Industrial Challenges in Grinding

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CIRP-441; No of Pages 18
CIRP Annals - Manufacturing Technology xxx (2009) xxxxxx
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CIRP Annals - Manufacturing Technology

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Industrial challenges in grinding

J.F.G. Oliveira (1)a,*, E.J. Silva b, C. Guo (2)c, F. Hashimoto (1)d
a
o o IPT Institute for Technological Research of the State of Sa Paulo, Sa Paulo, Brazil o o Nucleus of Advanced Manufacturing, Department of Production Engineering, University of Sa Paulo, Sa Paulo, Brazil United Technologies Research Center, East Hartford, CT, USA d Technology Center, The Timken Company, Canton, OH, USA
b c
A R T I C L E I N F O
A B S T R A C T
Keywords: Grinding Optimization Industry
This keynote paper aims at analyzing relevant industrial demands for grinding research. The chosen focus is to understand what are the main research challenges in the extensive industrial use of the process. Since the automotive applications are the most important driving forces for grinding development, the paper starts with an analysis on the main trends in more efcient engines and the changes in their components that will affect the grinding performance. A view from 23 machine tool builders is also presented based on a survey made in interviews and during the EMO and IMTS machine tool shows. Case studies received by the STC G members were used to show how research centers and industries are collaborating. A view from the authors and the nal conclusions show hot topics for future grinding research. 2009 CIRP.
1. Introduction In 1983 Kegg presented a CIRP keynote paper titled Industrial Problems in Grinding [30]. That survey showed the view from the industrial grinding users on what would be the issues they would like to see university research carried out. The main topics included: lack of process predictability, batch production problems, inventory reduction, reduced skills and need for more automation. In the following year of 1984, Peters published another keynote paper showing the CIRP contribution to industrial problems in grinding [49]. It was a comprehensive review of the most relevant papers published in the CIRP annals with focus on the industrial needs pointed out by Kegg. Peters afrmed that research was denitely ahead of the industrial needs. This is true, since many specic problems presented by industry at that time included todays well established technologies such as: fast and automatic wheel balancing systems, exible and automated dressing devices, grinding simulation and burn prediction systems, more application of CNC in grinding/dressing, multiple grinding in one setup and others. However some of the industrial needs pointed out by Kegg in 1983 are still not solved in industry due to its high complexity. Examples are: in process roundness and roughness measurement, automatic thermal compensation of machine tools (to be able to work without in process gauging) or better predictability of the process. Many grinding developments have been achieved by industry since the publication of those two papers. One good example is the development of innovations in abrasive products shown by Webster and Tricard in 2004 [65]. Regardless the advances in
grinding research and its industrial applications there is still a gap between academic and industrial worlds. One good example is the limited application of higher speeds in grinding with cubic boron nitride (CBN) wheel in industry. Grinding can perform better at higher speeds why do most CBN applications run at only 80 m/s? Therefore, it is relevant to understand the present industrial situation regarding grinding development. Reducing the gap between industrial needs and academic research should help in the orientation for future projects and planning of activities in the CIRP STC G. The idea is to focus on the industrial opportunities for grinding research. These opportunities can be mapped in different ways. The rst is the evaluation of some product trends and related grinding challenges, or opportunities. Since most industries prefer to purchase turn-key grinding solutions, the machine tool builder opinion should also give a good view of the opportunities to ll the gap. Today, many CIRP members work on research for industry and the description of these cases is also a source of information on the tendencies in grinding and industrial opportunities. A last way to get information is to understand the view from grinding experts in industry running research projects. These ideas were used to structure the data collection and the topics of this paper and are presented in the following pages. This keynote is not aimed at covering all industrial opportunities in grinding but to show several aspects of the main trends that can represent opportunities for grinding research. The authors would like to acknowledge the members of STC G for their contributions in the discussions, specially the following colleagues who sent cases studies and structured information for the preparation of this paper: Anil Srivastava TechSolve, Inc., Cincinatti, USA Christoph Zeppenfeld Laboratory for Machine Tools and Production Engineering, WZL, Aachen, Germany
* Corresponding author. 0007-8506/$ see front matter 2009 CIRP. doi:10.1016/j.cirp.2009.09.006
Please cite this article in press as: Oliveira JFG, et al. Industrial challenges in grinding. CIRP Annals - Manufacturing Technology (2009), doi:10.1016/j.cirp.2009.09.006
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Chi-Hung Shen GM Technical Fellow, GM R&D Center, Michigan, USA Christoph Hubert Institute for Machine Tools and Factory t Management Berlin Technische Universita Berlin E. Brinksmeier Foundation Institute for Materials Science (IWT), Division: manufacturing technologies in Bremen, Germany John Webster Cool-Grind Technologies, USA Juliano Araujo Nucleus of Advanced Manufacturing, Department o of Production Engineering, University of Sa Paulo, Brazil K. Subramanian Director, Surface Preparation Technology, HPM Sector, Saint-Gobain, Co, USA Klaus Weinert Department of Machining Technology, Technische t Universita Dortmund, Germany Marc Tricard QED Technologies, Rochester, USA Michael Morgan AMTREL, Liverpool John Moores University, UK Stephen Malkin University of Massachusetts, Amherst, USA 2. Grinding as surface generation process All abrasive nishing systems are intended to generate surfaces. The value/benet may be described in terms of the functions served by the surface and how fast that surface can be generated. The most commonly recognized function served by the surface is the mechanical aspect or the nature of contact to transmit force, motion, selective position, etc. The desired functions to be served by the surface may not always be unique or singular in nature. The served functions may also rely on other engineering properties of the surfaces such as electronic, optical, magnetic, etc. Not surprisingly, the derived function can also be purely aesthetic or safety-based, in some cases. In any such cases, there is an explosive growth in the exploitation of the function served by the surfaces. Furthermore, every development in thin lm technology and most developments in nano-technologies usually require a surface of controlled function as the starting point. Of course, the rate of generation of the surface determines the productivity, a critical economic factor for success in any industrial operation. The surface generation as a value/benet of abrasive nishing processes can be mapped as in Fig. 1 [56]. As a result of such value/benet analysis, one can infer that the multitude of abrasive nishing processes described thus far can be divided into three natural segmentations: Those which strive to achieve the surface at the highest rate of surface generation or productivity. These are called Rough nishing processes. Those which strive to achieve the highest level of the desired functionality of the surface, generally requiring very small amounts of material to be removed. These are called Ultra Precision nishing process. Those which struggle constantly for a trade-off between the demands for better functionality and the need for higher productivity. These are called Precision nishing processes. Selective exploitation of the functionality of surfaces, particularly in the age of high technology is creating opportunities for unique and innovative abrasive nishing processes, particularly
with ultra precision nishing processes. Hence, it may be desirable to look at a classication such as Micro Finishing Processes, Nano Finishing Processes and Pico Finishing Processes, which represent an emerging family of processes within the ultra precision surface generation category. The above discussion will lead one to the conclusion, that the abrasive products are engineered composites used as cutting tools to generate surfaces of required value/benet to the customers. Every abrasive nishing system in turn is a set point in the value/ benet map described in Fig. 1. The vectors of progress with reference to this set point may be to achieve higher productivity at a given level of function, improved functions of the surface, or both. Therefore grinding opportunities will be always related to one of those three segmentations depending on what is the most critical aspect for an industrial application. Obviously, the demands for the future will be strongly related to the changes in product design that may offer new challenges in quality or process productivity. A good eld to exemplify this analysis is the automotive industry, which is under pressure for better and more sustainable performance. Some of the main automotive product changes that affect grinding performance are shortly described in this paper. 3. Technology trends in grinding machine tool industry In order to identify the current perception of the machine tool builders regarding CBN grinding application, a survey was conducted during two of the main machine tool builder exhibitions (EMO 2007 and IMTS 2008). A total of 23 original equipment manufacturers (OEMs) with different nationalities were included in the survey as presented in Fig. 2. The following minimum requirements were considered for the OEMs selection: The OEM must design and manufacture its own grinding machine and; The OEM must develop the grinding process to be performed by its customer. As presented in Fig. 2 the majority of the OEMs interviewed were from Germany (35%). Switzerland, US and UK were the other major nationalities. The others OEMs include the following countries with one participant each: Brazil, India, Italy, Spain, Sweden and Japan. This survey is representative for the technologies developed in Europe as well as in the USA, but does not represent well the Asian situation. The questions included in the survey are listed in Table 1. Inputs from the OEMs were collected when visiting their booths during the exhibition and also the survey form was sent by mail for further response by the authorized OEM personnel. The results for the maximum grinding speed currently used are presented in Fig. 3. Low cutting speeds are still being used for CBN, considering that 39% of the OEM indicates maximum values between 40 and 80 m/s, followed by 26% that indicates speeds between 100 and 120 m/s as a limit. Three other ranges of speeds could be identied: 121140 m/s, 170180 m/s and 200 m/s.
Fig. 1. All applications of abrasive products are intended to generate surfaces [56].
Fig. 2. OEMs nationalities.
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J.F.G. Oliveira et al. / CIRP Annals - Manufacturing Technology xxx (2009) xxxxxx Table 1 Questions included in the survey. Number 1 2 3 4 5 Question What is the maximum grinding speed you are using with CBN? What are the technical reasons for not using high-speed grinding? What is the fraction of your customer grinding applications that use CBN? What are the current issues that limit your use of CBN? What breakthrough in CBN wheel technology would increase the use of it? 3
Fig. 5. Fraction of the customers that uses CBN.
Fig. 3. Speeds currently used with CBN wheels.
The reason for not using high-speed grinding according to the OEMs is presented in Fig. 4. The required complexity of the grinding machine with the necessity of additional systems was the main factor for not using CBN (33%). Improved dressing, balancing, anti-re and coolant systems were listed as required additional systems for enabling the high-speed CBN application. Also, machine rigidity requirements, grinding power demands and improved spindle technology were included under the machine complexity. The second major issue obtained was the economical aspect. Those two mentioned answers, which can be obviously merged, represent the majority of high-speed limitations from the OEMs point of view. The lack of interest by costumers and industry in using high-speed was responsible for only 7% of the answers. Thermal issues and safety add 22% together. Other reasons listed by the OEMs were: workpiece quality issues, vibration, maintenance and a small percentage who believe that CBN is not feasible with present technology. One conclusion from this scenario is that there is still the need for developing systems and machine features at low cost that would enable the use of CBN in industrial applications. Industrial customers of grinding machines are open to CBN application if they are simple, reliable and at low cost of investment. When OEMs were questioned about what is the fraction of their customers grinding applications that use CBN, the results demonstrated that CBN is still responsible for a narrow market share when compared to the conventional wheels technology. According to the OEMs (Fig. 5), 46% of their costumers use CBN technology in not more than 10% of their grinding applications. That number reached 63% when considering up to 20% of the grinding applications. When considering costumers that run
