Maisonneuve & Larose

The Transition from Asceticism to Mysticism at the Middle of the Ninth Century C.E. Author(s): Christopher Melchert Reviewed work(s): Source: Studia Islamica, No. 83 (1996), pp. 51-70 Published by: Maisonneuve & Larose Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/1595736 . Accessed: 04/12/2012 11:37
Your use of the JSTOR archive indicates your acceptance of the Terms & Conditions of Use, available at . http://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsp

.
JSTOR is a not-for-profit service that helps scholars, researchers, and students discover, use, and build upon a wide range of content in a trusted digital archive. We use information technology and tools to increase productivity and facilitate new forms of scholarship. For more information about JSTOR, please contact support@jstor.org.

Maisonneuve & Larose is collaborating with JSTOR to digitize, preserve and extend access to Studia Islamica.

http://www.jstor.org

This content downloaded by the authorized user from 192.168.72.223 on Tue, 4 Dec 2012 11:37:41 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

Studia Islamica, 1996/1(fivrier) 83

The transitionfrom asceticism to mysticismat the middle of the ninth century C.E.

to Muslims seem to insist strongly divinetranscendence, stress so on in so highly elementof morality religion, the development an the that of Islamicmystical tradition sometimes has been attributed foreign to influences (1).LouisMassignon on largely theevidenceofterminology, argued, Islamic thatIslamicmysticism thoroughly developed out of an earlier, asceticaltradition A transition from Islamicasceticism Islamicmysto (2). ticism has now become a scholarly (3). commonplace No one has gone " further, though, way of 1) precisely by defining ascetical" and " mystitook place. I cal" and 2) showingjust where and when the transition think I can demonstratethat the extant record is overwhelmingly not until ascetical, mystical, Dho al-Nonal-MigTi. Thereafter, mystical truly schools emergedat about the same timein Khurasan(Abl Yazid and especially the less famous Ab0 Haf? al-Naysabiri) and Baghdad There was soon trouble withold-style and al-Nari). (al-Kharraz, ascetics, were arrested theInquisition GhulamKhalil. in Sufis of Then seventy-odd it Islamicmysticism foundthe apologist needed in al-Junayd, develwho
KevinReinhart commented on draft thisarticle. of helpfully an earlier " A. the (1) See, forexample, Reynold Nicholson, A Historical Concerning Origin Enquiry and Development Sufiism of 1906,303-348,esp. 306. of RoyalAsiaticSociety, ",Journal the It is accurate equateIslamic to with in the of mysticism Sufism discussing perceptions Western Chabbihas demonstrated Sufism, that scholars however, earlyin thiscentury; Jacqueline by thatname,was onlyone of severalmystical traditions at leasttheeleventh until C.E.: century sur iranien "Reflexions le soufisme primitif ",Journalasiatique,266 (1978): 37-55. Essai sur les originesdu lexique technique la de (2) See above all Louis Massignon, rev.edn. (Paris:J.Vrin,1954). musulmane, mystique (3) E.g.,see The Encyclopediaof Religion,ed. MirceaEliade (New York: Macmillan, 1987),s.v." Sufism by Peter Awn. ", J.

51

This content downloaded by the authorized user from 192.168.72.223 on Tue, 4 Dec 2012 11:37:41 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

CHRISTOPHERMELCHERT

alarmmystical oped a new languageto treat unduly experiencewithout ing ascetics.

at I. The Emergenceof Mysticism the Middleof the Ninth Century

of The opposition asceticalto mystical religion goes back above all to Max Weber(4). It has been developed by numerous the others, notably PaulTillich, skillfully and summarized Gert Neo-Orthodox by theologian H. Mueller Schematically, asceticalpietyemphasizesobedience to a (5). world.Mystical transcendent God's will on the natural God; imposing is about communion withan immanent God; about by piety, contrast, God can be obeyed at any God revealedin theobjectsof nature. finding be in time, anyplace (indeed,must obeyed at all timesand in all places); thanthemystic specialtimes to the therefore, asceticwillpay less regard in and places.Asceticscharacteristically perceivemorepersonality divinAsceticstend for thanmystics, whomdivinity seem verydiffuse. may ity and may alternatepersonallybetween fear and to be pessimists, tendto be optimists, confidant abunof chosenness. by Mystics, contrast, dantgrace. " " Asceticism is commonly of used to denotea program self-discipline and austerity, as such may well characterize practiceof mysand the not thatis emphatically thesense in whichI use ithere. tics(6); however, " to I Rather, use " asceticism in contrast " mysticism as have Weber, ", a and the otherswho have bequeathed the term.Similarly, Massignon, elements in need notbe a Sufiforthereto be distinctly Muslim mystical whose willtherebe founda Muslimmystic his or her outlook.Neither asceticalelements. the contrary, On elementsof strong pietyis without and every and will both asceticism mysticism be foundin everyreligion that individual's note well,in different worlview;however, proportions can be measured. to the in have oftenused " asceticism" translate Islamicists particular ". I use " asceticism Arabiczuhd, " mysticismto translate " " " ta;awwuf
ed. Roth& ClausWittich, vols.5ber2 and Society, Guenther (4) Max Weber,Economy Press,1978),544-551. keley: Univ.of Calif. Towardsthe is and A (5) Mydebtto Mueller great:" Asceticism Mysticism. Contribution 8 of of for Sociology Faith",inInternationalYearbook theSociology Religion : Sociological & and Theories Religion/Religion Language,ed. Giinter Dux,ThomasLuckmann, Joachim of earMatthes summarizing Verlag,1973),68-132,withappendices (Opladen: Westdeutscher & Otto,Tillich, al. lierdichotomies Nietzsche, by s.v. (6) E.g.,Encyclopedia Religion, "Asceticism by WalterO. Kaelber.Cf.Mueller, ", of 97 f.

52

This content downloaded by the authorized user from 192.168.72.223 on Tue, 4 Dec 2012 11:37:41 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

TRANSITIONFROM ASCETICISMTO MYSTICISM

rather thanzuhd forthesake ofprecision, indicate idealtypeidentto an ifiedby studentsof religionin the twentieth ratherthan the century " consciousethicalideal of medievalMuslims I use " mysticismboth (7). forthe sake of precision, the oppositeof " asceticism and because it as ", is now clearthatclassicalSufism, tasawwufof thelate ninth the century and after, was notthe onlyvariety Islamicmysticism of (8). We mayconveniently our chronology Islamicmysticism take of from thebiographical of (d. al-Sulami AH 412/AD dictionary 'Abd al-Rahman dividesthe Sufisup to his time (9). 1021), Tabaqat al-saftyah Al-Sulami intofivegenerations each comprising names.For each Sufi,he twenty a name, dates, a shortcharacterization, sample of the prophetic gives hadithreportshe related,and then a collectionof his sayings, usually attached chainsoftransmitters. method to examinethesefigures' to is My for worldview. Fursayings, looking evidenceof theasceticalor mystical ther can be found other in to Sufism Abo Nasral-Sarraj like sayings guides (d. 378/988), Kitabal-Luma 'f al-tasawwuf, Aba Nu'aym and al-Ibahani (d. 430/1038), in al-awliya',less often otherstandard biographical dictionaries .Hilyat (10). One must a alwaysbewareoflatergenerations' having projected given back onto a famous seldomdoes thisappearto saying earlyfigure. Fairly be a problem the Tabaqat of al-Sulami. in this dictionFirst, biographical seem to be arybeginsafterthe earliestperiod,where such projections thickest.(Contrast the earlier volumes of Aba Nu'aym). Second, al-Sulami's chieftendency must have been to demonstrate becontinuity tween the Sufisof his day and the asceticswithwhomhe begins: ifthe it sayingsof the earliestfigures suggestrather discontinuity,seems unthathe has projected ideas of his own timeback to theirs. the Filikely of codo, nally, quotations the earlierfigures forthe mostpart, suggest individual not it herent, outlooks, mereliterary types(although is notthe

" (7) For the ethicalideal of zuhd,see Leah Kinberg, What Is MeantbyZuhd,", Studia Islamica, no.61 (1985), 27-44. with classical Sufismin Baghdad there developed the (8) Roughlycontemporary " and in for sur Chabbi, Remarques Karramiyah Malamatlyah Khurasan, whomsee Jacqueline le developpement des et au ", historique mouvements asc6tiques mystiques Khursa~n Studia and himthe Salimiyah constituted rival a Islamica, no. 46 (1977), 5-72. Sahl al-Tustari after movement Basra.Fromthethirteenth in to of C.E.,there century developedrivals Sufism the for T. God's Unruly Friends(Salt Lake City: Qalandaritype, whomsee Ahmet Karamustafa, Univ.of UtahPress,1994). ed. Pedersen (9) AI-Sulami, (Leiden: E.J.Brill, 1960). Also Tabaqat al-safiyah, Johannes availableas editedby Nor al-Din Sharibah (Cairo: Jama'at al-Azhar lil-Nashr wa-al-Tiba'ah, 1953). (10) Al-Sarraj, al-Luma'ft al-tayawwuf, Reynold Nicholson, K A. Gibb Meed. morial 12 (London: Luzac,1914);Abii Nu'aym, Ser. 10 E.J.W. Hlilyat al-awliya, vols.(Cairo: Matba'at al-Sa'adah,1932-1938).

