Chapter 5: Infancy THE PHYSICAL SELF: THE BRAIN, BODY, & MOTOR SKILLS Maturation and Growth Changes

s in height and weight-babies double their birth weight by 4-6 mo. and triple it by the end of the first year. Growth during the school years seems to slow, but it spurts again at puberty for 2-3 yrs. Changes in body proportions-as a newborn, their heads are of their body. By adulthood their heads will be 1/8 of their body length. o Cephalocaudal trends-growth proceeds from head down. o Proximodistal trends-growth proceeds from the center of the body (trunk) out to the proximal regions of the body (hands, feet). This trend continues until adolescence when the hands and feet begin a growth spurt out of proportion to the rest of their bodies. Skeletal development-skeletal tissue is not all hardened at birth. It gradually ossifies with development. The skull has gaps (fontanelles) covered by cartilage that allow for molding during birth down the birth canal. Gradually these gaps are filled in by minerals and form a single skull by age 2. Seams between the skull bones allow for growth as the brain develops. Muscular development-follows the cephalocaudal and proximodistal trends. Individual variations vs. cultural variations-Asynchronies of growth- different organ systems develop at different rates and times, with the lymph system outpacing other systems during the school years to allow for maximum immunity development. Certain races have consistent differences from others- Asians, some Africans, South Americans tend to be smaller than North Americans, northern Europeans, Kenyans and Australians. Development of the brain o Brain growth spurt- during the last 3 mo. of gestation and the first 2 yrs. After birth, as more than half of ones adult brain weight is added. o Neurons-basic unit of CNS o Neural cell structure: o Dendrites-receptors of the neuron o Cell body-soma is like a computer chip that determines whether the neuron should fire an impulse or not, depending on the stimulus configuration. o Axon-sending arm of the neuron o Myelin sheath-fatty substance that covers some neurons axons and speeds the impulse o Glial cells-nerve cells that nourish neurons and produce myelin all during life. o Synapse-juncture between one axon and the next dendrite of a neuron. The neural impulse jumps the synapse by chemical means using neurotransmitters. o Synaptogenesis-formation of new synaptic connections between cells as a response to stimulation. o Plasticity due to synaptic pruning-when neurons die out due to lack of stimulation, it allows more space for connections between useful neurons. It also allows for rehabilitation from trauma to the brain. This window of opportunity for healing is not indefinite. At a certain point, cells deteriorate when not used and they cant regenerate. Early stimulation develops a brain that is resistant to later deterioration. One reason for extensive education at early ages.

Brain differentiation and growth o Brain stem and subcortical centers are most developed at birth. This controls reflexes, biological functions, consciousnesss. o Cerebrum- controls bodily movements, perception, thinking and language. o Cerebral cortex-the outer layer of cerebrum that controls bodily movements, sensation, thinking, planning, and language. o Primary motor cortex-control bodily movement and coordination o Primary sensory cortex-take in sensory processes, seeing, hearing, tasting, smelling. Myelinization-myelin is laid down on cells in a sequence that follows the development of the CNS. First myelinated are the sensory pathways. As other sections of the brain myelinate, it allows for complex motor activities. In adolescence, the frontal lobes are myelinating, which allows for abstract and scientific thinking. Cerebral lateralization-the cerebrum is divided into 2 hemispheres and they are connected by the corpus callosum, which connect the halves and coordinate the processing of both sides. Certain intellectual activities are controlled by one side or the other. Left brain controls the right side of the body, speech, hearing, verbal memory, decision making & positive emotions. Right brain controls the left half of the body, visual-spatial processing, music processing, touch, and negative emotions. Lateralization is shown by handedness, as 90% of adults are right handed, showing left brain dominance. It may occur prenatally as 2/3 of fetuses lie in the womb with their right ears outward, so the rightear develops an advantage and contributes to the left brain dominance in language. At birth, speech sounds stimulate more activity on the left side of the brain. Handedness preferences become stable by age 2. This flexibility allows for recovery from brain trauma early in life, given rehabilitation therapy. Later in life this ability is diminished, until in old age, little recovery may be seen. Motor development-timing and sequencing o Maturational viewpoint-motor development unfolds in a genetically programmed sequence where nerves and muscles develop in a down and out direction. Motor milestones are seen cross-culturally, so we know they are genetically programmed. o Experiential (practice) viewpoint-this theory suggests that practice is important in developing motor skills. Physical deprivation of stimulation will impede motor skill development. Also some cultures have formal routines for encouraging certain skills and so their children achieve these markers before other children not handled. These handling routines accelerate muscular growth and coordination in a way normal behavior does not. So maturation is not sufficient for developing skills. o Dynamical systems theory-sees motor skills as a reorganization of earlier skills, a new construction that allows infants to explore their environment more effectively. Visual skills motivate the infant to try to approach stimuli they couldnt see or reach before. Motor skills reorganization follows motivation to explore. Fine motor development o Voluntary reaching-infants come into the world with a grasping reflex, but their reaches are uncoordinated and unsuccessful (prereaching). Voluntary reaching occurs around 3 mo. and coordination improves so they can actually get the object. Early reaches are dependent on: proprioceptive information-sensory input from muscles, tendons and joints that helps locate ones body parts in space. o Manipulatory skills-Around 4-5 mo. a baby can sit and reach across the body, so s/he can grasp objects with both hands. The ulnar grasp is not so efficient (grasping by pressing the fingers against the palm). By the end of the first year, the pincer grasp allows much better manipulation- but greater risk as babies pick up tiny things on the floor and put them in their noses, ears, etc. By 16 mo. they can scribble with a crayon. By 2 yrs. They can build with blocks. This is very advanced, but they still cant cut their meat, catch or throw a ball. Babies really must be watched closely now and the environment baby-proofed to

