve the above PQ problems. The UPQC is a combination of series active filter and shunt active filter linked through a common DC link capacitor. Series active filter and shunt active filter compensate the PQ problems of the source voltages and load currents, respectively. In order to improve the PQ of the system, UPQC has to inject required amount of Volt Ampere (VA) into the distribution system. For cost effectiveness, the VA loading of the UPQC need to be minimized. The comparison of VA loading of UPQC has been done based on the quadrature and in-phase voltage injection by the series active filter of the UPQC. Minimum VA loading of the UPQC has also been achieved with the voltage injection by series active filter at an optimum angle with respect to source voltage. However, the effects of harmonics in both source voltages and load currents have not been considered. The effectsof both source voltage and load current harmonics have been considered and the VA loading of UPQC is minimized by injecting a series active filter voltage at an optimum angle with respect to the sag voltage. The IEEE519 standard limits of 5% on Total Harmonic Distortion (THD) in voltage or current is set on the THD of source currents and load voltages after compensation. The proposed methodology ensures that, even with the minimum VA loading, the compensation capability of the UPQC is not compromised. Particle Swarm Optimization technique is utilized as a tool for evaluating

13

the optimum angle of voltage injection with constraints on THD of source currents and load voltages [15].

CHAPTER 3 Interline Unified Power Quality Conditioner

3.1 Configuration of Interline Unified Power Quality Conditioner
The single-line diagram of an IUPQC connected distribution system is shown in Fig. 3.1. Two distribution lines, distribution line-1 and distribution line-2, which are connected to two different substations, supply the system loads L-1 and L-2 [1]. The supply voltages are denoted by Vs1 and Vs2. It is assumed that the IUPQC is connected to two buses B-1 and B-2, the voltages of which are denoted by Vt1 and Vt2, respectively. Further two distribution currents are denoted by is1 and is2 while the load currents are denoted by il1 and il2. The load L-2 voltage is denoted by Vl2. The purpose of the IUPQC is to hold the voltages Vt1 and Vl2 constant against voltage sag/swell, temporary interruption and momentary interruption etc. in either of the two distribution lines. It has been demonstrated that the IUPQC can absorb power from one distribution line (say distribution line-1) to hold Vl2 constant in case of a sag in the voltage Vs1. This can be accomplished as the two VSCs are supplied by a common dc capacitor. The dc capacitor voltage control has been discussed here along with voltage reference generation strategy. Also, the limits of achievable performance have been computed. The performance of the IUPQC has been evaluated through simulation studies using MATLAB/SIMULINK [9].

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Fig.3.1.Single- line diagram of an IUPQC-Connected distribution system.

But basically IUPQC is nothing but the device UPQC kept in between two individual distribution lines.UPQC consists of two back to back connected IGBT based voltage source bi-directional converters or Voltage Source Converters (VSCs) (called VSC-1 and VSC-2) with a common DC bus. VSC-1 is connected in shunt with distribution line -1 while VSC-2 is placed in series with the distribution line -2. Each of the two VSCs is realized by three H-bridge inverters. The schematic structure of a VSC is shown in Fig.3.2. In this structure, each switch represents a power semiconductor device (e.g., IGBT) and an anti-parallel diode as shown in Fig.3.2. All the inverters are supplied from a common single DC capacitor and each inverter has a transformer connected at its output. The complete structure of a three-phase IUPQC with two such VSCs is shown in Fig.3.3. The secondary (distribution) sides of the shunt-connected transformers (VSC-1) are connected in star with the neutral point being connected to the load neutral. The secondary winding of the series-connected transformers (VSC-2) are directly connected in series with the bus B-2 and load L-2. The AC filter capacitors are also connected in each phase (Fig.3.3) to prevent the flow of the harmonic currents generated due to switching. The six inverters of the IUPQC are controlled independently [1].

15

Fig. 3.2. Schematic structure of a VSC.

Fig. 3.3. Complete structure of an IUPQC.

The VSC connected in shunt with the distribution line-1 acts as a current source for injecting compensating current, ic. While, the other VSC connected in series with distribution line-2 acts as a voltage source feeding compensating voltage, vc through an insertion transformer.