Fig. 6. Limitations for increasing the use of vitried CBN wheels.
almost only CBN (between 90% and 100%) in their applications, that number drops to only 8%. When asked about the limitations for increasing the CBN market share, the OEMs response followed the distribution presented in the Fig. 6. The cost of the tool was still the main limitation for using CBN according to the OEMs, followed by the necessity of a better understanding of the grinding process with CBN. Other limitation factors were cited in the same percentage: necessity of better monitoring systems, more effective dressing operation and lack of exibility. Improved wheel porosity, trained operators and process instability were listed under other factors. Finally, the survey identied what would be the relevant breakthroughs in the CBN technology in the OEMs point of view. The answers were presented in Fig. 7. The more relevant breakthroughs can be grouped into CBN wheel development, including possible use of CBN at higher speeds with a better performance and allowing easier and less frequent dressing operation (47% total). If combined with the developments in the CBN wheel technology (grain, bond and core) those inputs correspond to 59% of the total. Under the machine improvements were listed: the combined operations (grinding and turning), possibility of ve axes interpolation along with increased process control and fast and inexpensive wheel change operations. Other breakthroughs include: high-precision grinding solutions, partnership with costumers, machine improvements, user friendly, dry grinding with CBN and ecological aspects.
Fig. 4. Reasons for not using high-speed.
Fig. 7. Relevant breakthroughs in the CBN technology.
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This view from the machine tool builders gives a good picture on what are the main limitations for expanding the use of CBN in industry. In most cases, the barriers for a more extensive application of CBN look quite simple. However, the robustness of a CBN grinding application should be high to justify the investment. Process reliability and reduction in risks should be researched in order to give a more objective scenario for the decision makers in industry.
Fig. 8. Lightweight valves [48].
4. Grinding technology trends in automotive industry Automotive industry is one of the main users of ground components. Many solutions for grinding problems come from classical operations related to engine or transmission components. Classical examples are the crankshaft grinding and camshaft grinding. Since the automotive industry is one of the major drivers for grinding development, it was chosen to be the focus of this section. Automobiles are referred as magnets for environmental criticism. This is due to their high visibility, carbon-based fuel usage, tail-pipe emissions, and hazardous material content [36]. In response to these factors the auto industry has been undertaking changes in the selection of materials (more lightweight materials) and powertrain technologies (e.g., hybrids and fuel cells) of its vehicles. These changes will surely impact in the manufacturing process demands for the future. In order to meet commitments in terms of vehicle CO2 emission reduction, engine research and development are today exploring several elds. Reduction of size and weight of gasoline engines is a strong tendency to improve efciency [37]. For sure longer term developments should include fuel cell technologies that may require a totally different range of need, which are not in the scope of this paper. 4.1. Light valves Since the beginning of the 1980s, passenger car engines have, on average, become about one fourth lighter, while becoming more powerful and more fuel-efcient at the same time. One important tendency is the reduction in the weight of engine moving parts, such as the valves. They are subject to high acceleration levels so, their weight highly inuences the power spent to perform their action. It is also necessary that valves resist to the wear to maintain the sealing effect making necessary the use of advanced materials that are difcult to grind (DTG). In the past, valves made of ceramics, titanium and titanium aluminide offered a variety of grinding challenges. Due to very high material and/or production costs and extremely complex testing methods, these valves never achieved the economic breakthrough to high volume production applications [48]. One tendency in lightweight valves is the design using coldformed nickel-based alloy sheet metal. These lightweight valves are congured as hollow parts, without the need of drilling processes in the stems. The stem is produced from a precision steel tube. The materials used are the high-strength steels X5NiCrAlTi31-20 for intake valves, which are subject to lower thermal loads, and NiCr23Fe for the exhaust valves. The sheet metal used has wall thicknesses between 0.8 mm and 2.0 mm for the formed components [48]. The individual components are joined by laser beam welding (Fig. 8). The lightweight valve achieves weight savings of 3555% compared to a conventional component of same size. Compared to valves made of a forging blank, the use of highprecision components reduces the mechanical machining scope by approximately 25%. However, centerless grinding of these components can be quite challenging. Due to their small weight, spinning can easily happen and thermal deections can lead to higher cylindricity values. Part exibility is also an issue since grinding is highly dependent on the system stiffness. So, the development of grinding processes that can perform the combination of DTG materials at low stiffness and lightweight should be an important industrial challenge in grinding. One of the main concerns when grinding low stiffness components is the presence of chatter during the rough phases of the processes. Vitried CBN wheels are sensitive to these dynamic forces and may wear faster [44]. The use of dampening systems or grinding strategies that allow the use of part support without loosing the accuracy in concentricity or roundness are the main research tasks for an optimized grinding of these components. 4.2. Light camshafts Following the same trend of weight reduction, composite camshafts are already widely used in automotive engines. One of the technologies for composite camshafts is based on thermal shrink t. In this process the cams (Fig. 9) are heated for a short period of time and are then joined to the cylinder. This technology gives exibility in the modular design and a weight reduction up to 45% in comparison to the solid camshaft [47]. Similarly to the lightweight valves, the composite camshafts give additional challenges to the grinding process, since the parts are subjected to assembly stresses and have lower stiffness than the solid component, so high part deections during and deformations after grinding are expected. 4.3. Forged crankshafts Forged crankshafts are widely used in heavy diesel engines due to their higher load capacity and ductility. Nowadays their application is moving to automotive engines due to their lighter
Fig. 9. Components for a composite camshaft [47].
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weight and more compact dimensions. However forged steel crankshafts are sensitive to cracks due to stress concentrations. Consequently these forged parts are normally designed with a radius between the diameter of each pin (or main) and the sidewalls. The grinding of the sidewalls in these components is critical as it affects the dimension and the surface quality of the blending radius [53]. Grinding of the sidewalls is done by industry on both sides simultaneously by plunging a wheel with the same width and prole of the pin or main to be ground. The appearance of a ridge or a shoulder on the blending radius due to the non-uniform wheel wear is one of the most frequent causes for part rejection and the main reason for wheel dressing. These grinding operations are normally expensive and time consuming. Improvements may be achieved by combining new grinding strategies and high performance CBN grinding wheels. The adoption of high-speed CBN face grinding with axial feed in place of plunge grinding enabled grinding of different workpiece widths using a single xture, thereby increasing the process exibility [32]. But this strategy is not used by industry in the grinding of the sidewalls for forged crankshafts since it frequently leads to grinding burn and uneven wear on the wheel prole [22]. Recently, alternative strategies have been investigated for crankshaft grinding. Oliveira et al. [46] investigated three grinding strategies: radial plunge grinding, axial face grinding, and multistep axial face grinding. While all three strategies could produce acceptable parts, the multi-step face grinding strategy was found to be particularly advantageous for providing exibility in the process control. Comley et al. [10] successfully investigated the use of high-efcient deep grinding (HEDG) with material removal rate of 2000 mm3/mm s in a cylindrical plunge-grinding mode for the machining of automotive crankshafts. Oliveira and Comleys research shows some new directions in the solution of the crankshaft grinding, however industry is not yet using those concepts and further research needs to be conducted. These examples of changes in automotive products show a clear tendency of lighter components manufactured with high performance materials. They are an opportunity to apply CBN grinding at high speeds. At these conditions it should be possible to grind DTG steels at lower forces. The main industrial challenge in these cases will be to achieve reasonable grinding process costs and part quality at critical product conditions. Denitely a wider application of CBN should drive the future of the grinding processes in precision and light automotive components. However the application of CBN in grinding is still much smaller than expected. 5. Case studies The STC G participants were invited to send their contributions on industrial cases. Among 33 received cases there were 9 where an industrial problem was solved by the research lab. The other contributions reported industrial demands or problems not yet fully solved that represent challenges for future research. The cases presented here are good examples on what kind of problems that industry is demanding and how they see the research institutes as potential partners in their solution. The case studies were organized under major topics and are presented below. 5.1. Grinding of critical materials The development of materials and the necessity of economic machining have always driven the development of grinding processes. In many applications, the use of advanced materials in industrial scale will be only possible if they can be economically machined. In that perspective, new grinding processes can be developed or existing ones can be improved in order to match the new requirements. Some materials are not difcult to grind but can be sensitive to the grinding conditions. Grinding these materials
Fig. 10. SEM pictures of the burr formation.
under severe conditions may lead to part or wheel damage. These cases are called here grinding of critical materials. 5.1.1. Grinding burn and burr in proled steel rings using high-speed grinding The customer needed high-speed CBN grinding (HSG) processes for external proling of C60 (AISI 1060) rings. For that, they purchased several high-speed grinders. The machine tool manufacturer was asked to prove the damage free high-speed grinding process in preliminary tests. The material was provided by the customer. The machine tool manufacturer was successful in setting up the requested high-speed grinding process without any thermal damage of the machined parts on their machine/process. After these preliminary tests, the customer ordered several HSGmachines. When the rst machine was delivered the customer insisted on carrying out the same grinding tests on the new machine prior to the nal acceptance. Again C60 material was provided by the customer and machined with the veried parameters. It turned out that now HSG was not possible and heavy burr and grinding burn occurred (Figs. 10 and 11). Wheel changes and parameter modications did not lead to improvements. Both companies asked for scientic support to solve the problem. The assumption was that the layout of the high-speed grinding process was insufcient. As verication procedures, experiments at the IWT Bremen detected that a material problem was apparent. The material composition of the C60 steel used in the two test series was different. The IWT asked for a piece of material from the very rst preliminary tests and used it for the grinding tests. Now, grindability was perfect, no burr, no thermal damage occurred. The grinding result could be related to the material. Both companies agreed on grinding a C60 steel according the specications of DIN 17200. The companies did not know that the DIN 17200 species only a limited range of elements. It turned out