ensure safety. They can play in a more interactive way, and they can entertain themselves more easily at this age. Motor development in childhood and adolescence improves to the point 3 yr. olds can jump off the floor, 4 yr. olds can hop on one foot, catch a large ball, and run farther. By age 5 they have better balance and can learn to ride a bike. But their coordination is not perfect and they do fall and hurt themselves regularly. o Eye-hand coordination improves so that they can use their hands more effectively. o Reaction times improve for older children allowing them to get good at action games and Nintendo. o Gender differences in physical development are not noticeable until puberty, when boys develop large muscle strength and girls level off. This may be due to socialization and the lack of encouragement to developing girls to stay physically competitive. o Benefits of sports for adolescent girls have been shown since Title IX insured girls equal access to sports in school. Sports participation correlates with higher self-esteem in girls. It also relates to developing desirable traits such as assertiveness. Puberty- the point at which a person reaches sexual maturity and can produce a child. o Adolescent growth spurt marks the beginning of adolescence. Girls enter the spurt around 10 , peak around age 12, and slow in growth by 13. Boys start about 2 years after girls. Boys spurt at 13, peak at 14, and return to gradual growth around 16. This allows for boys to grow bigger by adulthood. Other changes are the beginning of breasts and wider hips for girls, broader shoulders for boys, facial hair on boys and body hair on both. o Sexual maturation o Menarche-first menstruation- usually occurs around age 12 in Western society. o Secular trends are the tendency toward earlier maturation in industrialized countries. It seems to be leveling off now. It is a result of better nutrition, affluence, more stimulation and exercise, as well as possibly greater fat content in children, and even exposure to steroids in meat. Menstruation can stop if girls lose a lot of weight due to an eating disorder or extreme exercise. Psychological impacts of puberty o General reactions to changes are generally positive, although there is a focus on the changes in early adolescence. Body images become more negative as girls bodies change. Facing menarche can be frightening if no one has prepared them for it, but most girls think of it as a measure of their adulthood. Boys hold amore positive body image than girls. o Social impacts of changes- rites of passage are common in tribal cultures, they require some task of the teen, and upon completion, they are ushered into adulthood. These rites ease the transition for teens, since it is clear what is expected of them. In our society, there are some measures of adulthood- driving, drinking, but mostly the hormones just fuel conflict with parents over friends and chores. o Eating disorders often occur with the onset of adolescence. o Anorexia nervosa is a disease of women simply not eating out of a fear of becoming fat. This develops to the point of self-starvation and loss of as much as 30% of body weight. Body image becomes very skewed, as she will defend her behavior, saying she still needs to lose a few pounds. These girls come out of dysfunctional homes and have often had trouble forming a separate identity from overprotective, critical parents. Eating (or not eating) becomes the one thing these girls can control. It may require hospitalization, behavior modification as well as family therapy to enhance her autonomy and self-worth. 5-6% will die of the illness. o Bulimia nervosa is the binge-purge syndrome, using laxatives, diuretics, exercise, vomiting, fasting and exercise. They may look normal, even slightly overweight but they also have poor body images and great fear of getting fat. They also experience chaotic or cold homes. These behaviors can put their health at risk, as the electrolytes get out of balance, teeth lose enamel, & esophagus is affected by stomach acid. Many of these girls are seriously depressed and consider suicide.