53

This content downloaded by the authorized user from 192.168.72.223 on Tue, 4 Dec 2012 11:37:41 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

CHRISTOPHERMELCHERT

mainpurposeof thisessayto reconstruct thoseoutlooks- rather, simply, to weightheir asceticaland mystical elements) ("). Almostwithout the of first exception, earliest figures al-Sulami's generationseem pronouncedly The earliestof all is Ibrahimibn ascetical. Ad'ham (d. 163/779-780 most of whose sayingsindicatean other?), but worldly asceticaloutlook; forexample," Love of meeting people is partof the love of the world,while leavingthemis partof leavingthe world" (12). Reports theway he livedfurther of an suggest asceticaltemausterities continual like winter of perament: fasting, clothing onlya fur withno undershirt, no shoes or headcover and his (13).Likewise, career as a frontier raider (by one account, he died fighting Upper in a thancontemMesopotamia) suggests manofstruggle of actionrather an plation (14). When he speaks of comingclose to God, he maintains ascetical : on God's personality" It is impossible youshould that emphasis become close to him (an tuwaliyah)withouthis becomingclose to you" (5). The pietyof al-Fudaylibn 'Iyad (d. Mecca, 187/803),too, is overascetical. servant His Ibrahim al-Ash'ath ibn said," When he whelmingly heardmention God or...heardtheQur'an,fearand sadnessovercame of al-Razideclared(17), him,his eyes filled and he wept" (16). Abf 'Alli up, to ibn saw I wasdisciple al-Fudayl 'Iyadfor thirty andnever him years laugh orsmile savethedayhisson'Alidied.I askedhim about so that, he toldme, " God(mighty glorious he)loved matter, I haveloved and is this and what God loved ". Most of his recordedsayings driveat the cultivation a seriousand of from devotion; for example,"Blessed is he who flees, single-minded withhis Lord,and weeps over his sin" (18). people,keeps company to (d. Shaqiq ibnIbrahim Kolan,184/810)was saidto be thefirst speak ofthestates(abwal) inTransoxania, the (19). anticipating usageofmystics on However,actualquotations emphasizedivinepredestination, the one
to of the (11) For a sustained attempt characterize majorfigures the earlyperiod,see and of Essai. On theapologetic Massignon, purposes thetenth- eleventh-century biographers, see Chabbi," Reflexions 55. ", 8: (12) Aba Nu'aym, 19. 7: (13) Abo Nu'aym, 373. 8: (14) Aba Nu'aym, 9. 8 the that largecollection hissayings of does include (15) Aba Nu'aym, : 36. It is probable inventions of the dubiousare circumspect attrimany reflecting piety a laterdate.Especially butions latermystics the seriesthatal-Sulami like 16-21 = through quotesfromal-Kharraz, " Sharibah, 31-35 (henceforwardSh. "). ed., 8: (16) Aba Nu'aym, 84. 8: (17) Abo Nu'aym, 100. 12 Sh., (18) Al-Sulami, =-- 14. " technical terms landmarks for (19) " States" and" stations becameSufi alongthemystical

54

This content downloaded by the authorized user from 192.168.72.223 on Tue, 4 Dec 2012 11:37:41 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

TRANSITIONFROM ASCETICISMTO MYSTICISM

a on and hand,mourning insecurity, the other, betraying thoroughly for ascetical (20), outlook; example from three is Onewho self-possessed never :first, ('aqil) departs these particles on that gone that that be afraid account sins have he of second, he before; to to one to next; know what be made come him not will from momentthe that the ofthe andthird, hefear obscurity outcome. the Turks Shaqiqdiedfighting pagan (21). was Ma'rff al-Karkhi 200/815-816) a prominent (d. ascetic, Baghdadi with to concerned al-Fudayl devote to himself wholly God.Forexample, was asked aboutthe hallmark the friends God; of whenMa'rof (of he for concern God,their with " awliya'), answered,their preoccupation to him and their and thoroughly "(22). He adds a definite him, flight " ascetical on for withemphasis goodworks; example,Seeking paradise outworks one ofthesins. is intercession without causeis a a Awaiting of for from whois disobeyed igone is species delusion. Hoping mercy norance stupidity Equally and to ascetical of " (23). appear be therest the earlier in first names al-Sulami's generation Basran : the Mansar preacher ibn'Ammar Baghdad, 200's.ca. ?),theKufan 820 to (d. early immigrant Antioch Allah Khubayq early 'Abd ibn 200's/ca. orafter Ahmad 820 (d. ?), ibn'Asim the Bishr (d. (d. al-Antaki 220/835), famous Baghdadi al-Hafi

Ibn traditionist Abi al-Hawari 230/844-845). (d. 227/841),and theSyrian Aroundthe middleof the ninthcentury, see a change: some of we the later figures al-Sulami'sfirst in generationare stillpredominantly like the earlier, an equal numberare mystics. but ascetical, Al-Muhasibi (d. Baghdad,243/857-858)pursuedthorough with self-purification the of knowing God: " When love is made firm the servant's in object only he left man heart, has nothing over forremembering orjinn, heaven or but (dhikr)of thebeloved " (24). In suchobhell-nothing therecollection theremight livion seem to be something a mystical like of transcendence thatal-Mubasibi does not speak of God's opposites; notice,however, the but God (25).Ascetical, too, loving loving servant, onlyoftheservant's

a them definite or between transientstates" " order, distinguished path.Somemasters assigned " and permanentstations butusagewas notuniform. TheEncyclopaedia Islam,new See ", of edn. (Leiden: E.J.Brill, 1960-),s.v." Hal ", by L. Gardet. (20) Al-Sulami, Tabaqot,55 - Sh.,63. (21) Abo Nu'aym, Hilyah8: 64. (22) Al-Sulami, - Sh.,90. 79 78 (23) Al-Sulami, - Sh.,89. 10: (24) Abo Nu'aym, 78. his (25) To be sure,the Qur'anitself (5.55 is oftcited), speaksof God's loving creatures to and al-Muhasibi devoteda treatise the love of God. The apparent extract Abo Nu'aym, in 10: 76-79,tendsto pressthe difference, betweenGod's love and the worshipper's. though, God lovesinspiteofhaving need oftheworshipper, no whereas worshipper's springs the love

55

This content downloaded by the authorized user from 192.168.72.223 on Tue, 4 Dec 2012 11:37:41 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