Fig. 11. Grinding burn on the lateral surface.
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that the material used in the rst tests and the one used for the machine acceptance were from two different batches. One steel was AL-deoxidized and the other was CA-deoxidized. This leads to slightly different material structures after heat treatment. The micrographs showed a structure with the former austenite grains, hardening has not been successful. The recommendation to the companies was: specify your workpiece material very carefully for critical grinding processes. DIN/ISO standards may not be sufcient by themselves. This case is quite common in industry. Sensitive materials under minor composition changes may become very sensitive to grinding. The solution is always focused in the process and machine. Sometimes big production delays are caused due to small materials properties variation in different batches. The development of diagnosis methods for industry is critical today. A challenge that would allow the development of more robust grinding solutions. 5.1.2. Machining of carbon bre-reinforced silicon-carbide composites (C/CSiC) Carbon bre-reinforced silicon-carbide composites (C/CSiC) feature several remarkable mechanical and thermal properties, like low density, high temperature resistance and noncatastrophic failure mode. The damage-tolerant, quasi-ductile behavior of this composite material has facilitated several industrial applications, most important friction systems [35] and bullet-proof structural components [51]. The process of liquid silicon inltration causes a material expansion, so that for creating contours like drill holes post-processing is required. For an efcient reduction of manufacturing time it is an option to machine C/CSiC components after siliconising. For analyzing hole generation, cutting process has been compared with a grinding process [67]. The investigations were carried out using a drill with polycrystalline diamond (PCD) cutting edges and a mounted point with a sintered grinding head containing diamond grains. The mounted point features an abrasive trepanning tool design, which improves the coolant supply in comparison to the drill [26]. Apart from that, squeeze processes and friction in the center area can be avoided [67]. The cutting process evaluation is presented in Fig. 12. Fig. 12 shows pictures of the unused PCD drill and after a drilling length of Lf = 90 mm. Here, abrasive wear at the ank face and aking at the rake face can be well observed. The process parameters were recommended by the manufacturer. The mounted point, in comparison, shows linear wear behavior at a comparable material removal rate. Drilling length of Lf = 3500 mm can be achieved. The lower tool wear at a comparable chip removal rate results in signicant higher productivity of the abrasive
Fig. 13. Planetary rolling extruder.
process. Concerning quality aspects, the use of mounted points yields in fundamental ISO tolerances IT for the drill hole diameters of down to IT 4 [27]. Producing drill holes with the twist drill leads to disruptions at the exit of the drill hole even at the very rst drill hole [67]. As can be seen, the cutting process is unsuitable for machining of C/CSiC in this case. The development of new grinding applications in advanced materials should take into consideration unexpected possibilities where grinding can, as shown in this example, be applied in unusual situations. This is a good example on how grinding became a very adequate option due to its specicities related to the material conditions and process geometry. The next case shown below is common in industry. It is an example on why the grinding process is not always responsible for part damage. 5.1.3. Deep prole grinding of a planetary rolling extruder One of the problems detected is the observation of surface cracks after deep grinding (creep-feed grinding) of main spindle prole (Fig. 13). The possible assumption was that the crack formation was caused by the grinding process due to the use of inadequate conditions. The analysis of the damages performed at the IWT has proved that not the grinding process lead to the cracks but rather a material problem. Metallographic inspection showed big carbide segregations. The cracks occur along the carbides. The cracks could be found even in the bulk material (Figs. 14 and 15). The reason for the cracks was that the steel manufacturer did not take enough care of a sufcient recrystallization process. Either the strain rate in metal forming or the annealing temperature was too low. It was suggested a material inspection before grinding or demand a material certicate from the steel manufacturer. In this case, the search for changes in grinding conditions would never solve the industrial problem.
Fig. 14. Metallographic analysis of the surface layer of the main spindle.
Fig. 12. Rake face and ank wear of a twist drill after a total drilling length of Lf = 90 mm.
Fig. 15. Structure of the bulk material with cracks and carbine lines.
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5.1.4. Detection of optimization potential for the coolant supply when machining linear guides The inquiry from industry was the detection of optimization potential for the coolant supply when machining linear guides. The assumption was that the isolated grinding burn occurred when machining linear guides seemed to be related with the orientation and the type of coolant supply nozzle used. By the use of a test rig for the measurement of the quantity of coolant passing the grinding arc, different coolant supply nozzles with varying alignment were applied. Grinding tests and measurements of the residual stress of the machined parts were performed for the assessment of the different coolant supply strategies. The results showed that by the correct adjustment of the supply nozzle, the quantity of coolant passing the grinding arc can be enhanced by approximately 10%. The replacement of the usually used free jet nozzle by a shoe nozzle shows that a distinct reduction of the coolant ow rate can be realized. The recommendation to the companies was the introduction of a positioning system for the adjustment of the coolant supply nozzles and verication of the applicability of shoe nozzles for the grinding process. 5.2. New processes for special requirements Some classical grinding problems require dedicated or specially designed processes. Well known examples are the grinding of long lengths and small diameters requiring the development of the centerless processes. Other is the low stiffness in (inner-diameter) ID grinding, requiring the use of a combined process where hard turning and grinding are performed in the same machine. Another is the need of grinding both at surfaces in a spacer or a sealing component that requires a double disk process. The combination of critical part geometry and recent new developments in difcult to grind materials lead to very challenging problems that require newer processes concepts. New grinding processes are normally very much related to new tool or machine concepts. The solutions are normally complex and a good opportunity for the collaboration between industry and the research centers. The three cases described below show examples of new grinding processes based on industrial challenges. 5.2.1. High-speed double face grinding with planetary kinematics for the machining of coplanar surfaces Technical parts with coplanar functional surfaces of various materials and shapes are used for different purposes such as regulator discs, bearing races or seal discs as depicted in Fig. 16. A production process is very appropriate to machine these parts if both functional surfaces of the workpiece are engaged simultaneously, thus mistakes caused by positioning or clamping may not occur. Double face grinding machines with planetary kinematics can be used for this kind of processing. High quality surfaces with an accurate shape and geometry can be realized. However the material removal rate is limited because of the low cutting speed and grinding pressure. Another difculty is the highly dynamic load state of the grinding wheels causing an uneven wear prole. Referring to the particular kinematics the careful choice of process parameters plays an important role when machining workpieces that way. Currently production technology and experience with the process only exist
Fig. 17. Inuence of the process environment on the microscopic grain wear mechanism.
for low cutting speed and material removal rates. To generate a permanent progress in process efciency being essential for the production in European high wage countries new measures had to be implemented in terms of machine tools and manufacturing technology. It is basic knowledge about grinding that a very high material removal rate at low grinding wheel wear can be realized when the shivering of the abrasive grain is mainly microcrystalline. The nature of this wear is determined by the conditions in the contact zone shown in Fig. 17. To reach the area of microcrystalline shivering a minimum cutting velocity is necessary. In close cooperation with the Institute for Machine Tools and Factory Management of the Technical University Berlin a prototypic machine tool system has been developed by Stahli AG, PieterlenBiehl, Switzerland. In order to qualify this new machine tool and to develop a suitable process technology for the machining of the aforementioned ceramic seal discs a number of technological investigations have been carried out. Each test series included ve tests at a low cutting speed vc = 1.65 m/s and immediately afterwards another one at a high cutting speed vc = 16.5 m/s. Finally a further test at a low cutting speed was done. In each test there was a stock removal volume of Vw = 1850 mm3 up to 18050 mm3 taken from the workpiece. This happened at a low pressure of p(1.65 m/ s) = 0.051 N/cm2 and p(16.5 m/s) = 1.54 N/cm2. The grinding wheel had not been sharpened between the single tests only before the rst one. The specic workpiece height reduction was detected continuously during the process. The quality of the workpiece surface and the grinding wheel wear were measured with a laser triangulation system. After the test running at high and low cutting speed the surface roughness was almost the same at Ra = 0.4 mm and Rz = 4 mm. Fig. 18 shows that the specic material removal rate, as expected,
Fig. 16. Ceramic seal and regulator discs (CeramTec AG) being machined with double face grinding with planetary kinematics.
Fig. 18. Inuence of the cutting speed on the height reduction.
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is low during the tests with low cutting speed (test number IV). It is also obvious that the sharpness of the grinding wheels decreases almost straight proportionally. At high cutting speed (test number VI), however, the specic material removal rate Q0 w is very high and measures more than 40 mm/s in contrast to the values around 2 mm/s at low grinding pressure. If the grinding conditions are set back to the original conditions of low cutting velocities and grinding pressure (test number VII) a substantial higher material removal rate can be observed which can be attributed to a selfsharpening regime during high-speed grinding operation. Increasing the cutting speed raises the possible material removal rate signicantly whereas the quality of the workpiece remains on a high level. It is clearly evident that by inducing a self-sharpening regime due to high cutting speed and grinding pressure a stable process behavior and a reduction in down-time consuming sharpening and proling operations can be achieved. A process combination of roughing at a high cutting speed and nishing by adjusting the speed ratio between grinding wheels and pin circle over a wide range represents a further solution concerning rising economic and technological demands toward the discussed machining process. 5.2.2. Grinding of camlobes and crankpin using abrasive belts Camshaft lobe grinding is one of the most difcult tasks in all grinding applications due to its peculiar geometry and orientation. Traditionally, the camlobes on a camshaft have been grounded by a bonded abrasive wheel in sequential grinding operations requiring very long cycle times [38]. A new grinding machine using coated abrasives belts has been developed to grind all the camlobes (68) simultaneously (Fig. 19). The cost of the machine was about the same as a conventional grinder but the total capital investment was only 1/4 since the belt grinder can produce 4 times or more camshafts per shift. It also has the unique capability to grind re-entrant camlobe proles at typical mass production cycle time because of the small radius of the PCD (polycrystalline diamond) backup shoe. The current status is that the machine was patented and licensed to machine tool builder and 40 grinders were installed at production plants. The potential enhancements are: Spliceless, reliable, and longer CBN abrasive belt life. Abrasive wear and belt slippage/breakage monitoring. Increase grinding speed to 3 or more (right now the belt speed is 2550 m/s). Additionally, several key areas of development for the camlobe grinder can be identied as: jointless belts, precision dressing of the belts, thin lm chemical vapor deposition (CVD) diamond coated backup shoes, and more efcient servo drives and CNC programming. In the case of the abrasive belt crankpin grinder, using the prototype machine, it was not able to meet the pin roundness specication consistently at that time because of its one order of magnitude tighter tolerance requirements than the camlobes and