Timing of puberty has different impacts on boys and girls. Early maturing is a benefit to boys, leaving them more confident socially, more popular, and often more athletic. Late-maturing boys often feel socially inadequate, hold lower aspirations educationally and may score lower on tests in adolescence. Early-maturing boys are often assumed to be more mature since they look adult, so they often get privileges and have higher expectations on them than later-maturing boys. There are social perks for early-maturing boys with the girls. These differences seem to disappear by graduation, however. Girls feel disadvantaged by early-maturing. They often feel self-conscious, reporting more anxiety and depression. They are often teased and treated sexually when they are not ready for it. So early-maturing girls often seek out older kids and that may not be very helpful for her- pushing her into activities that she is not ready for- drinking, drugs, sex. They have a tendency to drop out more often than later maturing girls. Adolescent sexuality o Sexual attitudes have become more liberal over the past century. Lethal STDs have contributed to greater self-control and care with sexuality. o Sexual orientation exists on a continuum between heterosexual and homosexual. Even though only 36% are attracted to their same sex, accepting this difference can be a challenging task for teens. Coming out is laden with fears of rejection by parents and friends. Youth are particularly hurtful to those they deem out of the norm, so often these teens have been bullied. Whether this is a biological proclivity or a lifestyle choice is controversial. Sexuality is more fluid than people think. Environment does contribute to this aspect of sexuality. But prenatal hormones in the womb also contribute. o Double standard still hasnt disappeared with regard to how women with many partners are viewed by men and women. But there is confusion about sexual norms, since there dont seem to be any hard and fast ones. o Sexual behavior occurs at earlier ages than in the past. Girls still connect sex with love, some kind of emotional intimacy or commitment. But actual behaviors are not so different for boys and girls in adolescence. Consequences of sexual behavior for teens o Sexually transmitted diseases occur to 1 in 5 sexually active adolescents. AIDS is growing fastest among 13-19 yr. olds, so there is an effort to educate younger teens in school. o Teen pregnancy occurs to 1 million unmarried teen girls each year. 2 million babies are born to adolescent mothers every 4 years. This is happening at a higher rate in US than in other Western countries. This may be related to poverty, particularly in minorities. o Consequences to mother and baby mother often never gets to finish school and may always have to take marginal jobs that keep her in poverty. The babies may be affected by poor prenatal care, more birth complications, and low birth weight. Teen mothers dont have great skills with babies, since they havent completed their own development. Interventions to educate these mothers can improve the prognosis for these babies. o Sexual education needs to go beyond the facts of reproduction to include teaching the benefits of abstinence in emotional risks and STDs, as well as information to older teens about contraceptives and role-playing to resist pressures to have sex. Biological mechanisms promoting growth include genetic inheritance of rate and time of growth spurts. o Hormones affect growth even prenatally. o Thyroxin is essential for the brain and CNS to develop normally. o Pituitary gland is the master gland that triggers the release of all other hormones. o Growth hormone is produced by the pituitary to stimulate rapid growth of the body. Without adequate amounts, the child wont grow to full potential.