CHRISTOPHERMELCHERT

seems al-Muhasibi's attention theexternal to of concomitants inward pu" rification: Whoever has corrected interior means of self-obserhis by vationand sincerity ornament exterior will his withstriving following and the Sunnah(the preceptand exampleof Muhammad, leadingsourceof Islamiclaw) " (26). Sari al-Saqati(d. 253/867?), anotherBaghdadi,appears to be closer the asceticalpole. As withothersbeforehim, concernforpuredevohis tionto God alone makeshimanti-social" Do notask anything anyone, of : do nottake anything anyone,and have nothing whichto give anyof of to thing anyone" (27). He seems anxiousabout impeccableperformance of his ritual duties: " If partof mywirdprayer escapes me, I can never make it up "(28). Perfectly asceticalseems his concernto complement to good workswithorthodoxy:" A little according the Sunnahis better thanmuchwithheresy "(29). Our early sources quote Abo Turab al-Nakhshabi (d. Hijaz, asadvice like thatof earlierand contemporary 245/859-860)as giving to cetics,directedmainlyat payingattention God, not men,yet ever " the betweentheworshipper God ; for and example, True preserving gulf one who is likeyou,whiletrue wealthis thatyou be able to do without is poverty thatyou wantnot one who is like you" (0). Latersourcesasof sociatehimwithmiracles, an outlook; usually indication the mystical seem to date from tenth the these stories (31). however, century
love from towardGod (76). Moreover, gratitude quitein the ascetictradition, (hubb)is expressly equatedwithlonging (shawq),a feltlack(79), whichcannotbe feltby God. Bonner 10 van des (26) Abi Nu'aym, : 75.Josef Ess,Die Gedankenwelt al-Mahasibi, orientalistische and Studien, n.s.,12 (Bonn: Orientalischen Seminars, 1961), .farit is thorough reto as van to and often refers al-Mahasibi a mystic; liable, however, Ess does notuse theterm betweenal-Muhasibi's and an ascetic's. assert that I not van Ess is wrong but distinguish piety of the that hima mystic notoutweigh do onlythat elements al-Mubasibi's justify calling piety thosethatmakehiman ascetic. 42 (27) Al-Sulami, = Sh.,49. 10: 124. The wirdis a private to (28) Al-Sulami, = Sh., 50; Abi Nu'aym, 43 prayer be at timebutoutsidethefivedailyprescribed prayers. performed a specific 45 (29) AI-Sulami, = Sh., 52. The Islamictradition orthodoxy may,on the whole,stress " less thanorthopraxy, " Sunnah maybe translated and I "; "orthopraxy however, interpret in of Sari'sstatement the light severalby his oldercontemporary AhmadIbn Hanbal; e.g., " Orthodox of are of ascetics theenemies God are reprobates thefriends God,whileheretical fussaq ahl al-sunnah awliva' Allah wa-zuhhadahl al-bid'aha'da' Allah) " (apud Ibn Abi 2 al-SunIjamid al-Fiqi, vols.[Cairo: Matba'at 'Ya'li, Tabaqat al-banabilah,ed. Muhammad nahal-Mubammadiyah, 1 that bothered 19521, : 184). The heresies Ahmadwere above all the was 1) propositions thattheQur'anwas createdand 2) thatitspronunciation - propositions he neverconnectswithunconventional For a sensiblestudy Sari al-Saqati, of see practice. " fi al-madrasah ", al-Saqatiwa-nash'at Tawfiqibn'Amir, Al-Sari al-baghdadiyah al-taeawwuf 16 hima transitional figure Hawtlyat al-jami'ah al-tanisiyah (1978): 187-225.Tawfiqfinds " " (al-tasawwuf;214 f). between" pureasceticism(al-zuhd al-mabd) and " mysticism (30) Al-Sulami, Tabaqat, 139 = Sh., 150. (31) See al-Qushayri, al-Risalah, Bab fa-ma al-ghalib...= Cairo: Mustafaal-Babi

56

This content downloaded by the authorized user from 192.168.72.223 on Tue, 4 Dec 2012 11:37:41 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

TRANSITIONFROM ASCETICISMTO MYSTICISM

of (d. Ahmadibn Khidrawayh 240/854-855), originally Balkh,seems to be a transition difficult characterize. program singleto His of figure mindeddevotionto God was probablysimilar thatof his ascetical to and of is contemporaries predecessors:" The truth knowing love of him withthe heart, recollection himwiththe tongue, of and cutting conoff cernforeverything him" (32).Yet Ahmadalso hints confidence but at in abundantgrace,a trait mystics of absentin asceticslike Shaqiq notably ibn Ibrahim "The way is clear,the truth shining, the callerhas : is and been heard: what confusioncan therebe afterthissave fromblindness ? "(33) The earliest seem clearly to from own sayings his moremystical than asceticalis the NubianDho al-Nonal-Misri Giza, 245/860-246/861). (d. His advice to one who would be humblehas all the characters the of outlook(34): mystical lethimdirect soulto thegreatness God,forthen willdissolve his of it and become Whoever the of pure. regards power God,hisownpower goesaway, for souls poornext hisawesomeness. all are to So has Dhu al-Nun's adviceto seek revelation looking finite at : by things " Knowing(ma'rifah)is gottenby three: regarding how he has affairs, administered them; thingsordained,how he has ordainedthem; and how he has createdthem" (35).Dhu al-Non'sinvolvement created, things with alchemyand, syncretistically, ancientwisdom,agree well with a outlook(36).It does notappearthatDha al-Nanappliedtheterm mystical " Sufi" to himself, R.A. Nicholsonseems justified regarding but in Dho the of al-Nan as virtually founder theosophical Sufism (37). The preacher 258/872)might Yahya ibn Mu'adhal-Razi(d. Nishapur, be interpreted either asceticor a mystic. practical as an His adviceto think ascetics. theotherhand, On onlyon God soundsnotunlikethatofearlier
ed. 1318),200 ; al-Subki, Mubammad Tabaqat al-shafi-yah al-Halabi, al-kubrdi, 'Abdal-Fattah al-Hulw and Mahmad Muhammad al-Tanahi, 10 vols. (Cairo: 'Isai al-Babi al-Halabi, 1964-1976), 2: 308. Al-Khatib al-Baghdaditells a similar storyof Dho al-Non: Tarikh Maktabat 1931), 5: 214. Baghdad, 14 vols.(Cairo:al-Khanji, (32) Al-Sulami, = Sh., 105. 96 96 (33) Al-Sulami, = Sh., 105. 25 (34) Al-Sulami, f.= Sh.,20. (35) Abo Nu'aym, Hilyab 9: 39. Tarikh (36) Al-Qifti, Lippert (Leipzig: Dieterlich'sche Verlagsbuchal-bukama, ed.Julius 1903), 185. handlung, " from (37) Nicholson,Historical K ", cent., Mi'yar Enquiry 309.A manuscript the7th/13th Kastamonou of definitions Sufism from Dho al-Non(122b, 2713, does present al-tasawwuf, like 123b), but equallyfromfigures Ja'far al-$adiq(89b) and Abo Ianifah (124b), casting doubton the historicity everyattribution. the ms.,see Fuat Sezgin,Geschichte of On des arabischen to 9 vols.(Leiden: E.J. 1967-),1 : 646. The attribution al-Kharraz Brill, Schrifttums, is impossible.

57

This content downloaded by the authorized user from 192.168.72.223 on Tue, 4 Dec 2012 11:37:41 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

CHRISTOPHERMELCHERT

ual recollection (dhikr)(38). is (d. mystical Abia Yazid al-Bastami 261/875?)(39). Unquestionably His celebrated as outbursts "Thereis nothing shatabat - suchscandalous in thisgarment God " - are classicexamplesof the mystical but sensibilAbo Yazid, at last, servant awarethat is God reciprocates the (40). With ity his love: "The wonderis not mylove foryou,when I am a poor slave: the onlywonderis yourlove forme, when you are a mighty king"(41). as Abo Haf? al-Naysabori 270/883-884 is presented virtually ?) the (d. founder classicalSufism Khurasan. of in is mystical his Characteristically and is of recognition specialtimes places : " Sufism (al-tasawwuf) a matter of etiquette for (adab). For everytimethereis an etiquette, everystate thereis an etiquette, and for everystationthereis an etiquette (42). " in collection identify to Abo his Significantly, Hafs is the first al-Sulami's ". (ahl way as " Sufism Dho al-Nanspeaksofthepeople of truth al-baqq) and theloverof God (mubibb (of Allah), Abo Yazid of thefriends God; in to awliya'), but not of " Sufis". Earlierreferences " Sufis" by figures for Sulayman Tabaqat al-safiyahtendto be depreciative; example, Abo " al-Darani, I have seen onlyone Sufiwho was anygood, 'Abd Allahibn would-be Marzoq"(43), and Yahya ibn Mu'adh al-Razi," unlikeignorant

he alsohasmuch sayabout to hierarchies soundmystical; that spiritual for lowest abdal,associated miracles, the the with next example, ranking associated blessings, in with the peopleoflove, highest knowers, perpet-