so the project was discontinued after a few years. Additional technical challenges for the development are: Higher resolutions in motion control and synchronization. Optimize infeed and spark-out grinding algorithms. Improve belt tensioning and slippage controls. More precise and robust diamond (PCD) back-up shoe. Increase grinding speed to 3 or more.
5.2.3. Productivity enhancement in internal traverse grinding with electroplated (EP) CBN wheels The machining of bores after the hardening process is frequently a quite challenging task. Gears, hubs or bearing rings have small dimensional, form and positional tolerance values as well as high demands concerning the surface integrity. Also, as the batch sizes are decreasing it is necessary to have highly predictable and reliable machining processes. For this reason, processes with geometrically dened and geometrically undened cutting edge have been combined with the aim to use the advantage of high material removal rates in hard turning and the high achievable quality in grinding. To this extent, the potentials of electroplated CBN grinding wheels in combination with high circumferential wheel speeds in order to maximize the material removal rate, could be used to top the performance of processes with dened cutting edge. Factors which make the use of the grinding technology in the case of internal operations difcult and so limit the process are the complex interaction between grinding wheel and workpiece because of the relatively big arc of contact length and the small size of the grinding wheel which is bound to the diameter of the workpiece [11,21]. Investigations in the use of electroplated grinding wheels in internal traverse grinding lead to the result that with this grinding technology the high potentials of such wheels can be utilized to achieve an enormous enhancement of the grinding performance, resulting in even higher removal rates than those in hard turning. On the other hand, the internal traverse grinding process makes use of axial feed kinematics similar to hard turning and is characterized by a functional partition of the grinding wheel in a conical roughing zone and a cylindrical nishing zone. This circumstance not only allows high removal rates but also the production of smooth surfaces and narrow tolerances in one stroke only. This is achieved through the specic modication of the nishing zone by touch dressing. Acoustic emission monitoring is used to carry out the necessary small dressing infeeds. In addition, only a narrow grinding wheel is needed what results in a small area of contact between wheel and workpiece thus leading to lower forces and temperatures as well [68,69,3] (Fig. 20). The results are very encouraging since the obtained quality is as good as a conventional plunge-grinding process but at lower cycle times. The key advantage of this work is the gain in productivity in
Fig. 19. Eight-belt camshaft grinder [38].
Fig. 20. Experimental setup for internal traverse grinding with electroplated grinding wheels.
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gear wheel production. Here the dressing of EP becomes an important feature of the process. 6. Industrial opportunities Several cases received from the STC G members are not fully solved. They represent demands brought by industries to the research centers. These cases are useful for understanding research demands in grinding for the future. These cases are presented in the following section. They were classied with regard to the main technical challenge in: critical tolerances, machine developments, topographic control of grinding wheels, information systems, cost analysis and human factors. 6.1. Critical tolerances 6.1.1. Finishing of steel rollers for printing machines Finishing of steel rollers and cylinders for modern offset printing machines requires a very high process stability of cylindrical grinding. Smallest surface defects as a result of unintended changes of the grinding conditions may have a severe impact on the functionality that can only be detected by analyzing the print-outs. In many cases a cause for the incidence of such defects is a small variation of the grinding tool properties in consequence of the variance of inuencing factors in the tool fabrication. These grinding processes use conventional wheels consisting of vitried bond systems, aluminum-oxide grains and pores. The high number of inuencing factors in the fabrication of grinding wheels to their characteristics can be roughly related to following categories: composition of grain, bonding material, additives and llers, grain sizes/geometries, mixing quality and temperature time characteristic at sintering. It is a common experience in the industrial application that grinding wheels with same specication in terms of values for grain size, hardness and structure may give different grinding results for the same machine/ part/condition. In this case study a grinding wheel test method has been developed that enables a characterization of grinding wheels aside from their physical properties as well as generates characteristic indices for comparing new grinding wheels prior to a long term industrial application. The potential use of grinding wheels under test is evaluated in relation to a reference grinding wheel with well known grinding properties in the respective grinding process as shown in Fig. 21. During a series of short-time technological tests the workpiece diameter and roughness, representing the work result as well as radial wear, and grinding forces representing the process parameters are measured at different specic material removal rates.
Fig. 22. Variation of process forces during staged grinding test runs for different wheel specications.
Based on the measurement values of the grinding wheels under test in relation to the values of the reference wheel at the process working point a comparative benchmarking can be carried out. Fig. 22 depicts an exemplarily result of one of the proposed staged tests schemes within the developed test sequence applied to conventional grinding wheels of very similar specication. The main task during this stage of the study was to identify an appropriate test sequence, sets of parameters, the necessary extent and volume of the test runs as well approaches to analyze the output data from multiple sensor systems applied in the test runs. As a result of the presented case study a number of different tests schemes and parameters could be found which allow a conrmed proposition concerning the use potential of conventional grinding wheels for the considered application. Within the given scope of these investigations a practicable solution was established, whereas the formulation of an all-embracing correlation between the physical properties and the grinding behavior proved to be highly difcult. Taking into account the considerable demand for other industrial needs in this area shows that further research on this topic seems indispensable. 6.1.2. Strut rod or valve stems centerless grinding The main improvements required for the actual Strut rod through feed centerless grinding are the reduction of the magnitude and variation in surface nishing in order to replace the super-nishing operation. Similar problem happen in chrome plated engine valves, where surface nishing is frequently below 0.1 mm, Ra and roundness should be below 5 mm. 6.2. Machine developments Machine tool development is an important topic considering the nowadays requirements of cost reduction with high efciency. Additionally, new grinding processes and new grinding tools are increasing the requirements for power, stiffness, stability and spindle rpm. Many present industrial challenges and new product demands are driving the development of machines for grinding. Here are some demands. 6.2.1. Machine tool stiffness for combined machining Over a research period of four years, the combined simultaneous machining by hard turning, grinding and hard roller burnishing was investigated in a public founded project. Therefore, industry partners developed a machine tool and adapted tools. The machine setup was designed for the production of hardened shaft components between centers. The machining tests were carried out at WZL, Aachen. It was found out that one of the main inuence factors in simultaneous machining is the machine tool itself. The prototype
Fig. 21. Schematic representation of the proposed test scheme.
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in the project had several disadvantages and defects for the use in industrial applications. The low stiffness of the workpiece clamping leads to chattering in hard turning and grinding. Different stiffness of the system at the spindle and the tailstock side leads to a loss of cylindricity when using hard turning or external peel grinding. In simultaneous machining operations, the normal cutting forces of one process can lead to a dislocation of the workpiece rotational axis. This is responsible for a further loss of dimension and form accuracy because the stock removal of the other process is changed with the position of the rotational axis. The machining tests at WZL showed up that the prototype, developed by industry partners was inadequate for the machining of components under industrial aspects and need to be completely overworked. 6.2.2. Machine requirements for the hydraulic lash adjuster internal grinding The hydraulic lash adjuster (HLA) is one of the most precise components in an engine. The bottleneck when grinding the HLA is to keep the wheel prole on the corners. This is normally done by optimizing the wheel and coolant selections. The main challenge is to increase dressing cycles from currently 1520 parts to more than 30 parts and reduce cycle time. An integrated solution for grinding this component is highly desirable by industry. With the objectives of reducing scrap, minimizing cycle time and obtaining standardized settings across all production plants, the ID grinding of HLA will require machines that are capable of generating micron-level tight tolerances. This is an important industrial demand. Such precision grinding requires optimized selection and setup for grinding wheel, dressing tool, and coolant along with robust combination of grinding and dressing parameters. 6.2.3. Machine requirements for tripot spider infeed centerless application Tripod spiders are used in automotive transmissions in substitution to universal or constant speed joints. Machines for tripot spider infeed centerless grinding application (Fig. 23) will require improved roundness control according to the wheel wear. Usually, roundness values must the reduced in 50%. These components are of high precision since their three outer-diameter (OD) cylindrical surfaces are used as roller bearings. The geometry is an additional challenge for the grinding of these components. 6.3. Wheel topography: characterization and control The efciency of the grinding operation is highly dependent on the grinding wheel surface topography [41]. Some main parameters are grain distribution, wear at areas, grain protrusion and grit geometry. These properties can highly change the result of a grinding process. A classical industrial challenge is how to control these parameters in an industrial environment. There is still no system available for industry able to control the topographic properties of a grinding wheel while grinding. Following are some of the presented case studies by CIRP members. 6.3.1. Dressing tool wear: electron-beam microscope to dene pressure and temperature conditions The performance of grinding processes is dened signicantly by preparation of the grinding tools. The dressing tool wear inuences the effective dressing width and therefore the grinding
Fig. 24. Methodology for mapping a grain wear at area.