o Testosterone is responsible for male sexual maturation. It is secreted long before the body shows signs of maturation. It promotes muscular and bone growth in ways that estrogen does not, leaving men larger thatn women overall. o Estrogen triggers female sexual maturation. Environmental influences o Nutrition is the most important environmental influence on growth. Malnutrition slows growth and results in permanent stunting. o Malnutrition and catch-up growth if malnutrition is not extended, children can catch up, often growing rapidly to catch up to their normal growth trajectory. But in the first 5 years of life it can result in brain impacts, as the brain is supposed to be growing rapidly in this time. o Marasmus occurs when babies get inadequate protein. They look frail and wrinkled as their tissues waste away. o Kwashiorkor happens when children get nutrition but not any protein, so the hair thins, the abdomen swells. This especially happens if the baby is not breast-fed, or the mother is severely malnourished herself. o Vitamin and mineral deficiencies occur even in wealthy countries, in families that are impoverished. o Iron deficiency anemia makes children inattentive and listless, so their growth is impaired, as well as intelligence. It can also affect immunity, leaving these children more susceptible to illness, which also stresses the bodys ability to grow. o Nutritional supplements & stimulation may be required to overcome the effects of malnourishment. Even so, they may suffer long-term deficits in growth and intellect. o Obesity is becoming a big problem in the US, as children develop a taste for high fat, high sugared foods that are so available through fast food places. Obesity increases risk of diabetes, high blood pressure, heart disease, and often these children are teased and rejected by peers. Our sedentary lifestyle also contributes to overweight. Parents often use food treats to motivate good behavior, connecting sweets with love and acceptance. Other foods are considered less desirable, since sweets are emphasized. Other families dont deal with childrens feelings, telling them essentially to swallow their feelings. And children who are abused often use food for soothing their feelings. Later overweight can mask their fears of being sexually targeted. o Emotional stress and lack of affection may be a cause of failure-to-thrive. 5% of children admitted to pediatric units show this syndrome. o Nonorganic failure to thrive appears as early as 18 mo. when babies seem to be wasting away, as if malnourished. They may have trouble feeding. They appear apathetic with caregivers, but dont draw much comfort from them. Often the caregivers are aloof and impatient with them, so even if there is enough food, the baby feels the hostility so strongly that s/he will display few positive social responses, such as affection or feeding. Babies know when they arent wanted. They often respond with efforts to die or become invisible. o Deprivation dwarfism shows up later, from 2 15 yrs. Old, with small stature and reduced growth. They seem to have little positive involvement with another person. Caregivers are often stressed financially or with depression, substance abuse, etc. Emotional deprivation seems to inhibit the endocrine system, especially growth hormone. Often if they are removed from the home, their growth catches up. LEARNING PROCESSES Learning- any relatively permanent change in behavior or attitude resulting from experience.

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Habituation- the process of stopping responding/ attending to a stimulus that is repeated. Dishabituation- reacting vigorously to a novel stimulus. Habituation happens more rapidly as the cerebral cortex develops. The faster a baby habituates relates to using language faster. Classical conditioning- learning in which a neutral stimulus acquires the power to elicit a response which was formerly only in the power of an unconditioned stimulus, through repeated associations. Pavlov was the first to delineate the process. Watson showed how it related to learning the expression of emotions. Phobias are often acquired in this way, and can be treated with counterconditioning. Operant conditioning- learning voluntary behaviors as a result of a consequence following the behavior, either positive or negative. Skinner was the one who defined the consequences of behavior on learning a behavior. Consequences fall into 4 categories: a) positive reinforcers- add something good. b) Negative reinforcers- take away something bad. c) Positive punishment- add something bad. d) Negative punishment- take away something good.

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Consequences are only defined by their effects on the target behavior. Rovee-Collier is best known for experiments on babies memory for control of the crib mobile. 2-month olds remembered the relationship with the mobile for 3 days. Some could be reminded of the learned experience up to 4 weeks. Without a cue, they did not show memory retrieval. Babies memories are context- dependent. What about use of punishment? Skinner believed the most effective training method was positive reinforcement. There are a variety of problems with excessive use of punishment: not defining the desired behavior; only a temporary suppression of a noxious behavior, and then only in the presence of the punisher; it produces fear/ anxiety around punisherconditioned avoidance. If you use punishment, follow some guidelines: 1) punish quickly after misbehavior 2) punish firmly, consistently 3) in other circumstances show affection, be warm/ accepting 4) develop alternatives to punishment-time out, undoing, exclusion 5) reinforce positive alternative behavior 6) explain the reasons for punishment- what is wrong about the behavior, the values the parent holds, benefits to the child of better behavior. 3) Observational learning- learning by watching models behavior. Even newborns can imitate facial expressions of others (invisible imitation which may be a reflexive schema that falls out when the baby develops more voluntary behaviors). Deferred imitation is the ability to reproduce the actions of a model later in the future. By 14 mo. babies can reproduce actions of a model a week later. Older children are prone to model behavior of other children, particularly when a behavior gains the child a payoff/ attention.