of traditionists used (collectors hadith (38) Al-Sarraj, Luma, 327. Contemporary reports) the term the traditionists. laterSufiusage, For abdal (" substitutes to indicate mostsaintly ") see EncyclopaediaofIslam,new edn.,s.v."Abdal",by I. Goldziher. Gibb Memorial K Ser. 20 (39) Often"Bistami but see al-Sam'ani, al-Ansab, ", (Leiden: E.J.Brill, E.J.W. 1912),81a. Wordsof Ecstasyin Sufism(Albany:StateUniv.of NY Press, (40) See CarlW. Ernst, 1985),part I. 10: as the (41) Abu Nu'aym, 34. Of course, notedearlier, Qur'anspeaksof God's lovefor hispeople,and earlier thanAbu Yazid did notfailto notice. to figures According al-Sulami, his IbnAbi al-Hawarl that said God must havelovedhisservant before servant love God; can is the God, Ibn Abi al-Iawari begins, obedienceto God yet, characteristically, signof loving (al-Sulami, Tabaqat,90 = Sh.,90). 110 (42) Al-Sulami, = Sh., 119. of (43) Abu Nu'aym, 260. Cf. the remark Yanus ibn 'Abd al-A'lh(d. 264/877),an 9: the student al-Shafi''s:" I haveseen no self-possessed (aqil) among safiyah of man Egyptian : save Idris Yahy al-Khawlani apud al-Dhahabi, ibn a ", Siyara 'lamal-nubala' 25 vols.(Beirut Mu'assasatal-Risalah), (ed. Muhammad 10 1982): 166. Abu Nu'aym Nu'aymal-'Araqas0si, an does relatea story whichDhi al-Nanmeets, the mountains in nearAntioch, apparent in obemadwomen who is clad in wool,although calleds2fiyah. not She enjoinsdisinterested in wererowdiesin Alexandienceto God (Abi Nu'aym, 340). The earliest 9: saftayah Egypt driawho" enjoined good " and rejected governor's the in the authority theyear200/815-816, to The and Judgesof Egypt, RhuvonGuest,E.J.W. ed. Gibb according al-Kindi, Governors citesearlyreferences saf, to Memorial Ser. 19 (London: Luzac,1912), 162. LouisMassignon in safi,andS-frvah Essai, 131-133.

58

This content downloaded by the authorized user from 192.168.72.223 on Tue, 4 Dec 2012 11:37:41 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

TRANSITIONFROM ASCETICISMTO MYSTICISM

Sufis" (al-mutasawwifah recogal-jahilan)(44). In Aba Haf, al-Sulami nized a mystic himself like (45). Al-Sulami's second generation Sufiscomprises of The mainly mystics. earliest this of are Ibn whose othergeneration thebrothers Abi al-Ward, worldliness stillascetical." Whose soul does not love the world", deis claredMuhammad Baghdad,263/877?)," thepeople of theearthwill (d. love him.Whose heartdoes not love the world,the people of heaven willlove him" (46). Sahl al-Tustari Basra, 283/896?) likewiseseems to fallmainly (d. on the asceticalside of the spectrum, avoidanceof wrongrecommending the doingover activegood works: " As forworksof piety, piousand the alike perform them,whereasno one avoids acts of rebellion reprobate

save therighteous of (siddiq)"(47). He sees a constant danger condemnation:" There is no heartor soul save thatGod is watching overitnight

and day.Anyheart soulinwhich sees a needfor or he other than him, he gives overitto thedevil like Sahl "(48). Still, al-Mubasibi, was power led byhisconcentration God alonetowards on close something tomys" tical for will deemanything communion; example,Theheart not greater than God than, to, preferable ormore magnificent itsbeholding (mighty andglorious he),itslistening him, itstalking him (4). is to and with " Al-Kharraz Baghdad, to (d. ?) 277/890-891 was disciple Dhi al-Non inEgypt wellas totheSyrian 'Ubayd as Abo and Sari al-Busri, al-Saqati, other An he in al-Sirr seems Iraqis. experience describes hisKitab clearly mystical (50):
104 (44) Al-Sulami, = Sh.,113. (45) Chabbiobservesthatthebiographer appliestheterm"afi " al-Hakim al-Naysabori to no one earlier thanAbo Bakral-Wasipi after to (d. Abo Haf? 320/930), suggesting herthat was a Malamati who wouldnothave made suchremarks aboutSufism al-Sulami as attributes to him: "Remarques 31, 40f,62-64.Al-Sulami's attributionjustified thestory Abo is of ", by to (for or al-Junayd whichsee note55). Whether not Haf?'stravelling Baghdadand meeting we accept al-Sulami's of musthave appliedthe termto quotation Abo Iraqi mystics Haft, themselves aboutthe 260's/873-883. in 248 (46) Al-Sulami, = Sh.,250. (47) Al-Sulami, 202f = Sh., 209; cf.Abo Nu'aym, lHilyab10: 197. Cf. also AhmadIbn the Hanbal, apud IbnAbN Ya'li, Tabaqat al-hanabilah1: 325.Whenaskedwhether Prophet's " and (amr, naby) wherenot thesame,Ahmadanswered, Yes, buthis enjoining forbidding is forbidding moresevere(ashadd) ". (48) Al-Sulami, 200f= Sh.,208: Abo Nu'aym, 194. 10: (d. (Istanbul) (49) Al-$aqah ca. 423/1031-1032 ed.,Kalam, Kopruilti ?), 727,3a. The overall toneofal-$aqallh's collections as as smaller selections (Sezgin,1 : 647) is fully ascetical themuch of al-Sulami AboNu'aym. al-Tustari, Gerhard and On see The B6wering, MysticalVisionof Existencein Classical Islam, Studienzur Sprache,Geschichte Kultur u. des islamischen n.s. B61980). Likevan Ess concerning Orients, 9 (Berlin: Walterde Gruyter, al-Muhasibi, oftenrefers al-Tustari a mystic, to as withlikejustification; is,notto distinguish that wering himfrom ascetics rather thebasisof themystical but on elements hisoutlook. in (50) Apud al-Khatib Tarikh al-Baghdadi, Baghdad 4: 277.

59

This content downloaded by the authorized user from 192.168.72.223 on Tue, 4 Dec 2012 11:37:41 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

CHRISTOPHERMELCHERT

Ifone ofthem was asked,"Whatdo youknow? ",he wouldsay" God ".When he talkedhe wouldsay " God ", when he looked he would say "God ",and if

his are with hislimbs would " God",for members filled God. they say spoke, in thensubsisting contemplation finitude, (51).

It was he whofirst and spokeoffana' (annihilation) baqa (remaining) all of the first to describe contemplative's losing consciousness hisown Al-Nuri Baghdad, the (d. 295/907-908), secondnamein al-Sulami's isplainly themystical in Becauseitdrew down second generation, camp. " on him, is famous saying,I loveGod andGod loves he for persecution me" (a'shaqu Allah wa-Allah Al-Sulamil's ya'shaqun)(52). quotations than but is tend be clever to rather clear, one ofthemost direct typically with is from else, mystical: "Joining theTruth parting everything as partwith with is else figure ing everything isjoining it" (5). Al-Nori theearliest inal-Sulami's tospeakofthis ): others might joining speak Tabaqat (jam oflonging God,butal-Nori substantial for of satisfaction. and of (d. ?) 298/911 wasa disciple Sarial-Saqati Al-Junayd Baghdad, althe whomI havereckoned however, among ascetics; al-Muhasibi, ofAboYazid(54)andentertained lectured the on ecstatic shatabat Junayd are Abo Hafsal-Naysabori The extant of (55). writings al-Junayd many as is to of butdifficult: A.J. Arberry " His style involved thepoint says, he refers mystical whenhe to obscurity Still, clearly experience " (56). for of whither " by (ma'rifah) speaks, example, being transported gnosis aim never them to an infinite "(57).He knowledge ('ilm) transported wasoncedisabled ecstasy Mecca(58).He always in by speaks respectfully "I a standard all hisassociates: of thelaw,yetdidnotrequire high of thanan wouldrather keptcompany a good-natured be debauchee by " ill-natured ascetic (59). It appears, that transition asceticism mysticism a from to took then, the of CE. century Thishasbeenno explaceat about middle theninth haustive Somenotable are from al-Sulami's list; survey. figures missing
228. (51) Al-Sulami, = Sh., 223
(London: Luzac,1947), (52) Al-Sarraj, Pages Fromthe"Kitabal-Luma' ' ed. A.J. Arberry