Fig. 3.4. Typical IUPQC connected in a distribution system.

An IUPQC connected to a distribution system is shown in Fig. 3.4. In this Figure, the distribution line impedances are denoted by the pairs (Rs1, Ls1) and (Rs2, Ls2). It can be seen that the two distribution lines supply the loads L-1 and L-2. The load L-1 is assumed to have two separate components an unbalanced part (L-11) and a non-linear part (L-12). 16

The currents drawn by these two loads are denoted by i l11 and il12, respectively. We further assume that the load L-2 is a sensitive load that requires uninterrupted and regulated voltage [9].

3.2 Design System

3.2.1 Active Filtering System:

The active filtering system is based on a philosophy that addresses the load current distortion from a time domain rather than a frequency domain approach. The most effective way to import the distortive power factor in a non-sinusoidal situation is to use a nonlinear active device that directly compensates for the load current distortion.

The performance of these active filters is based on three basic design criteria. They are: The design of the power inverter (semiconductor switches, inductances, capacitors, dc voltage). The PWM control method (hysteresis, triangular carrier, periodical sampling) Method used to obtain the current reference or the control strategy used to generate the reference template. 3.2.2 Design of power inverters: Inverters: Both series voltage control and shunt current control involve use of voltage source converters. Both these inverters are operated in current control mode employing PWM control technique. Each three phase voltage source converter consists of six controllable switches and each switch is nothing but an IGBT with a parallel diode connected in reverse. Thus each leg of a three-phase voltage source converter consists of two switches. Since the converters are bi-directional, currents flow from ac to dc and vice

17

versa. Diodes carry out instantaneous rectifier operation and IGBTs carry out instantaneous inverter operation. Capacitor: Capacitor is used as an interface between the two back to back connected inverters and the voltage across it acts as the dc voltage source driving the inverters. Thus, the capacitor that acts as an energy storage device is shared between the two bi-directional converters. The voltage across the capacitor is held constant at the required value using closed loop control. In order to assure the filter current at any instant, the DC voltage, Vdc must by at least equal to 3/2 of the peak value of the line AC mains voltage. The capacitor is to be so designed so as to provide DC voltage with acceptable ripples. Interface Inductor: An inductor is used to interface the filter (either shunt or series) with the distribution system. That is, the generated ac voltage (generated by the inverter) is connected to the ac system via an inductor. Therefore, control of the current wave shape is limited not only by the switching frequency of the inverter and but also by the available driving voltage across the interfacing inductor. A large inductor is better for isolation from the power system and protection from transient disturbances.

3.3 STATCOM
In a distribution system, there may be several different compensating devices. However, in a radial distribution system, the voltage of a particular bus can be distorted or unbalanced if the loads in any part of the system are nonlinear or unbalanced.The customers connected to that bus would be supplied by a set of unbalanced and distorted voltages, even when their loads are not contributing to the bus voltage pollution. The STATCOM has a characteristic similar to the synchronous condenser shown in Fig. 3.5. but as an electronic device it has no inertia and is superior to the synchronous condenser in several ways, such as better dynamics, a lower investment cost and lower operating and maintenance costs. A STATCOM is build with tyristors with turn-off 18

capability like GTO or today IGCT or with more and more IGBTs. The static line between the current limitations has a certain steepness determining the control characteristic for the voltage [12]. The advantage of a STATCOM is that the reactive power provision is independent from the actual voltage on the connection point. This can be seen in the diagram for the maximum currents being independent of the voltage in comparison to the SVC. This means, that even during most severe contingencies, the STATCOM keeps its full capability.In the distributed energy sector the usage of Voltage Source Converters for grid interconnection is common practice today. The next step in STATCOM development is the combination with energy storages on the DC-side. The performance for power quality and balanced network operation can be improved much more with the combination of active and reactive power.