wheel contour accuracy and surface roughness. A basic understanding of the generation and formation of the dressing tool wear is necessary to compensate the dressing tool wear actively or to optimize the dressing tool design. At WZL, Aachen, research has been conducted to understand the wear mechanisms of single diamond grains. Detailed electron-beam microscope analyses enable the denition of temperature and pressure conditions during the dressing process. For macroscopic wear compensation an optical form roller wear measurement system was constructed. It can be used exibly for different form rollers and enables measurement on the grinding machine. The dressing roller geometry is recorded as contour with transmitted light. The exact detection of the angle position at the standing dressing roller with an encoder gives new opportunities to measure the change of effective dressing width. Also the formation of the dresser circumference depending on the angular position is possible. 6.3.2. Wheel topography characterization via light reection Several researchers [23,70] analyzed the use of surface texture measurement systems on machining processes. Some others [6,40,45,58,60,62] specically looked at the relation between the topographic characteristics of the wheel surface and its behavior on the grinding operation. In this case study, Oliveira et al. [41] proposed a monitoring system for the wheel sharpness measurement based on the characteristics of a light beam reected from the grinding wheel surface (Fig. 24) on the abrasive grains wear at areas over the whole wheel peripheral surface. In the proposed systems, the light reected from the top surfaces of the abrasive grains is converted to an electrical signal by a charge coupled device (CCD) sensor and processed by a microcomputer. The proposed mapping system for grinding wheels (MSGW) was able to acquire data with the wheel running at the cutting speed (30 m/s) and the measurement carried out on the grinding machine without stopping. The system was applied on a surface grinding operation where an Al2O3 grinding wheel was used. The results showed that the system could be used to map the wear ats at the grinding wheel surface and also to analyze the wear phenomena efciently (Fig. 25). A good correlation between the
Fig. 23. Tripod spider, a challenge for the centerless grinding concept.
Fig. 25. Surface maps obtained according to the wheel wear [41].
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Fig. 27. Image construction procedure for fast RMS analysis [42].
Fig. 26. Results of the normal grinding force and percentage of at areas according to the wear on the grinding wheel peripheral surface [41].
the abrasive grains. Darker areas mean less acoustic energy detected by the sensor. The L shaped mark was created in the wheel surface in order to check the system functionality. The darker band on the left side was caused by a grinding operation using that area of the wheel. The system is being used by industry in two different ways (Fig. 29): (a) Dressing evaluation: the interaction between the dresser and the grinding wheel can be monitored. Lack of contact between dresser and grinding wheel will appear as dark areas in the map. (b) Grinding evaluation: during a plunge grinding the interaction between the grinding wheel and the workpiece can be evaluated. This AE tool has already been used in industry as a prototype, but needs further development in order to be robust in industrial applications. The main challenges are still: AE signal detection when using roller or ball bearings in the grinding wheel spindle, automatic gain control of AE signal, image recognition systems for process diagnosis and feed-back. 6.4. Information and database systems Nowadays, the design of grinding processes is mostly based on individual experiences of the process planner. Decreasing batch sizes and increasing product variety result in an increasing frequency of process designs. Hence, an effective process planning, which is based on companywide process knowledge, becomes more important. The development of a grinding process planning system can be a very complex challenge if it intends to be generic or universal.
average reected light level and the normal force was also found (Fig. 26). The vision systems are becoming more versatile and less expensive. Researches are being carried out in order to analyze the wheel texture using vision systems [1]. This is a relevant challenge for industrial application where the percentage of wear ats can be a good parameter to identify the need for wheel dressing or to prevent from grinding burn. 6.3.3. Wheel topography characterization via AE The application of acoustic emission (AE) in grinding monitoring has been researched since 1984 [12]. One of the rst conclusions of this research was the high sensitivity of the AE (root mean square) RMS level in the detection of contact between the grinding wheel and the workpiece. This was conrmed by Refs. [24,63,4,34,33]. The CIRP Tool Condition Monitoring keynote by Byrne et al. 1995 [7] also conrms that and presents several features that can be extracted from the AE RMS signal for process monitoring and diagnosis. The contact detection capabilities of AE information were investigated relative to the topographic characteristics of both contacting surfaces in 1994 [43,64]. The two main limitations of the AE monitoring solutions are the random oscillation of its RMS level and signal saturation. However AE can be very effective and fast for the contact detection of moving surfaces [42]. In this method the acoustic emission obtained from the contact between diamond tool and grinding wheel (or grinding wheel and workpiece in grinding monitoring) is converted to RMS level and acquired by a computer. The sampling rate is very fast, reaching almost 1 mega samples per second. An AE signal processing unit has been developed for the system. The data acquisition is made in data arrays corresponding to a full rotation of the grinding wheel and its triggered by a sensor positioned in the spindle [42]. The image is built up representing the level of each acquired sample with a color scale in a three-dimensional graph. During the dressing operation the image is constructed in real time by adding columns in the array as the dresser travels along the wheel surface (Fig. 27). Fig. 28 shows an output from the acoustic mapping system when used during a dressing operation. The vertical and horizontal directions are the wheel circumference and width respectively. The resolution is of two samples/mm. The depth interaction between the diamond and the grinding wheel was 1 mm (in the range of the elastic contact). The color intensity shows the RMS value measured from the interaction between the dressing tool and
Fig. 28. Output from the acoustic mapping system [42].
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respectively. A new approach of improving the possibilities of process control in grinding is to integrate different methods of process analysis and a knowledge management tool like the one mentioned above. Additionally, the data management in grinding (means how to get the process monitoring data, how to store it efciently and effectively and how to use it) is still an issue. Companies could know much more about the processes and the problems (and how to solve them) if they handle their data in a more efcient or transparent way. An effective data management could reduce lead times considerably, but a generic solution is difcult since grinding is a complex process. 6.5. Education concepts and human resources Manufacturing as an industrial discipline is undergoing rapid changes thanks to the access of resources from worldwide sources as well as the supply of manufactured components to users worldwide. As a result, research and development in manufacturing needs to be decoupled between advances in process technology (to conceive and foster new capabilities to transform the objects) and the enabling means to replicate known processes using information technologies. While substantial progress has been made in the past two to three decades in terms of skills to replicate what is already known, there are major unlled opportunities in terms of conception and realization of new processes. Beyond the conception and proof of concept, it will be necessary to develop these new systems into new applications or solutions of industrial use. Such effort will bring benet not only for the researchers but also for all industrial participants in the value chain. We see this as a major need and challenge for research and education in all industrial processes, which include grinding [56]. Research in grinding technology needs to move beyond isolated pockets of efforts in science (exploratory efforts to probe the phenomena), engineering (efforts to integrate components, with or without explicit knowledge of the underlying science) and management (the skills that foster the what, why, how, when and where) initiatives. Instead, there is a need for an integrated approach for all these three disciplines and such integration needs to move beyond limited research groups [57]. Finally, the future will belong to those with unique skills to integrate systems and solutions. Hence education will be a key need for all industrial processes. Grinding technology offers these possibilities and hence provides leadership in this direction for future education. Therefore the main industrial challenge for industry these days seems to be nding and keeping talented engineering staff that can comprehend the fundamentals and can apply them in practice. The problem is especially critical these days because young talented people are attracted elsewhere. 6.6. Cost analysis 6.4.1. Integrated process analysis and knowledge management in grinding Grinding process database software has been developed and successfully tested in industry. Furthermore the demand for highly optimized and a more exible grinding process at the same time results in high challenges concerning its stability. Hereby unstable grinding processes are characterized by the appearance of undesirable grinding results such as white layers, scattering, micro cracks in the workpiece surface or the non-compliance of general geometrical tolerances. Process control aims to ensure high process stability by early identifying desirable grinding results. In the past, numerous promising approaches have been developed to improve the possibilities of process control in grinding by means of different sensor signals (e.g. acoustic emission, spindle power, forces). But most approaches are successfully applied only for simple geometries. Some enable the control of more complex grinding processes but just by means of a long learning period and only for the same grinding process, New process development in industry always requires detailed cost analysis. Grinding costs per part can vary depending on many different inuences, such as parts per dressing, wheel life, production rate, need for maintenance or adjustments, dressing time and others. It is common in industry to compare grinding costs by simply comparing the tool costs when the production rate is similar. This happens due to the high process instability that may require high variable human assistance or correction, factors which are not often measured or evaluated. It is a mistake not to consider the more indirect grinding costs. Machine investment, dressing costs, uid costs, labor needs and many other parameters can be more expensive than the direct tool costs. A cost comparison between two grinding tools seems to be very obvious, however it can be a complex task. For example, when testing CBN wheels, the number of parts produced between two dressing operations can be larger than the production batch size and the real wheel life may not be accessed. The performance in the production of different
Fig. 29. Examples of acoustic mapping applications.
Grinding is very sensitive to the product properties and requirements, so the development of a process planning system is a hard task. Relevant work has been presented on grinding modelling and simulation. The keynote paper 2006 [5] shows a comprehensive analysis of grinding modelling and simulation possibilities. Some advanced software solutions are already in the market, such as the GrindSim developed by Malkin and Guo [39] or the software for centerless simulation developed by Gallego in 2007 [15]. These systems can predict the grinding results regarding the cycle time, part form error, burn occurrence and size variation for a given grinding condition. However for specic grinding problems the process planning is done in industry by trial and error on the machine. The development of database and knowledge management systems for process control is another task depending on database and process information. This is reported by a STC G member in the following case.
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part materials in the same machine may also be of difcult evaluation. An analysis where a CBN is compared to conventional for two different materials is shown in the following case study. 6.6.1. Advantages of vitried CBN wheels The aim of this study was to reduce costs of precision grinding. It is known that increasing wheel speed reduces chip thickness [16,2]. This can result in improved workpiece quality or may allow increased removal rates. However, high grinding speeds tend to: Increase grinding temperature [52]. Make uid delivery more difcult [14,28] Require high-speed bearings [66]. Increase risk of resonance [59].