(53) Al-Sulami, Tabaqat, 153 - Sh., 166. (54) Al-Sarraj, Luma, 346. at 12: definitions whichal(55) Al-Khatib al-Baghdadi, 221f.On a sessionfortrading and see 107f= Sh.,117f. Junayd Abo Haf5were themostprominent speakers, al-Sulami, (56) EncyclopaediaofIslam,new edn.,s.v." Djunayd", by A.J. Arberry. "The Book of theCure of Souls",ed. & tr.A.J. (57) Al-Junayd, Journalof the Arberry, 1937,220 (Ar.),226 (tr.). RoyalAsiaticSociety, 10: (58) Abo Nu'aym, IHilyah 270. to Introduction (59) Al-Sarraj, Goldziher, Luma' 177. On qari' as " ascetic", see Ignaic Princeton Univ.Press, and Law, tr.Andrasand RuthHamori(Princeton: Islamic Theology humor al-Junayd's of 1981), 127, n. 35. RogerDeladrierehas pointedout the characteristic to in (Paris: Sindbad,1983),26f. teachers hisintroduction al-Junayd, Enseignement spirituel

5.

60

This content downloaded by the authorized user from 192.168.72.223 on Tue, 4 Dec 2012 11:37:41 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

TRANSITIONFROM ASCETICISMTO MYSTICISM

for example, the heresiarchIbn Karram (d. Palestine,255/869), his teacherAhmadibnHarb beforehim(d. Nishapur, and his 235/849-850), followers after So are figures the earlierninth of who did century (60). call themselves Sufis.However,nothing thatit was partof alsuggests apologeticpurposeto conceal early Sulami'sand the otherbiographers' the tendenciestowardmysticism. Therefore, absence of suspectedhereticsshouldnot affect locationof a transition mysticism. the to In the Tabaqat, al-Sulami omitsto mention any women,but his lost a and an extract Tarikhal-safiyahevidently mentioned number, conthemhas recently and published There,he been discovered (61). cerning tells of notable female ascetics like Rabi'ah al-'Adawiyah(d. Basra, about 185/801-802 celebratedby Westernscholarsformanysayings ?), the love of God, Fatimahal-Naysaboriyah on the way to Mecca, (d. consulted bothDho al-NonandAbo Yazid,and Rabi'ah 223/837-838), by (d. al-Shamiyah Damascus, 229/843-844),who had visionsof heaven. has Were theremystics amongthem? Rabi'ah al-'Adawiyah been cited as inventor a new love mysticism. sober examination, of On her though, sayingsplainlyexpress just the common,asceticalconcern forsingleminted devotion to God(62). The reported sayings of Fatimah are consistent withasceticalconcern al-Naysaboriyah likewiseentirely forsingle-minded devotionto God (63). Rabi'ahal-Shamiyah, wifeof Ibn Abi al-Hawari, soundstheclosestto For of to mysticism. example,thereis the story her apologizing Ibn Abi al-Hawari,"I was preventedfromanswering you by my heart'sbeing withjoyat God (be he exalted),so I was unableto answeryou " (64). filled that was I have takenit as a signof mysticism al-Junayd once disabled neverquitespeaks,as a mystic However,Rabi'ahal-Shamiyah byrapture. and love betweenherself God, norof close commuwould,of reciprocal like reminded theLastJudgeof nion.Othersayings, herbeingconstantly ascetical.In sum,neither she nor any otherfemale ment,are perfectly asceticsoundsfarin advance of her male contemporaries developing in an Islamicmysticism (65).
ibn (60) See Massignon, Essai, 260-272,whereYahyai Mu'adhis included amongthem; also Chabbi," Remarques 30. ", ed. Dhikr al-niswahal-muta'abbidat (61) Al-Sulami, al-safiyat, MahmodMuhammad (Cairo: Maktabat 1993). al-Khanji, al-Tanahi (62) See R. Caspar," Rabi'a et le puramourde Dieu ", IBLA (Tunis) 121 (1968): 71-95. Cf.Margaret Smith, P. in & Rabi'a theMystic Her Fellow-Saints Islam (London: Cambridge Univ.Press,1928); David P. Brewster, "The Studyof Sufism;Towardsa Methodology ", s.v. ", J. of Religion6 (1976): 31-47; Encyclopedia Religion, " Sufism by Peter Awn. Dhikral-niswah, 61f. (63) Al-Sulami, Dhikral-niswah, (64) Al-Sulami, 60. finds thesewomenoutstandingly ascetical:Womenin Islamic (65) RuthRoded similarly Collections of (Boulder, Colo.: LynneRienner, 1994),94f.For a discussion the Biographical

61

This content downloaded by the authorized user from 192.168.72.223 on Tue, 4 Dec 2012 11:37:41 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

CHRISTOPHERMELCHERT,

termsof later,full-blown It may be objectedthatthe verytechnical Islamicmysticism appear veryearly,in the eighthcentury:" stations ", " states", and so forth. thesenot indicatea mystical at Do sensibility the ". same earlydate? I would answer " Not necessarily Mysticsare well in thegiventradition Therefore, knownforfinding esoteric (66). meaning " we mustnot assume thateven termslike "stations and " states", not used intheliterature jurisprudence, of The were alwaysmystical. Mamluk and al-Dhahabi(d. Damascus,748/1348) clearly traditionist biographer

remarked difference the (67):

ofcreated Theoriginal meant them Sufis by (fana' andbaqa' theforgetting the and soul'scompletely them, lower leaving things leaving pre-occupation with what notGod. is as This is ascetical single-mindedness opposed to mysticalcommunion(68). If a predominantly Islamicpietydid appearforthe first time mystical in the ninthcentury, will be asked fromwhere it came. An Indian it connection been proposedforAbo Yazid, butseems untenable has (69). The idea of a Persianconnection recurred, Massignon's has but dismissal remains it (70); moreover, can hardly persuasive explainDho al-Non,or I at the even al-Kharraz. would suggest thatself-mortification individual level conduces to the experienceof mystical states.As Abo Sulayman in al-Daranisaid " If theservant goes to an extreme zuhd (renunciation), thatwillputhimintotawakkul(reliance)"; thatis,ultimately, comthe the explete dependence thatis arguably essence of mystical religious we to Finally, shouldhave a social explanation accountforthe wideThe evidence of time. experienceat a certain spreadexpression mystical
" two Rabi'ahsas figures legend, Julian of see Baldick, The Legendof Rabi'aof Basra: ChristianAntecedents, Muslim ", CounterpartsReligion20 (1990): 233-247. Character Mystical of (66) See StevenT. Katz," The 'Conservative' ", Experience pp. 3-60 in Katz,ed. Mysticism ReligiousTraditions and (Oxford: OxfordUniv.Press,1983). (67) Al-Dhahabi, 1983): 393. al-Zaybaq, Siyar 15 (ed. Ibrahim neverleftIslam,or even (pace al-Dhahabi) (68) Of course,asceticalsingle-mindedness Sufism. William Chittick recently has hereto assert "In that, mostcases,Sufilife gone from to and practice have nothing do withmysticism This is based on an excessively ". narrow and identificationmysticism passivity " strange of with ": Chittick, psychic phenomena William : Faithand PracticeofIslam, SUNY Seriesin Islam(Albany StateUniv.of New York Press, 1992), 168-173,esp. 173. (69) See, forexample,MarijanMole, Les Mystiques musulmanes,Mytheset religions Dimende (Paris: PressesUniversitaires France,1965),24f; Annemarie Schimmel, Mystical sions ofIslam (ChapelHill: Univ.of North Carolina Press,1975),47f. al-Naza at al-Maddiyah (70) Massignon, 63-69. Cf.,forexample, ft HusaynMuruwah, 2 1979),2: 177. al-falsafahal-'arabiyahal-islamiyah, vols.(Beirut:Dar al-Farabi, Abo Hamzahsays," If the heartis pureof the (71) Abo Nu'aym, Hilyah 9: 256. Later, thatwillbequeathto ittawakkul love of theworld, zuhd willenterit,and ifzuhd enters, ":
(71). perience