Fig. 3.5. STATCOM structure and voltage / current characteristic

STATCOMs are based on VSC topology and utilize either GTO or IGBT devices. The STATCOM is a very fast acting, electronic equivalent of a synchronous condenser. If the STATCOM voltage, Vs, (which is proportional to the dc bus voltage Vc) is larger

19

than bus voltage, Es, then leading or capacitive VARS are produced. If Vs is smaller then Es then lagging or inductive VARS are produced.

Fig. 3.6. 6 Pulse STATCOM

The three phase STATCOM shown in Fig. 3.6. makes use of the fact that on a three phase, fundamental frequency, steady state basis, the instantaneous power entering a purely reactive device must be zero. The reactive power in each phase is supplied by circulating the instantaneous real power between the phases. This is achieved by firing the GTO/diode switches in a manner that maintains the phase difference between the ac bus voltage ES and the STATCOM generated voltage VS. Ideally it is possible to construct a device based on circulating instantaneous power which has no energy storage device (ie no dc capacitor) [6]. A practical STATCOM requires some amount of energy storage to accommodate harmonic power and ac system unbalances, when the instantaneous real power is nonzero. The maximum energy storage required for the STATCOM is much less than for a TCR/TSC type of SVC compensator of comparable rating. A STATCOM of equivalent ckt shown in Fig. 3.7. 20

Fig. 3.7. STATCOM Equivalent Circuit

Several different control techniques can be used for the firing control of the STATCOM. Fundamental switching of the GTO/diode once per cycle can be used. This approach will minimize switching losses, but will generally utilize more complex transformer topologies. As an alternative, pwm techniques, which turn on and off the GTO or IGBT switch more than once per cycle, can be used. This approach allows for simpler transformer topologies at the expense of higher switching losses. The 6 Pulse STATCOM using fundamental switching will of course produce the 6 harmonics. There are a variety of methods to decrease the harmonics. These methods include the basic 12 pulse configuration with parallel star / delta transformer connections, a complete elimination of 5th and 7th harmonic current using series connection of star/star and star/delta transformers and a quasi 12 pulse method with a single star-star transformer, and two secondary windings, using control of firing angle to produce a phase shift between the two 6 pulse bridges. This method can be extended to produce a 24 pulse and a 48 pulse STATCOM, thus eliminating harmonics even further. Another possible approach for harmonic cancellation is a multi-level configuration which allows for more than one switching element per level and therefore more than one switching in each bridge arm. The ac voltage derived has a staircase effect, dependent on the number of levels. This staircase voltage can be controlled to eliminate harmonics.

3.4 DVR
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In a distribution system the DVR is realized by three H-bridge inverters that are connected through a common dc storage capacitor (Cdc). The voltage across this capacitor is denoted by Vdc. The outputs of the inverters are connected to three single-phase transformers that are connected in series with the three phases of the distribution feeder. The DVR injects the voltage in the phases a, b and c respectively of the distribution line. An ac filter capacitor Ck is also connected across each of the secondary windings of the three transformers to bypass the harmonics generated by inverter switchings [7].

3.5 Control Stratagy For IUPQC

Control objective of DVR is to mitigate voltage sag and that of Active filters is to mitigate harmonics, whereas UPQC can take care of different power quality disturbances like sag, swell, flicker, spike, harmonics, impulsive transient and momentary interruption. The important issues in the design of the control strategy are the generation of reference currents/voltages for compensation and the generation of the compensating current/voltage based on the reference currents/voltages. 3.5.1 Series control: The series inverter, which is operated in current control mode, isolates the load from the supply by introducing a voltage source in between. This voltage source compensates supply voltage deviations such as sag and swell. The three phase reference voltages (Vla*, Vlb*, Vlc*) are generated by subtracting the three phase load voltage (Vla, Vlb, Vlc) from three phase supply voltages (Vsa, Vsb, Vsc). In closed loop control scheme of the series inverter, the three phase load voltages (Vla, Vlb, Vlc) are subtracted from the three phase supply voltages (Vsa, Vsb, Vsc), and are also compared with reference supply voltage which results in three phase reference voltages (Vla*, Vlb*, Vlc*). These reference voltages are to be injected in series with the load. By taking recourse to a suitable transformation, the three phase reference currents (isea*, iseb*, isec*) of the series inverter are obtained from the three phase reference voltages (Vla*, Vlb*, Vlc*). These reference currents 22

(isea*, iseb*, isec*) are fed to a PWM current controller along with the actual series currents (isea, iseb, isec). The gating signals obtained from PWM current controller ensure that the series inverter meets the demand of voltage sag and swell, by injecting the compensating voltage in series with source voltage, thereby providing sinusoidal voltage to load. Thus series inverter plays an important role in increasing the reliability of quality of supply voltage at the load. The series inverter acts as a load to the common DC link (provided by a capacitor) between the two inverters. When sag occurs series inverter exhausts the energy of the DC link [9]. Control of DC link (capacitor): With a view to have a self regulated DC bus, the voltage across the capacitor is sensed at regular intervals and controlled by employing a suitable closed loop control. The DC link voltage, Vdc is sensed at a regular interval and is compared with its reference counter part Vdc*. The error signal is processed in a conventional PI controller. The output of the PI controller is denoted as isp(n). A limit is put on the output of controller, to ensure the source to supply required active power of the load and the DC bus of the Unified Power Quality Conditioner (UPQC). Later part of the active power supplied by source is used to provide a self-supported DC link of the UPQC. The DC link, provides support both on source side (via series inverter) and on load side (via shunt inverter) [9]. PI Controller: The impedance Z se includes the impedance of insertion transformer. The currents (isea*, iseb*, isec*) are ideal current to be maintained through the secondary winding of insertion transformer in order to inject voltages (Vla, Vlb, Vlc), thereby accomplishing the desired task of compensation of the voltage sag. The currents Iref (isea*, iseb*, isec*) are compared with Iact (isea, iseb, isec) in PWM current controller. The firing signals enable the series inverter to generate the required injection voltage [9].

23

Fig. 3.8. Generation of gating signals.

3.5.2 Shunt Control: Shunt control is used to inject compensating currents to eliminate harmonics at the load end and also charge the capacitor to the required value to drive the VSC. This involves generation of the required compensating currents.

The output Isp is considered as magnitude of three phase reference currents. Three phase unit current vectors (Usa ,Usb ,Usc) are derived in phase with the three phase supply voltages (Vsa, Vsb, Vsc). These unit current vectors (Usa ,Usb ,Usc) form the phases of three phase reference currents. Multiplication of magnitude isp with phases (Usa ,Usb ,Usc) results in the three phase reference supply currents (isa*, isb*, isc*). Subtraction of load currents (ila*, ilb*, ilc*) from the reference supply currents (isa*, isb*, isc*) results in three phase reference currents (isha*, ishb*, ishc*) for the shunt inverter. These reference currents Iref (isha*, ishb*, ishc*) are compared with actual shunt currents Iact (isha, ishb, ishc) and the error signals are then converted into (or

24

processed to give) switching pulses using PWM technique which are further used to drive shunt inverter [1]. In response to the PWM gating signals the shunt inverter supplies harmonic currents required by load. (In addition to this it also supplies the reactive power demand of the load). In effect, the shunt bi-directional converter that is connected through an inductor in parallel with the load terminals accomplishes three functions simultaneously. It injects reactive current to compensate current harmonics of the load. It provides reactive power for the load and thereby improves power factor of the system and also draws the fundamental current to compensate the power loss of the system and makes the voltage of DC capacitor constant. The control quantities have to be computed [5]. PI Controller: The Proportional Integral (PI) controller compares the DC capacitor voltage with reference DC capacitor voltage which in turn generates the current
,

is considered as

magnitude of three phase reference currents is given to the three-phase reference current generation block. The three-phase reference current generation block computes the unit vectors, three phase reference supply currents and the shunt current references. The output of the PWM current controller gives the necessary gating signals to drive the shunt VSC to generate the required compensating currents [9].

Fig. 3.9. Generation of gating signals

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3.6 Pulse width modulation technique: It is made of six valves shown in Fig. 3.10. each consisting of a gate turn off device (GTO) paralleled with a reverse diode, and a DC capacitor. An AC voltage is generated from a DC voltage through sequential switching of the GTOs. The DC voltage is unipolar and the DC current can flow in either direction.

Fig. 3.10. Three-phase voltage sourced-converter

Controlling the angle of the converter output voltage with respect to the AC system voltage controls the real power exchange between the converter and the AC system. The real power flows from the DC side to AC side (inverter operation) if the converter output voltage is controlled to lead the AC system voltage. If the converter output voltage is made to lag the AC system voltage the real power will flow from the AC side to DC side (rectifier operation). Inverter action is carried out by the GTOs while the rectifier action is carried out by the diodes. Two switches on the same leg cannot be on at the same time. Controlling the magnitude of the converter output voltage controls the reactive power exchange between the converter and the AC system. The converter generates reactive power for the AC system if the magnitude of the converter output voltage is greater than the magnitude of the AC system voltage. If the magnitude of the converter output voltage is less than that of the AC system the converter will absorb reactive power.

26

The converter output voltage can be controlled using various control techniques. Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) techniques can be designed for the lowest harmonic content. It should be mentioned that these techniques require large number of switching per cycle leading to higher converter losses. Therefore, PWM techniques are currently considered unpractical for high voltage applications. However, it is expected that recent developments on power electronic switches will allow practical use of PWM controls on such applications in the near future.

Fig. 3.11. PWM converter (a) A phase-leg (b) PWM waveform

27

When sinusoidal PWM technique is applied turn on and turn off signals for GTOs are generated comparing a sinusoidal reference signal vr of amplitude Ar with a sawtooth carrier waveform vc of amplitude Ac as shown in Fig. 3.11(b). The frequency of the sawtooth waveform establishes the frequency at which GTOs are switched. Consider a phase-leg as shown in Fig. 3.11 (a). In this case vr>vc results in a turn on signal for the device one and gate turn off signal for the device four and vr<vc results in a turn off signal for the device one and gate turn on signal for the device four.

CHAPTER 4 RESULTS
4.1 Simulink diagrms of IUPQC
4.1.1Disturbances in distribution line 1: The Fig. 4.1. shows the Sag/Swell applied in distribution line 1

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Fig.4.1 Simulink diagram of sag/swell in distribution line 1

Case A: Sag in distribution line 1

With the system operating in the steady state, voltage sag occurs at 0.15s to 0.25s in which peak of the supply voltage reduces. The various waveforms for three phase are shown in Fig.4.2. It can be seen that the dc capacitor voltage Vdc, drops as soon as the sag occurs. If the bus voltage remains constant, the load power also remains constant. However, since the source voltage VS1 has dropped, the power coming out of the source has reduced. In order to supply the balance power requirement of the load, the Vdc drops. 29

As the sag is removed, the voltage Vdc returns to their steady state values. The current through distribution line-1 is also shown in Fig.4.2. It can be seen that in order to supply the same load power at a reduced source voltage, the distribution line current increases. Also, the transients in this current occur at the inception and the removal of the sag due to the change in the source voltage. It has been observed that bus B-1 voltage V t1 starts getting distorted when the voltage sag causes the peak of the source voltage V s1 to drop below 6.0 kV. Also, for deeper voltage sags, the peak of Vt1 reduces and the VSC-1 is not able to hold the bus voltage.

(a)

30

(b)

(c)

(d) Fig. 4.2. System response during voltage sag in distribution line-1: (a) B-1 bus voltage, kV, (b) phase-a distribution line-1current, A, (c) DC capacitor voltage , kV, (d) L-2 load voltages , kV.

31

CaseB: Swell in distribution line 1

With the system operating in the steady state, voltage swell occurs at 0.15s to 0.25s in which peak of the supply voltage increases. The various waveforms for three phase are shown in Fig.4.3. It can be seen that the dc capacitor voltage Vdc, raisess as soon as the swell occurs. If the bus voltage remains constant, the load power also remains constant. However, since the source voltage VS1 has raises, the power coming out of the source has raises. In order to supply the balance power requirement of the load, the Vdc raises.As the swell is removed, the voltage Vdc returns to their steady state values.

32

(a)

(b)

(c) Fig. 4.3. System response during voltage swell in distribution line-1: (a) B-1 bus voltage, kV, (b) DC capacitor voltage (V), kV, (c) L-2 load voltages (v ), kV.

4.1.2 Disturbances in distribution line 2:

The Fig shows the sag applied in distribution line-2

33

Fig. 4.4. Simulink diagram of sag in distribution line 2

Case C : Sag in distribution line 2

With the system operating in the steady state, distribution line-2 is subjectedto a voltage sag at 0.15 s to 0.25 s in which the peak of all three phases of the supply voltage VS2 reduces. The system response is shown in Figs.4.5 and 4.6. The bus B-2voltage Vt2 , the dc link voltage Vdc are shown in Fig. 4.5. It can be seen that V dc drops to around 2.3 kV duringthe sag while retards to about . The bus B-1 voltage, currents and capacitor voltage are shown in Fig. 4.6 . load L-2 voltage is shown in Fig. 4.7 at the occurrence of the sag (a and c, respectively) and at the removal of the sag (b and d,respectively). It can be seen that as the dc link voltage falls and the angle retards, some minor distortions occur in the bus B-1 voltage.

34

Fig.4.5. System response during voltage sag in distribution line-2: (a) B-2 bus voltage, kV, (b) DC capacitor voltage (V), kV.

35

Fig.4.6. System response during voltage sag in distribution line-2: (a) B-1 bus voltage, kV, (b) bus-1 feeder current, A, (C) Voltage across the capacitor of distribution line 1 , kV.

Fig.4.7. System response during voltage sag in distribution line-2: L-2 load voltages , kV.

CHAPTER 5 DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS

5.1 System parameters
TABLE I SYSTEM PARAMETERS[1]

System quantities
System fundamental frequency Voltage source Vs1

Values
50Hz 11kv(L-L,rms), phase angle 00

36

Voltage source Vs2 Feeder-1 (Rs1 + j2fLs1) Feeder-2 (Rs1 + j2fLs2) Load L-11 Unbalanced RL component

11kv(L-L,rms), phase angle 00 Impedance:6.05+j36.28 Impedance:3.05+j18.14 Phase a: 24.2+j60.50 Phase b: 36.2+j78.54 Phase c: 48.2+j94.25

Load L-12 Non-linear component Balanced load L-2 Impedance

A three-phase diode rectifier that Supplies a load of 250+j31.41 72.6+j54.44

Calculation of DC Capacitor (Cdc) And Filter Capacitors (Cf & Ck) : As the DC capacitor is used for back up energy storing device during the fault conditions. The value of DC capacitor will be taken by considering the maximum value of power supplied by it. During L-L-L-G fault the capacitor should supply maximum power i.e. the total power supplied by three phase. Total 3-phase power = 3 VL IL COS = 1.09 MW Where VL = line to line voltage = 11KV IL = current through the feeder= VL/ZS2 Cos= power factor and = tan-1 [Xs2 / RS2] = tan-1[30.73/3.07]=81.2 3-phase fault the capacitor voltage falls below 2KV. Power supplied by capacitor C is VDC IDC= 1.09 MW (VDC) 2/Zdc=1.09M 1/2fcdc=1.09M/(VDC)2 {VDC Assumed as 1.6KV} From the above taking the value of Vdc below 2KV Filter capacitors Cf and Ck are used to reduce the harmonics present in ac supply given to the bus. Generally the filter imped-ance value should such that it must show a high impedance path for the respective harmonics to be reduced. On ac side 3rd 37

harmonics are frequently present, as Cf is connected in shunt with feeder-1 and Ck in series with feeder-2, the shunt connected capacitor(Cf ) to feeder-1 should show minimum impedance to the harmonics. Also series capacitor connected to feeder-2 should show maxi-mum impedance to the harmonics. With above criteria the values may in the range of Cf >20 f and Ck <50 f.