rate and dwell time. Advantages were gained using vitried CBN at conventional speed and at high speed. For both materials, vitried CBN wheels used at high speed, gave better quality at lower cost than conventional abrasives. Wheel costs became negligible and labor costs greatly reduced. Re-dress life trials, usually neglected, are shown to be essential to reduce costs and maintain quality [13]. The conclusion is that machine and labor cost are the most advantages of CBN application, since higher production rates are possible and less human assistance is necessary. 7. Selected industrial challenges The issues listed in this section were selected based on the authors industrial experience in grinding and from the evaluation of all information gathered to prepare this keynote paper. The following topics represent the view of the authors on what are the breakthrough advances that will lead grinding to a highly adequate process for the nishing of components. 7.1. Predictive surface integrity Since, in nearly all fatigue loading or stress corrosion environments, failure of a component initiates at or very near the surface, the nature of the surface that results from manufacturing processes such as machining and grinding has long been recognized as having a signicant impact on the product performance, longevity and reliability. The combination of stress and elevated temperatures generated during grinding can lead to an altered material zone (AMZ) near the surface. The AMZ can be mechanical (plastic deformation, hardness alternation, cracks, residual stresses, etc.), metallurgical (phase transformation, grain size and distribution, precipitate size and distribution, recrystallization, un-tempered martensite or over-tempered martensite, white etch layer, etc.), chemical (inter-granular attacks, embitterment, corrosion, etc.), thermal (heat affected zone, recast layer, etc.), and electrical (conductivity, magnetic) in nature. Surface integrity is a term that is broadly used to describe technical conditions of machined surfaces. In critical applications such as components for aerospace industry, grinding processes are required to produce surfaces to satisfy the very stringent surface integrity requirements to satisfy the increasing demands of component performance and reliability. These components made of nickel and titanium alloys are required to have compressive residual stress, no deformation layer, and no white layer. To guarantee the required surface integrity, production-grinding processes were developed and certied using experimental trial-and-error approach and extensive surface evaluations. These production-grinding processes are often very conservative in process parameters and the removal rates are low. Further more, post-processes such as shot peening and polishing with abrasive slurry are often used to treat the ground surface to create compressive residual stress or remove other possible surface defects, which add additional cost to the products. In principle, it is understood that the extent of these defects depends on the interaction of the mechanical and thermal energy produced and the workpieces material properties during the grinding process. We still do not have a thorough understanding on the amount of mechanical and thermal energy acting on the workpiece. We have even less understanding about the sensitivity of the material to the energy induced. It is critical for industries, like aerospace, to understand the effects of changing operating parameters before new grinding strategies can be implemented. Industry needs predictive models for surface integrity to optimize existing grinding processes, develop new grinding processes, and adopt new grinding technologies. 7.2. Predictive wheel life for grinding with plated CBN wheels
To avoid problems at high speeds, a special machine, 150% more costly, was used. Features included high dynamic stiffness, hydrostatic bearings for high speeds, temperature-controlled bearing oil and high-pressure temperature-controlled coolant delivery. A high-speed rotary dresser was used, for high-speed CBN grinding. Touch dressing was used, taking few, very ne, dressing cuts <5 mm to maintain quality and reduce wheel consumption. The contact detection required an acoustic emission sensor. Vitried CBN and conventional abrasives were compared at conventional speeds. CBN wheels were used at high speeds. CBN has advantages of being hard wearing, lower grinding temperatures and high-speed capability [25]. Costs in precision cylindrical grinding are compared for different abrasives, machines and grinding conditions. The analysis is for repeated batch production. Account is taken of machine cost (M/C) and abrasive (wheel) cost. Cost comparisons were based on extensive trials to assess re-dress life against workpiece quality requirements (Figs. 30 and 31). Experiments show that different workpiece materials require different strategies to reduce costs. Easy-to-grind AISI 52100 (Fig. 30) and difcult to grind Inconel 718 materials (Fig. 31) were ground at conventional speeds and at high speeds (left and right in each gure, respectively). It is shown that wheel speed affects production rate through acceptable values of re-dress life, removal
Fig. 30. Costs per part when grinding AISI 52100. From left to right, the values of redress life used were, 35, 75, 25, 75 and 330 parts/dress respectively.
Fig. 31. Comparison of costs per part when grinding Inconel 718. From left to right, the values of re-dress life used were 1, 25 and 30 parts/dress respectively.
The main shortcoming of grinding with plated CBN wheels is the transient behavior of its grinding performance. Unlike resin-
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Fig. 32. Grinding performance variation with the use of wheel [20].
Fig. 33. Power variations due to variation of wheel diameter and workpiece property [17].
bonded or vitried CBN wheels where the grinding performance is restored by periodic dressing [31], single-layer plated CBN wheels cannot be dressed. Therefore, the grinding performance of plated CBN wheels varies signicantly as the wheel wears down [61,54,55,8,9,20] which imposes great challenges in cost-effectively utilizing the wheel and process control. The workpiece material is found to be one of the dominant factors affecting the wheel wear. For example, it was found that the grinding performance of plated CBN wheels deteriorates much faster when grinding a 100Cr6 steel than a GG40 cast iron [8] and nickel alloy B1900 than an AISI 52100 bearing steel [54]. An example of the power and roughness variation with accumulated material removal is shown in Fig. 32. When wheel is worn, surface integrity issues such as white layer may be produced on the machined surface [20]. For cost-effective application of plated CBN wheels and grinding process control, it is necessary to know when to replace the wheel. First, we need to establish criteria parameters that can be used to judge wheel life in production. Secondly, we need to develop practical in-process measuring or tracking tools for wheel life. For large volume production of relative simple surfaces, grinding power or number of parts ground may be used. For low volume production of geometrically complex parts, it becomes much more challenging to use grinding power or number of parts as a measure of wheel life. Wheel wear at area should be a good measure of the wheel life. However, it is not easy to measure and track wear at area even under well-controlled laboratory conditions, as show in Section 6.3. 7.3. Grinding to achieve microstructure and metallurgical properties Currently, grinding is mainly used to produce smooth surfaces and precise tolerances without causing metallurgical changes to the ground surface. The surface hardness, micro-structural and metallurgical requirements are achieved by heat treatment or other post grinding processes such as shot peening. Great cost savings can be achieved if the grinding processes can be tailored to produce surfaces with both the required geometrical features such as roughness and tolerance, the mechanical property such as hardness, and the correct metallurgical requirements such as no white layer. To achieve this goal, the grinding process needs to put the appropriate amount of thermal and mechanical energy into the workpiece by the grinding action. It also needs to dissipate the energy at the appropriate rate by cooling and other means. This may also require laser-assisted grinding or a controlled cooling system. It may also call for cryogenic cooling technology. Clearly, the grinding process is required to be more precisely controlled. 7.4. Robust grinding process monitoring and control Effectively monitoring the production-grinding process is still a great challenge especially when grinding of components with complex geometries and plated CBN wheels are used. A number of monitoring technologies have been studied such as acoustic
emission and grinding power. For production use, the most reliable means so far seems to be monitoring the grinding power. The acoustic emission is a good tool for grinding gap elimination and wheel dressing especially for vitried CBN wheels. Grinding power can be easily measured using a power monitor. The challenge has been to use the power signal to effectively control the grinding process, which requires a threshold for the power. For simple surface grinding or cylindrical ID/OD grinding, the theoretical threshold power to avoid burn can be readily obtained using the thermal models. However, the establishment of the threshold power becomes much more challenging for grinding complex parts such as serrations of turbine blades [18]. When continuous dress creep-feed grinding is used, the situation becomes more complicated and the power threshold should be changing with the wheel diameter caused by continuous dressing as shown in Fig. 33 [17]. The most challenging situation arises when grinding parts such as airfoils under multi-axis machine motion [19]. The contact between the grinding wheel and the workpiece changes along the grinding path. This requires sophisticated grinding models to establish the threshold for process monitoring. It is obvious that the threshold will not be a constant rather a variable. 7.5. Grinding process energy efciency improvement Up to now, energy consumption by machining and grinding processes has not been a concern for industry because the energy cost is much lower than the other costs such as material, labor and tooling. Grinding process improvements mostly focus on cycle time reduction, wheel savings, and quality improvements. The situation appears to be changing due to recent increase in energy demand world wide, the signicant energy price uctuations, and the concern over global warming. The energy intensity or efciency of all material removal processes such as machining, grinding, and electrical discharge machining (EDM) can be measured using the concept of specic energy dened as the energy required for remove unit volume of material. Grinding is one of the most energy-intensive among all machining processes. The grinding specic energy is typically higher than the energy required for melting the material. For example, melting iron or nickel consumes roughly less than 10 J/ mm3 energy while the specic grinding energy is typically 30 50 J//mm3 for grinding steels with conventional aluminum-oxide abrasive wheels. Considering the large amount of grinding operations used by industry worldwide, the impact can be signicant if we can improve the energy efciency of the grinding process. Furthermore, the high energy intensity of the grinding process is also the root causes of the workpiece surface and subsurface damages caused by the grinding operation such as burn, white layer, and residual stresses. It is understood that the grinding energy is used for forming grinding chips, plowing some material on the ground surface, and overcoming frictions between the grinding wheel and the workpiece [39]. Depending on the grinding conditions, the relative
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Fig. 34. Specic cutting energy vs. specic volumetric removal rate [39].