62

This content downloaded by the authorized user from 192.168.72.223 on Tue, 4 Dec 2012 11:37:41 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

TRANSITIONFROM ASCETICISMTO MYSTICISM

is exiguous, thetwosuggestionsoffer admittedly I and are tentative. First, concentration arbitrary of has oftenseemedto encourage political power of checkson the concentration political mysticism, power to encourage asceticism Probably, increasing the political power of soldiersover (72). a theninth toward century encouraged turn mysticism. Hamdonal-QaS~ar (d. Nishapur, 271/884-885),who lived exactlyat the turning point,exof admonished follower hiswho was troubled having deal a to pressly by " withsoldiers, If you knowforcertain thatyou are better thanthey, do notdeal withthem" (73). In otherwords, one normally to ought deal with Toleration sinners of and the mighty them,as a signof properhumility. of thisworld,together withthe cultivation humility, characteristic of are of the mystical outlook. of thatthe development a fully Second, it seems likely mystical piety followedfromthe development institutions the material of for support of religious As specialists. Weber pointsout,the mystic characteristically relies on others'working the worldin orderforhimto leave it(74). in fromAbo Turab al-Nakhshabi 245/859-860), (d. Alreadyin a warning the khanqah appearsas a specialplace forasceticsnot onlyto meetbut to receivealms(7) : Whoever youhasworn muraqqa'ah of the (distinctive has patched garment) of or has begged;whoever youhassatinthekhanqah themosque begged; whoever youhasreadtheQur'an of from (public) the bound copyorso that hear might hasbegged. people at By the laterninth century, least,the asceticsof Isfahancould expect administered the qadi C6). regular by stipends

he probably does mean tawakkulin the mystic's sense of unquestioning trust (al-Sulami, Gramlich made a full, has careful collection sayings of Tabaqat, 296 - Sh., 296). Richard by AboSulayman:" Abo Sulayman al-Darani Oriens 33 (1992): 22-85.Tor Andraementions ", the asceticreligion: theGarden In amongSufiswho had transcended earlier AboSulaymain tr. in of Myrtles, Brigitta Sharpe,Muslim Spirituality SouthAsia (New York: StateUniv.of New York Press,1987): 57-60.His is a delightful treatments Sufism of book,but,likemany and itsantecedents, in and lacking rigor chronology terminology. (72) Cf.GuySwanson, and Regime A Sociological Accountofthe : Religion Reformation (Ann Arbor:Univ.of Mich.Press,1967). - Sh.,125. (73) Al-Sulami, Tabaqat, 116 (74) Weber,Economyand Society, 547. 10: (75) Abo Nu'aym, 46. (76) See al-Dhahabi, Siyar 13 (ed. 'AllAbo Zayd,1983): 434.

63

This content downloaded by the authorized user from 192.168.72.223 on Tue, 4 Dec 2012 11:37:41 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

CHRISTOPHERMELCHERT

II. Conflict Between Mysticism and Asceticism new was afootby themiddle theninth of To thing century. be sure, difficulties hadbeenfor there sometime. Abo Sulayman al-Darani was from Damascus saying he had seen angels for that and been expelled addressed them. Abial-Hawari later Ibn was forced fleefrom to the by samecity saying preferred friends God; awliya')to the for he the (of led the prophets. Possibly bya Maliki jurisprudent, peopleofOld Cairo Dho and himofsecret unbelief Ahmad (77). repudiated al-Non accused IbnHanbalaccused al-Saqati unbelief AboYazidwasexpelof Sari (78). for led from that ascension like Bastam saying he hadmadea heavenly theProphet's, went and into exilefor several (d. (79). AboHamzah years was from Tarsus recognizing for the 269/882-883) expelled Baghdad, voiceofGod inthecawing a crow Al-Kharraz forced of of was out (80). Old Cairofor of of the writing mystical experience, Meccafor slighting of ordinary believers Eventheusually ascetical Sahl al(8). goodness from was to Tustar Basra, to where died, account he on Tustari forced flee ofrelating conversations angels, anddevils with jinn, (82). One indication growing of between ascetics mystics is and difficulty
the appearance of warnings "Whoever asserts againstantinomianism. that esoteric the contradicts exoteric rule",said Sarial-Saqati, knowledge " themselves. Everyesotericinsight thatcontradicts exoteric an mystics " betweenasceticsand mystics confirms somethat Growingdifficulty

"he is mistaken" Mostoften, suchwarnings comefrom early the (83).

is al-Kharraz Whom see claiming (rule) null proclaimed a state (84). ", you
(77) Al-Sulami, Mihan al-srifiyah, apud Ibn al-Jawzi, Naqd al-'ilm wa-al-'ulama' aw n.d.), 161 = Talbis Iblis,ed. Khayral-Din 'All TalbisIblis (Cairo: al-Tiba'ahal-Muniriyah, names'AbdAllahIbn 'Abd al-Hakam (Beirut:Dar al-Wa'yal-'Arabi, n.d.),187. Ibn Al-Jawzi as leaderof the opposition Dho al-Nan,buttheseems veryearly(d. 214/829).Probably, to hisyetmoreprominent Muhammad 268/882), was theleaderin question. son, (d. Al-Suyatui, likewise on names'Abd Allahibn'Abd al-Hakam adds thedetailthat but drawing al-Sulami, he denounced Dho al-Nanto thecaliphal-Mutawakkil 232-247/847-861),plainanachroa (r. nism: Tarikh 1970 ?), 378. al-khulafa'(Beirut:Dar al-Thaqafah, " (78) Ya'qob al-Hanball, al-Fluraf apud Ibn HIajar, Lisan "al-Mizan 7 vols.(HydeK. rabad: MajlisDa'iratal-Ma'arif, 1329-1331),3: 14. Ya'qob mayhave been an associateof v. bottom. al-Muhasibl's: Ibn Abi Ya'la, Tabaqat al-banabilah 1: 233,1.2 from Mizan al-i'tidal, 'AliMubammad ed. (79) Al-Sulami al-Bajawi, (Mihan),apud al-Dhahabi, 4 vols.(Cairo: 'Isa al-Babial-Ialabi, 1963), 2: 347. 10 (80) Aba Nu'aym, 321. see (81) For Egypt, Ibn al-Jawzi, Naqd (Cairo), 164 = ed. 'Ah, 190. For Mecca, see Ibn 7 'Asakir, Tahdhib" Tarrkh Dimashq " abr.'Abd al-QadirBadran, vols.(Damascus: Rawdat al-Sham, n.d.),1: 429. (82) Ibn al-Jawzi, Vision,59-63. Naqd (Cairo),162 = 'Al, 197; B6wering, Mystical (83) Aba Nu'aym, Hilyah 10: 121. (84) Al-Sulami, Tabaqat, 226 = Sh.,231.

64

This content downloaded by the authorized user from 192.168.72.223 on Tue, 4 Dec 2012 11:37:41 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