5.2 IUPQC Parameters

TABLE 2 IUPQC PARAMETERS[1]

System Quantity
System fundamental frequency VSC-1 Single phase transformer VSC-2 Single phase transformer Filter capacitor (Cf)

Parameters
50Hz 1MVA,3/11kv 10% leakage reactance 1MVA,3/11kv 10% leakage reactance 50f

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Filter capacitor (Ck) DC capacitor (Cdc)

30f 3000 f

Theoretical Analysis:
IUPQC Operat ion : The shunt VSC (VSC-1) holds the voltage of bus B-1 constant. This is accomplished by making the VSC-1 to track a reference voltage across the filter capacitor
Cf

. The equivalent circuit of the VSC-1 is shown in Fig. 5.1 (a) in which u 1,Vdc denote the
Vdc

inverter output voltage where

is dc capacitor voltage and u1 is switching action equal respectively. All system

to + n1 or n1where n1is turns ratio of the transformers of VSC-1. The inverter losses and leakage inductance of the transformers are denoted by Rf1 and parameters are referred to the line side of the transformers. Defining the state vectors
Lf1

. (5.1) The state space model of the voltage source converter -1 is written as
...(5.2)

y= vt1 =Hx1 (5.3) Where

..

39

.. (5.4)

. (5.5) H= [1 0] .(5.6)

.(5.7)

Fig. 5.1 (a) Single-phase equivalent circuit of VSC-1

u1c is the continuous time equivalent of u1. The system given here is descretized and is written in inputoutput form as A1(Z-1)y1(k)=B1(Z-1)u1c(k)+C1(Z-1)1(k) ................................(5.8)

Where 1is a disturbance which is equal to ish.A pole shift controller is used to determine the switching action u1 from u1c .and is used to track a reference signal y1ref(k). 40

The reference y1ref(k) is the desired voltage of the bus B-1. The peak of this instantaneous voltage is pre-specified and its phase angle is adjusted to maintain the power balance in the System. To set the phase angle, we note that the dc capacitor must be able to supply VSC-1 while maintaining its dc bus voltage constant by drawing power from the ac system .A proportional controller is used for controlling the dc capacitor voltage and is given by

1=K1 (Vdcref Vdcav)

................................................................(5.9)

Where Vdcref is the average voltage across the dc capacitor over a cycle Vdcav is its set reference value and K1 is the proportional gain. It is to be noted that the average voltage is obtained using a moving average low pass filter to eliminate all switching components from the signal. The equivalent circuit of the VSC-2 is shown in Fig. 5.1(b) and is similar to the one shown in Fig. 5.1 (a) in every respect.

Fig 5.1 (b) Single-phase equivalent circuit of VSC-2

Defining a state and input vector, respectively, as

x2T= [Vk if2] z2T= [u2c is2]

............................................(5.10)

.(5.11) 41

and the state space model for VSC-2 is given as

.(5.12)

y2 =Vt2=Hx2

.(5.13)

where F 2 and G2 are matrices that are similar to and F1 and G1 respectively. The discrete-time inputoutput equivalent of is given as A2(Z-1)y2(k)=B2(Z-1)u2c(k)+C2(Z-1) 2(k) ..(5.14)

Where 2 is a disturbance which is equal to is2. A pole shift controller is used to determine the switching action u2 from u2c. A separate pole-shift controller is used to determine the switching action so as to track the reference signal. From Fig. 5.1(b), the purpose of the VSC-2 is to hold the voltage across the sensitive load L-2 constant. Let us denote the reference load L-2 voltage as Vl2. Then the reference yref(k) is computed by the application of Kirchoffs voltage law as

(5.15)

yref (k) =

v* l2 - vt2

Demonstration of the operation of the IUPQC is through simulation using MATLAB.

CHAPTER 6 CONCLUSION

42

A suitable mathematical model of the IUPQC has been developed and the simulated results have been described. The simulated results shows in caseA, caseB when Sag and Swell applied in distribution line-1 the PI controller of the VSC-1,VSC-2 compensates the sag and swell, so as to maintain bus voltage Vb1 and the load voltage Vl2 as constant. The simulated results shows in caseC when Sag applied in distribution line-2 the PI controller of the VSC-1,VSC-2 compensates the sag, so as to maintain bus voltage Vb1 and the load voltage Vl2 as constant.