percentage of the three components can vary signicantly. The highest percentage of the energy seems to be used for overcoming the friction, especially for creep-feed grinding and grinding at low removal rate. It is logical to think that research in new grinding wheel technology, advanced coolants, and coolant deliver technology will make the biggest impact in reducing friction at the grinding zone. It is known that oil-based coolant provides better lubrication than water soluble coolant. However, grinding process also requires coolant to provide effective cooling at the grinding zone, which the water soluble coolant is much better. The challenge is to develop a technology that can provide effective cooling and lubrication at the grinding zone which is typically under high pressure and temperature. The chip formation energy alone is close to the melting energy of the material for grinding steels with conventional aluminumoxide wheels as shown in Fig. 34. This is the amount of energy to adiabatically shear the material to melting. In order to reduce chip formation energy, grinding technology is needed to remove material without inducing the large amount of deformation or strain. The main reason of large strain by grinding is due to the dull cutting edges of the abrasive grits and their inability to align the cutting edges properly in the grinding wheel. Grinding wheels similar to a milling cutter with large number of micro inserts should provide signicant advantage over the traditional grinding wheels in terms of energy consumption. Grinding with CBN wheels typically consumes less energy than with conventional aluminum-oxide wheels but the specic energy level is still much higher than the melting energy. 7.6. Selection of cost-effective grinding technology In academic research of advanced grinding technology, superior grinding performances with super-abrasive wheels over conventional grinding wheels have been reported many times for the past three decades. For instance, CBN grinding technology demonstrates very long-term stable grinding performance with high G ratio and long dressing interval compared with conventional grinding technology. So, CBN grinding can be expected to signicantly improve the productivity of grinding operations and drastically reduce the grinding cost in industry. In addition to these advantages, the superior surface integrity with compressive residual stresses can be generated with CBN grinding technology. With electroplated CBN (EP-CBN) wheels, very high stock removal grinding can be achieved with no dressing requirement and the grinding performance lasts for many days and months without any
reconditioning of grinding wheel. These reports from academic grinding research excited engineers in industry. This is because the EP-CBN grinding technology gives industry an opportunity to immediately improve grinding performances without any retrot of existing machines, as most of manufacturing companies already own many old grinding machines without precision dressing units. In spite of these benets of super-abrasive grinding technology reported in academic grinding research, however, the majority of grinding technology applied in industry is still conventional grinding with aluminum-oxide (Al2O3) wheels, as shown in Section 3. The obstruction of implementation of CBN grinding technology in industry comes from the cost performance of grinding processes. So far, grinding academy has not provided the full technical assessment of the CBN grinding technologies in terms of the practical productivity giving a big impact on manufacturing costs of products. Without good understanding in the impact of CBN grinding processes on the cost performance, industry cannot make a fair decision whether or not the advanced CBN grinding should be employed in their production systems. In order to understand the impact of CBN grinding technologies on the grinding costs, an example is following presented where internal grinding tests were performed with various bore sizes of ring workpieces (hardness: HRC 60) made of case carburized steel. Three kinds of grinding wheels were tested. These are Ni plated 200/220 grit CBN wheels (EP-CBN), vitried bonded 200/220 grit CBN wheels (Vit-CBN) and 80 grit aluminum-oxide (Al2O3) wheels. The wheel life and dress interval were determined from the grinding power monitoring. The G ratios and the amount of dressing stocks were measured, and the proper cycle times for each wheel were determined by the geometrical grinding accuracy checks and metallurgical checks. These grinding test results were used for the cost analysis with various bore sizes of workpieces for each wheel. The cost analysis includes wheel cost, wheel change cost, dressing cost including time and diamond consumption and the labor cost in the US. The grinding costs with one year operations were analyzed. It is assumed that the width of workpieces is 90%, and the new wheel diameter is 70% of the work bore diameter. It is also assumed that the worn wheel diameter replaced is 80% of new wheel diameter. Fig. 35 shows the cost index normalizing the grinding costs for three wheel types in internal grinding operations of workpieces with bore size ranging from 1 mm to 100 mm in diameter. In case of EP-CBN grinding, the grinding cost is exponentially increased with increased bore diameter. The lowest grinding cost is demonstrated when the bore size is less than 7 mm over Vit-CBN and Al2O3 wheels (Fig. 35). This advantage comes from longer wheel life with no dressing requirement in the EP-CBN grinding. In case of Vit-CBN grinding, the lowest cost is obtained when the bore size is between 7 mm and 75 mm. The cost is rapidly increased in the bore size of less than 7 mm and greater than 75 mm. The conventional grinding with Al2O3 wheel gives the lowest grinding cost in case of the bore size of greater than 75 mm. The analysis
Fig. 35. Cost comparisons in internal grinding.
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Fig. 36. Ultra large components for windmill.
clearly reveals why CBN grinding technology has not been applied in case of large bore grinding in industry and why EP-CBN grinding technology has been employed in the grinding of small bore components. It is also shown that the applications of Vit-CBN grinding has been widely employed in internal grinding for nishing small-medium size components, such as 775 mm bore size workpieces in this study. By this example it is possible to learn that the limitation of cost-effective CBN applications can be extended if the grinding performance, such as shorter cycle time, higher G ratio, longer wheel life, higher stock removal rate capability, is improved. Industry has been looking for opportunities for further improving grinding cost performances with aggressive advanced grinding technology. 7.7. Key grinding technology for ultra large components Wind energy as a power resource is favorable as an alternative to fossil fuels, as it is renewable, clean and produces lower greenhouse gas emissions. Wind energy business has been growing rapidly and the push comes from a renewed concern for the environment and an economical power resource in many areas of the world. New technologies have decreased the cost of producing electricity from wind, and the business growth in wind power has been encouraged by tax breaks for renewable energy and green pricing programs. The windmills for power generation of over 2 MW require ultra large components greater than 1m in diameter as shown in Fig. 36. The weight of these components sometimes reaches over 5 tons. The grinding technology for critical components of windmills such as gears [29] and bearings plays very important roles for improving the efciency of power generation from wind and for ensuring the reliability of components under high stress working conditions. Fig. 37 shows internal grinding operations for ultra large bearing components. There are many technical challenges for grinding these ultra large components due to the heavy weight and the great amount of grinding stocks. As a typical example, Fig. 38 shows the relationship between the work diameter and the stocks removed in grinding for case carburized rings. The grinding stock is rapidly increased with increased ring diameter. For instance, the grinding stock removed on rings of 2.5 m diameter reaches over 4 mm [50]. The great amount of stock removal requirement mainly comes from the distortion in heat treatment processes. In order to reduce the grinding time and the cost, the low distortion heat treatment process will be the key. Fig. 39 shows the total grinding time under the condition of the specic stock removal rate Q0 w of 1, 3 and 10 mm3/mm s in OD and ID grinding of rings with various sizes (size: OD = D, ID = 0.75D,
Fig. 38. Ring diameter vs. grinding stock.
Fig. 39. Ring diameter vs. grinding time.
Width = 0.2D). In OD and ID grinding of 2m ring with Q0 w = 1 mm3/ mm s, the grinding takes about 5 h. The time does not include the other process time, such as the work loading/unloading time, centering time, nal nishing time and gauging time. So, the cycle time for nishing processes of the 2 m ring can be more than 10 h. The grinding time can be reduced from 5 h to 1.6 h with increased stock removal rate Q0 w = 3 mm3/mm s which is typical for small components. The grinding time is further reduced to 0.5 h with Q0 w = 10 mm3/mm s. In this case, the total cycle time of a few hours will be possible. For the grinding of ultra large components, the development of high stock removal grinding process is indispensable. It is required for grinding academy to provide the solutions for reducing grinding cycle time of ultra large components by developing new grinding technologies, such as new grinding wheel with high stock removal capability, on-machine gauging as the workpieces are extraordinarily heavy, and developing multi-surface grinding processes in one chucking on highly exible grinding machine. 8. Summary This paper explored different sources of information on industrial challenges in grinding. From the gathered information, the main conclusions that can be drawn, which would represent a summary of relevant grinding hot research topics for industrial applications, are: Use of EP wheels: there is an important opportunity for the implementation of electroplated wheels in situation where grinding competes with hard turning or even in more precise grinding applications. In any case, the topographic control by dressing of EP wheels is still a hot topic for future research. Process reliability: several cases presented here on the diagnosis of grinding problems in industry show that process reliability is an important issue. Future research should be conducted in order to nd a structured way to control and monitor the most relevant
Fig. 37. Internal grinding for ultra large components.
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variables, including wheel topography and work material, to achieve a predictable and reliable process. More CBN applications: it is clear that there is still a big opportunity for the implementation of CBN in grinding operations. The main challenges are related to the better understanding of cost and process reliability. Further analysis as the one showed in the Section 7.6 needs to be done for other processes. A broader guidance on the advantages of CBN use needs to be cleared up for industry. Cheaper vitried CBN wheels may help in understanding the advantages of their application. Energy control: the use of grinding as a way to control the material properties is a quite promising approach. Therefore it is necessary to research how to better control and even to design the thermal cycle in grinding by using precisely controlled cooling or additional heating systems. Sustainable processes: the development of a more sustainable grinding, from the industry prospective, seems presently to be more related to make it adequate to the production of sustainable components than to focus on more environmentally efcient process. However, decreasing grinding energy and improving the sustainability of cooling systems is clearly a tendency. Dedicated solutions: from the presented cases, it was clear that grinding innovations are connected to the classical operation/ part. Therefore many parts with specicities such as valves, lash adjusters, fuel injectors, tripod spiders or camshafts require research for the development of dedicated solutions capable of dealing with their very particular issues: part geometry, typical tolerances, typical materials, and possible xtures. Process combinations: many research opportunities are related to process combinations such as grinding and turning in the same equipment. This should require machine tools with special features regarding: chip removal, cooling systems, stiffness and controls. Large components: new energy systems will require large components that surely need specic grinding solutions. Grinding of large components is a challenge regarding the realization of tests and research costs, which could only be achieved in cooperation with industry. Lightweight parts: in the automotive segment there will be an increasing demand for the grinding of lightweight parts made of DTG materials. This gives additional challenges due to the lower part stiffness and lower blade friction forces in the case of centerless grinding application. CBN belt grinding: one of the case studies showed that developments in CBN belts can bring new applications of belt grinding combining good stock removal with higher quality surfaces. Grinding database: the research on grinding models combined with actual factory parameters database can help industry in the design of new grinding operations. The comparison between the model results and factory parameter can also help in the determination of anomalies in the actual grinding operations in a plant. Cost analysis: cost analysis of any new grinding solution can lead research to be better accepted by industry reducing the gap between academia and application. Dressing decision: the development of systems and solutions that allow the machine to decide for the start of a dressing cycle can improve the process performance. Todays method is based on a counter of number of parts. This is not precise since the grinding stock per part can be very variable.
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Industrial Challenges in Grinding

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Industrial Challenges in Grinding

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CIRP Annals - Manufacturing Technology

Industrial challenges in grinding

Keywords: Grinding Optimization Industry

* Corresponding author. 0007-8506/$ see front matter 2009 CIRP. doi:10.1016/j.cirp.2009.09.006

Fig. 2. OEMs nationalities.

Fig. 5. Fraction of the customers that uses CBN.

Fig. 3. Speeds currently used with CBN wheels.

Fig. 6. Limitations for increasing the use of vitried CBN wheels.

Fig. 4. Reasons for not using high-speed.

Fig. 7. Relevant breakthroughs in the CBN technology.

Fig. 9. Components for a composite camshaft [47].

Fig. 10. SEM pictures of the burr formation.

Fig. 11. Grinding burn on the lateral surface.

Fig. 13. Planetary rolling extruder.

Fig. 18. Inuence of the cutting speed on the height reduction.

Fig. 19. Eight-belt camshaft grinder [38].

Fig. 21. Schematic representation of the proposed test scheme.

Fig. 24. Methodology for mapping a grain wear at area.

Fig. 28. Output from the acoustic mapping system [42].

Fig. 29. Examples of acoustic mapping applications.

Fig. 35. Cost comparisons in internal grinding.

Fig. 36. Ultra large components for windmill.

Fig. 38. Ring diameter vs. grinding stock.

Fig. 39. Ring diameter vs. grinding time.

Fig. 37. Internal grinding for ultra large components.

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