TRANSITION FROM ASCETICISM MYSTICISM TO

with God thatpushes him outsidethe Law, do not go near", warned in between asceticsand mystics Baghdad finally came to a Difficulty of head at the Inquisition GhulamKhalil.GhulamKhalil (d. Baghdad, and 275/888) was a traditionist popularpreacherwho came from Wasit to Baghdad at thebeginning 264/Fall877 and whose Inquisition of took was alreadyunderway in Basra beplace the same year(86).A conflict tweentraditionalist ascetics used to enjoining the (nussak,abl al-hadith), good and forbiddingthe bad, and "the people of love" (ahl al-mahabbah). The people of love assertedthattheirlove of God was In Baghdad,GhulamKhalilbeganto preachagainst people of love, the that one mightlove fellow creaturesbut thatGod mustbe asserting who admired feared.He appealed to boththecourtand thegeneral, him on forhisausterity Atlast, (88). GhulamKhalilprevailed themother-in-law to followhis orof the shadow caliph, al-Muwaffaq, make the muhtasib ders, so he providedhim with a list of seventy-odd Baghdadisto be Most of themhid,some were arrested arrested. and imprisoned. Stories are told of al-Nori'saddressing the qadi so graciously thathe became to the unwilling execute them,then addressing caliphsuch thathe released themaltogether The happyendingis castin doubtby al-Nari's (89). leavingBaghdad to reside in al-Raqqah forfourteen years,as we shall see. of Carl Ernsthas explainedthe Inquisition GhulamKhalilby contemcriseslike the Zanj rebellion, whichpresumably created porary political is a climateof fear(90).Thus, he says,the Inquisition not evidence of toward mysticism. Destructiveas these politicalcrises were, hostility do them- onlythe our sourcesforthe Inquisition not mention though, issuesalone can explainboththeInquisition issues.The religious religious
10: (85) Abo Nu'aym, 252f. Abf Nu'aym, (86) Al-Dhahabi, 1983) : 71, quoting Siyar14 (ed. Akram Bfishayyi, although thedate is notin Hilyab 10: 250, northesame passageas quotedby al-Khatib al-Baghdadi, Tarikh Baghdad 5: 134. and based on Ibn al-A'rabi, (87) This accountof the Inquisition its Basranantecedents Tabaqat al-nussak, apud al-Dhahabi, Tarikh al-Islam wa-wafayat al-masbahZr : 40 wa-al-a 'lam,ed. 'Umar'Abdal-Salam Tadmuri, vols.to date(Beirut Dar al-Kitab al-'Arabi, 1987-),20 (A.H. 261-280): 212, 277; cf.al-Dhahabi, Siyar 13: 284. listsGhulamKhali amongthe Sufisin hisFibrist, GustavFliigel, ed. (88) Ibn al-Nadim withJohannes Roedigerand AugustMueller(Leipzig: F.C.W. Vogel, 1872), 186, whileal" that 5 Khatib al-Baghdadi reports he ateonlyvegetables, : 80. " The general is a goodEnglish " to term works wellto translate 'ammah(recall 'Twas caviare thegeneral Hamlet so althat ", it. II.ii.465)thatI willendeavorto revive stories Dho al-Nanbeforethe caliph of 10: 250 f. There are similar (89) Abo Nu'aym, 8: al-Mutawakkil; al-Khatib e.g., al-Baghdadi, 393-395. Wordsof Ecstasy, 101. (90) Ernst,

al-Nori (85).

such that fear had fallen away fromthem (87).

65

This content downloaded by the authorized user from 192.168.72.223 on Tue, 4 Dec 2012 11:37:41 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

CHRISTOPHERMELCHERT

fromDamascus,Aba in Baghdad and the expulsionsof Abo Sulayman fromOld Cairo and Mecca (91); Hamzah fromTarsus,and al-Kharraz of issuescan explainthe moreover, onlythepredominance the religious central roleplayedby ascetics, policemen not (92).In all,itseems saferto thanpolitics. the870's was aboutwhenfull-blown If stress mysreligion us of ticismfirst appeared in Iraq, it should not surprise thatnumbers asceticsshouldbe upset. older-style

III. al-Junayd's Reconciliation

One mystic who escaped arrest the Inquisition at was al-Junayd. He of assertedthathe was not a Sufiat all buta student jurisprudence, spethatof Abo Thawr(93).Some scholarshave creditedhim with cifically of goingon to develop a Sufism sobriety:the normalstate of the Sufi

and drunken wasnot sukr but (drunkenness) sahw (sobriety), AboYazid's wasnotto be imitated It seemsdubious, toopposeal(94). style though, to of different for Junayd AboYazidas proponents fundamentally paths, admired Yazidandlectured hisshatahat It would on (95). al-Junayd Abo be more to the around accurate saythat (and, al-Junayd no doubt, circle Whatthey was,on theone hand, develop language deal did to a to with I havealready that not mentioned mystical experience would offend. thedifficultyal-Junayd's of A could language. leaderof theMu'tazilah him praise (96):
Abo Yazid's mysticism something into to him)converted unthreatening ascetics.

ibn Balkh(al-Dhahabi, (91) Also,later, Muhammad al-Fadl(d. 319/932)from Svyar14: Tirmidh (d. 318/930)from (Ibn Hajar,Lisan 5: 308), & al. 525), al-Iakim al-Tirmidhi after in of it the (92) Controversy Basra; theInquisition Ghulam Khalil;in Ravy, was expressly ascetics(zubbad), who led the outcry to against according al-Sulami Y0suf ibn al-Uusayn, Miban al-safiyah), apud al-Dhahabi, Siyar 14: 250. (probably (93) Ibn 'Ata',apud Ibn al-Jawzi, Naqd (Cairo),167 = ed. 'Ali,193. (d. (94) The tradition 465/1072-73 Kashfal-mabjab,ed. ?), goes back to Hujviri Lahore, Valentin Zhukovskii A. Tehran:Mu'assasah-i Amir-i 1926; repr. Kabir, (Leningrad, Matba'ati A. GibbMemorial Ser. 17 (Leiden: E.J.Brill, 1957),230, 235 = tr.Reynold Nicholson, E.J.W. 1911), 185, 189. (95) Al-Sarraj, Luma, 346, noticed Ernst, 50. 11, by was Abo al-Qasim (96) Al-Khatib TarikhBaghdad 7: 243. The Mu'tazili al-Baghdadi, al-Ka'bi Balkh, (d. GaS 1: 622f.The relation betweenSufism 319/931?),on whomsee Sezgin, and Mu'tazilism, of whichmatured thelateninth both in C.E.,callsforfurther century study. " Abu jafs al-Naysabori have been a Mu'tazili: Arberry,New Material theKitab on may A.J. of Islamic Association Research Assoc. ", al-Fihrist Ibnal-Nadim IslamicResearch Miscellany, ' van de du ser.,12, 1 (1948): 34n. See alsoJosef Ess," Une Lecture rebours l'histoire Mu'tazilisme Revuedes dtudes ", islamiques46 (1978): 182, 192f,226.

66

This content downloaded by the authorized user from 192.168.72.223 on Tue, 4 Dec 2012 11:37:41 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

TRANSITIONFROM ASCETICISMTO MYSTICISM

I haveseena shaykh youinBaghdad. is called for He and eyes al-Junayd, my havenotseenhislike.The katabah (writers go to himfor locutions his (97)) for of the (alfaz), thefalasifah(philosophers) the subtlety his concepts, mutakalliman for of (theologians) themastery hislearning. asceticsmustoften The less sophisticated have foundabstruseness the to hence al-Junayd became invulnerable their to pointof impenetrability, criticism. and Moreover,al-Junayd his school put a new stresson outwardly behaviourand self-description. Triadslike separation-unionacceptable separation (farq-jam'-farq) and subsistence-annihilation-subsistence Hence the Sufimight (baqa'-fana'-baqa') replacedthe old dichotomies. (an go so far,as before,as to lose consciousnessof himself upsetting divinetranscendence) but to ascetics, used to emphasizing development now described to consciousnessof reality, then return a transformed to (reassuringly ascetics)as sobriety. and On the otherhand, al-Junayd his school seem to have pushed a in an inwarddirection, offering styleof mystical pietythat mysticism of the so would not interfere clearlywiththe collection hadithreports, and of study jurisprudence, so on (98). Hence, forexample,his fiveprinattitude but living beginwithausterities end withan inward ciplesofright (to of trust:" to fastby day,to stayup by night pray),to act withtotal and to commit to vigilance, sincerity, controlone's actionsby constant " in oneselfto God withconfidence all circumstances(9). Here,tawakkul of behindboththestern (relianceon God) has left purgation theascetics trust theearlymystics of ibn (e.g., (e.g.,Ibrahim Ad'ham)and thefoolish to Abo Hamzah,who refused callforhelpwhenhe had fallenintoa well, for with, say, waiting a lion to rescue him(100)).It was now compatible a supporting family (101).