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[2]

H. Fujita and H. Akagi, The unified power quality conditioner: the integration of series and shunt-active filters, IEEE Trans. Power Electron., vol. 13, no. 2, pp. 315322, Mar. 1998.

[3]

Arindam Ghosh, Amit Kumar Jindal, and Avinash Joshi, Design of a CapacitorSupported Dynamic Voltage Restorer (DVR) for Unbalanced and Distorted Loads, IEEE Trans. Power Del., vol. 19, no. 1, Jan. 2004.

[4] F. Z. Peng and J. S. Lai, Generalized instantaneous reactive power theory for threephase power systems, IEEE Trans. Instrum. Meas., vol. 45, no. 1, pp. 293297, Feb. 1996. [5] F. Kamran and T. G. Habetler, Combined deadbeat control of a series-parallel converter combination used as a universal power filter, IEEE Trans. Power Electron., vol. 13, no. 1, pp. 160168, Jan. 1998. [6] M. K. Mishra, A. Ghosh, and A. Joshi, Operation of a DSTATCOM in voltage control mode, IEEE Trans. Power Del., vol. 18, no. 1, pp.258264, Jan. 2003. [7] A. Ghosh, A. K. Jindal, and A. Joshi, A unified power quality conditioner for voltage regulation of critical load bus, in Proc. IEEE Power Eng. Soc. General Meeting., Denver, CO, Jun. 610, 2004. [8] A. Ghosh, G. Ledwich, O. P. Malik, and G. S. Hope, Power system stabilizer based on adaptive control techniques, IEEE Trans. Power App. Syst., vol. PAS-103, no. 8, pp. 19831989, Aug. 1984.
[9] Mauricio Aredes, Klemens Heumann ,Edson H. Watanabe, An Universal Active

Power Line Conditioner, IEEE Trans. Power Del., vol. 13, no. 2, Apr. 1998. [10] SaiRam. I1, Amarnadh. J2, K. K. Vasishta Kumar, Sag/Swell Migration Using MultiConverter UPQC, International Journal of Advances in Engineering & Technology, Nov. 2011. [11] G. Kumaraswmy , G. Sravanthi Goud , Y.Rajasekhar Reddy , Modeling of Interline Unified Power Quality Con-ditioner for Power Quality Improvement in a 2-Feeder Distribution System, G. Kumaraswmy et al. / IJAIR ISSN: 2278-7844. [12] G. Ledwich and A. Ghosh, A flexible DSTATCOM operating in voltage and current control mode, Proc. Inst. Elect. Eng., Gen., Transm. Distrib., vol. 149, no. 2, pp. 215224, 2002. 44

[13] H. M. Wijekoon, D. M. Vilathgumuwa, and S. S. Choi, Interline dynamic voltage restorer: an economical way to improve interline power quality, Proc. Inst. Elect. Eng., Gen., Transm. Distrib., vol. 150, no. 5, pp. 513520, Sep. 2003. [14] A. Ghosh and G. Ledwich, A unified power quality conditioner (UPQC) for simultaneous voltage and current compensation, Elect Power Syst. Res., vol. 59, no. 1, pp. 5563, 2001. [15] G. Siva Kumar, P. Harsha Vardhana, B. Kalyan Kumar, Mahesh Kumar Mishra, Minimization of VA Loading of Unified PowerQuality Conditioner (UPQC), Power eng., 2009 Lisbon, Portugal, Mar. 18-20, 2009. [16] G.Sravanthi Goud, G.Kumaraswamy, D.M.Vinod Kumar, Control of Interline Unified Power Quality Conditioner for Power Quality Disturbances using Simulink, International Journal Of Scientific & Engineering Research, vol.3, Issu e 8,Aug. 2012. [17] A. Ghosh and G. Ledwich, Power Quality Enhancement Using Custom Power Devices, Norwell, MA: Kluwer, 2002.

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