" state "glosses 14: the (97) " I.e., eloquent al-Dhahabi (Siyar 67) ; however, (al-bulagha'), " seemmore beenmeant. to secretaries likely have "Asceticism see to as opposed other-worldly (98) On inner-worldly mysticism,Mueller, ", 74. Luma' 228. (99) Al-Sarraj, Abo befallen Hamzah Also to 10: (100) AbuNu'aym, al-Khurasani Hilyah 320f. said have " " for see (d. 290/902-903), which IbnManzer, MukhtasarTarikh Dimashq ed. Rawhiyah 28: Dar & (Damascus: al-Fikr, 1984-1989), 245. al-Nabbas, al.,29 vols. his of Ibn (101) Ahmad Hanbal lifestyle,failure only regretted onefeature Bishr al-Hafi's asfrom of tomarry: 7: al-Khatib al-Baghdadi,73.Fortheevolution tawakkul an outward, Die see on cetical Reinert, dependence, Benedikt mystical dependance God to an inward, u. des GeschichteKultur zur vom in Lehre Tawakkul derklassischen Studien Sprache, Sufik, does Reinert not W. n.s. islamischen 1968),226,264-266. Orients, 3 (Berlin: de Gruyter, of as I his to from a transition asceticismmysticism,do,but location to propose locate general inthe around at in thechange tawakkul thelateninth al-Junayd, century, particularly circle transition. of confirms location a general my

67

This content downloaded by the authorized user from 192.168.72.223 on Tue, 4 Dec 2012 11:37:41 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

CHRISTOPHERMELCHERT

of Notall theSufis Baghdad acclaimed deferential al-Junayd's style. from to unconcernedmollify seems ascetics, Opposition old-style mystics, ina tobe crystallized number stories of about al-Nori. complained Al-Nori "You to al-Junayd, havecheated and havegiven the them, so they you I and threw stones me" (102). at them, so they placeofhonor. counselled visited whenhe wasill, later visited Al-Junayd al-Junayd al-Nori al-Nori whenhe wasill; however, not sat but al-Nari only byhisbedside, cured hisillness, well(103).Theunderlying wasprobably, Massignon as issue as the between frankness al-N&ri's the of and guesses, contrast language the dissimulational-Junayd's of disarming (104). counsel and" cheatingmay (" Giving havehadspecial reference to " " bad the laterHanbalileaderal-Barbahari [d. condemning behavior: " at to for 329/9411, asserts,It isnotlicit disciple onetime Sahlal-Tustari, to refrain giving from counsel to anyoftheMuslims, anyone [nasihahl or in of Whoever refrains has righteous otherwise, the matter faith. " cheated the Several stories associate al-Nfiri [ghashshal Muslims(105). with acts winejarsboundforthecaliphal daring likebreaking palace. he to as Therefore, mayhaveobjected al-Junayd's quietism wellas his evasive language). and a from Indeed, al-Junayd hiscircle spokeso differentlanguage that al-Nori theold-style of and that couldscarcely commystics al-Nori withthem. municate The Sufibiographer Sa'id Ibn al-A'rabi (d. Abi a of ?) that 340/952 relates discussion terminology passedbeMecca, tween andal-Nori 270/883-884, him in whenal-Nfri still refugee a was inal-Raqqah. Al-Nfri askedabout so told of al-Junayd,Ibnal-A'rabi him thenewtalk second of and affirmed the that Al-Niri separation sobriety. so-called second was an of In words, separation really aspect joining. other had newwords describe familiar coined to the al-Junayd merely mystical experience (106). Ibn and in later, al-A'rabi twofriends Eight years spotted al-Nnri Baghdad.Theolder was to reluctant associate Sufis. with Memmystic initially oriesof betrayal theInquisition haverankled. at must However, they
(102) Abo Nu'aym, 251f. 10: (103) Al-Khatib 5: al-Baghdadi, 1132. (104) Louis Massignon, Passion of al-Hallhj, tr.Herbert The ser. Mason,Bollingen 98, 4 vols.(Princeton: Univ.Press,1982), 1: 79. A.J.Arberry's characterization al-Junayd's of to ". prose has been quoted already:" involved the pointof obscurity I have foundsimilar in selectionof the sayingsof al-Nori; however,al-Nori'streatise obscurity al-Sulami's is of Paul Maqamat al-qulhab farmorelucidthananything thesortwe have from al-Junayd: inedits (m. 295/907)", M6langes de Nwyia,ed., "Textes mystiques d'Abo-l-IHasan al-Nori (Beirut)44 (1968) : 117-154. Saint-Joseph l'universitd (105) Sharh "Kitabal-Sunnah', apud Ibn Abi Ya'li, Tabaqat al-banabilah 2: 26. (106) Thisandthefollowing basedon IbnAl-A'rabi, Tabaqat al-nussak, apud al-Dhahabi, Siyar 14: 74f.

68

This content downloaded by the authorized user from 192.168.72.223 on Tue, 4 Dec 2012 11:37:41 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

TRANSITIONFROM ASCETICISMTO MYSTICISM

eventually persuadedhimto come to their mosque,wheretheyspentthe On the nextFriday, took a boat to where al-Junayd was. At night. they and he and al-Junayd tradedreminisfirst, everyonewelcomedal-Nori, cences and jikedwitheach other.Then all the Sufissat fora formal discussion. to but Al-Junayd urgedal-Nori addressthefirst question, al-Nari to ". and declined,saying"I am justcome, and prefer listen Al-Junayd the othersspoke a while longer, thenagain pressedal-Norito talk,but he said," You have used terms (alqab) thatI do not know,and talkin a I fashion am notused to: letme listen and getto knowwhatyoumean" was to Al-Junayd's terminology unfamiliar him. At last,someone asked him about the separation (farq) thatcomes after joining the (jam), whatitssignswere,and whatwas thedifference " betweenit and the first resorted ambiguity: It is to separation. Al-Nori not one aspect of joining he said, "nor is it sobering from ", up joining, but theyreturn what theyknow". The SufisRuwaymand Ibn 'Ata' to and its contrary. Alcomplainedthatal-Noriwas asserting something to who might havebecome Junayd beggedthemnotto be unkind al-Nori, senile.In the upshot, concludesIbn al-A'rabi, Abo al-Husayn withdrew all of them spurned from and them. He (al-Nori) became and went ill blind. stuck thedeserts graveyards.... He to and I have heard number that anyone hadseenal-Nari a for who since return his from say without seenhimbefore might wellnothaveseen that as al-Raqqah having him all,on account hischanging havemercy him). at of (God on Such was thepitiful of a mystic end who couldspeak onlyof joining and not how to speak the sophisticated new language drunkenness, knowing of the second separation, second sobriety, so on. the and new language mollified ascetical Muslims: it now reAl-Junayd's mainedto changetheoutlookofthemystics. Thatis,ifascetics were now steadfastness sobriety, and appeased by a mystical languagethatstressed themystics wouldhave to be shownsome reasonto respect For ascetics. of example,al-Junayd mayhave takenover the new terminology fand' and the second baqa' fromthe mystic al-Kharraz the interest apin of from peasing ascetics,but he musthave wished to discouragemystics his had, provoking expulsionfromMecca: " The boastingas al-Kharraz sinsof those brought near are the good qualitiesof the pious"(107). He cannothave wishedto provokeillwill.As a mystic, have besides,he must foundit easy to overlookthe obtusenessof the ascetics, love themin to spiteof it. In an unpublished did work,the Wasaya, it appears thatal-Junayd come up withsomething the mystics, for a tripartite of division mainly

(107) See above,note81.

69

This content downloaded by the authorized user from 192.168.72.223 on Tue, 4 Dec 2012 11:37:41 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

CHRISTOPHERMELCHERT

a the theMuslims establishesplaceforthem that alongside others (10s). three Thefirst those Al-Junayd distinguishes groups. comprises whohave the chosen and ritual (al-'ibadat wa-al-takhawwuf); second worship fear thosewho have chosenrenunciation, and (al-zuhd longing, austerity the those who have finally, wa-al-shawq wa-al-taqashshuf); third, and Theselasthave chosenpoverty Sufism (al-faqrwa-al-tasawwuf). had their filled with loveas thehearts theservants of havenot hearts of The been,andthey speakofthetruths theunseen (109). three groups to devout Ghulam like the Khalil, earlcorrespond precisely theordinary ierascetics al-Muhasibi Sarial-Saqati, finally speculative like and and the Thereis no doubt that Sufis the favors around mystics al-Junayd. enjoy abovetherest, equally of the but are scheme, they part thesamegrand of samecommunitythefaithful. MELCHERT Christopher USA) Missouri, (Springfield,

Efendi (108) Regit 1218/1.See Sezgin, (Istanbul) GaS, 1: 649, no. 19. (109) AI-Junayd, al-Wasaya, lb, 2a.

70

This content downloaded by the authorized user from 192.168.72.223 on Tue, 4 Dec 2012 11:37:41 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions